UNIT 18

Structure
Page Nos.
18.1 Introduction 37
Objectives
18.2 Integration by Substitution 38
Method of Substitution
Integrals using Trigonometric Formulas
18.3 Integration by parts 51
Integral of a Product of Two Functions
R ax R ax
Evaluation of e p sin bx dx, and
p e cos bx dx p
Evaluation of a 2 2
x dx, a + x2 dx, and
2 x2 a2 dx
R R R

18.4 Integration of Rational Functions 58

18.5 Integration of Rational Trigonometric Functions 66
18.6 Integration of Irrational Functions 69
18.7 Summary 77
18.8 Solutions/Answers 77

18.1 INTRODUCTION
Rb
In the last unit we have seen that the de nite integral a f(x) dx is the signed
area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives us an easy way of evaluating
such an integral, by rst nding the antiderivative of the given function,
whenever it exists.

Starting from this unit, we shall study various methods and techniques of
integration. In this unit, we shall consider method of substitution and the
method of integration by parts in Sec. 18.2 and Sec. 18.3. In Sec. 18.4 we shall
discuss the method of partial fractions for integrating rational functions. In
Sec. 18.5, we shall see various methods for integration of rational trigonometric
functions. In Sec. 18.6 we shall consider the integration of irrational functions.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• use the method of substitution to simplify and evaluate certain integrals; 37
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

• integrate by parts a product of two functions whenever it is possible;

• integrate a rational function using partial fraction expansion of the function

whenever it is possible;

• integrate rational trigonometric functions whenever it is possible; and

• integrate irrational functions whenever it is possible.

18.2 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

You have already seen how certain substitutions can help in simplifying the task
of nding derivatives. In this section we shall see how the method of
substitution helps in integration. In contrast to the Differential Calculus, where
substitution played a marginal role, we will see that it is one of the most
commonly used techniques of integration. We shall illustrate its application
through a number of examples.

Before we proceed further, we reiterate what we said in the previous units. In

the results we will prove about inde nite integrals, neither will we mention the
interval nor will we check that the functions involved satisfy the conditions for
integrability in that interval.

18.2.1 Method of Substitution

We begin our subsection with a theorem that provides the backbone of the
method of substitution.

Theorem 1: Suppose u(x) has a continuous derivative in the interval [c, d] and
u([c, d]) = [a, b]. Further, suppose that f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and F(x) is an
antiderivative of f in [a, b]. Then, we have
R
f(u(x))u0 (x)dx = F(u(x)) + C . . . (1)

in the interval [c, d]. Further,

Rd Ru(d)
f[u(x)]u0 (x) dx = f(v) dv . . . (2)
c u(c)

Proof: We shall make use of the chain rule for derivatives (Unit 9) to prove this
theorem. Since F is the antiderivative of f, we can write dF(u)
du = f(u) . Now,

d dF[u(x)] du(x)
F[u(x)] = . by chain rule
dx du(x) dx
du(x)
= f[u(x)].
dx
0
= f[u(x)].u (x)

This shows that F[u(x)] is an antiderivative of f[u(x)]u0 (x). This means that
R
f[u(x)]u0 (x) dx = F[u(x)] + C

38 
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Another way of writing Eqn. (1) is

du
R R
f(u) dx = f(u) du. . . . (3)
dx
where u = u(x). We interpret Eqn. (3) to mean that `The inde nite integral of
f(u) du
dx is obtained by replacing u by u = u(x) in the inde nite integral of f(u).'.

Example 1: Evaluate the following integrals:

R R R 2x
R √
i) (2x + 1)9 dx. ii) sin 2x dx. iii)
5 dx. iv) x 3x + 1 dx.
x2 + 1

Solution:

i) We look at the table of inde nite integrals in Unit 17. We nd that the
(2x + 1)n doesn't gure in the table, but the table gives the integral for xn .
So, the substitution u(x) = 2x + 1 looks promising. We have dx d (u) = 2. So,
substituting u(x) = 2x + 1,
1 1
R R R
(2x + 1)9 dx = (2x + 1)9 2dx = (2x + 1)9 |{z}
2 dx
2 2 | {z }
du
u9 dx
1 1
R R
= u9 du = u9 du
2 2
We have

u10
R
u9 du = +C
10
Substituting u = u(x) = 2x + 1, we get

(2x + 1)10
R
(2x + 1)9 dx = + C.
20

ii) We set u(x) = 2x. Then, du

dx = 2. So,

1 1
R R R
sin 2x dx = sin 2x 2dx = sin 2 dx
| {z2x} |{z}
2 2
sin u du
dx
1 cos u
R
= sin u du = + C.
2 2
Substituting u = u(x) = 2x, we get
cos 2x
R
sin 2x dx = +C
2

iii) We set u(x) = x2 + 1. Then, du

dx = 2x. We have

2x 1 1 1
R R R

5 dx = 2x dx = du = + C.
x2 + 1 (x + 1)5 |{z}
2 u5 4u4
| {z } du
dx
1
u5

On substituting u = u(x) = x2 + 1, we get

2x 1
R

5 dx =
4 + C
x2 + 1 4 x2 + 1 39
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

iv) The substitution u(x) = 3x + 1 looks promising. Then, du

dx = 3. We have,
R √ 1
R √
x 3x + 1 dx = x | 3x 3 dx
{z+ 1} |{z}
3 |{z}
√
? u du
dx

We are almost successful. We just need to write x also in terms of u. From

u = 3x + 1, we get x = u31 . So,
R √ 1
R u 1√ 1
R 3 1

x 3x + 1 dx = u du = u2 u2 du
3 3 9
5 3 !
1 1 u2 u3
 
3 1
R R
= u2 du u2 du = 5 3
+C
9 9
2 2

Substituting u = 3x + 1, we get
5 3 !
R √ 2 (3x + 1) 2 (3x + 1) 2
x 3x + 1 dx = +C
9 5 3

∗∗∗

We make a special mention of the following two cases which follow from
Theorem 1.

Case i) If f(u) = un , n 6 = 1 and u = u(x), then, f(u(x))u0 (x) = (u(x))n u0 (x). By

n+1
the formula for the inde nite integral of xn in Unit 17, we get F(u) = un+1 .
So,

u(x) n+1
R
[u(x)]n u0 (x) dx = F(u(x)) + C = +C . . . (4)
n+1

Case ii) If f(u) = 1u and u = u(x), then by formula 11 of Table 1 in Unit 17, we
have F(u) = ln|u|. So,
u0 (x)
R
dx = F(u(x)) + C = ln|u(x)| + C. . . . (5)
u(x)

You can see that the cases above are very useful from the examples that follow.
 5
Example 2: Integrate (2x + 1) x2 + x + 1 .
 
Solution: For this we observe that dx d x2 + x + 1 = 2x + 1. Thus
 5
(2x + 1) x2 + x + 1 is of the form [u(x)]n u0 (x) dx where u(x) = x2 + x + 1. So,
R R

we can evaluate it using Eqn. (4). Therefore,

R 5 1 2 6
(2x + 1) x2 + x + 1 dx =

x +x+1 +C
6

Alternatively, we set u = x2 + x + 1. Then, du = (2x + 1) dx. Solving for dx, we

du . (See below.)
have dx = 2x+1
R 5 R 5 du
2
(2x + 1) x2 + x + 1
 
(2x + 1) x + x + 1 dx =
2x + 1
R 5 u6
= u du = + C.
6
40
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Substituting u = x2 + x + 1, we get
 6
R 5 x2 + x + 1
(2x + 1) x2 + x + 1 dx =

+ C.
6

∗∗∗

Note that,we have used the `differential notation' in the previous example. This
will help you in carrying out substitutions in a routine fashion. Although du
dx is not
a fraction, we can justify `solving for dx' as follows: Suppose that we are trying
to integrate h(x) dx by the substitution u = u(x). Then, solving du 0
dx = u (x) for dx
R

amounts to replacing dx by udu 0 (x) and hence writing

du
R R
h(x) dx = h(x) 0 . . . (6)
u (x)

Suppose, f(u) is such that uh(x)

0 (x) = f(u(x)). Then, we are saying that
0 0
h(x) = f(u)u (x) = f(u(x))u (x) and we can rewrite Eqn. (6) as
R 0
R
f(u(x))u (x) dx = f(u) du

This is basically Eqn. (3).

Example 3: Evaluate (ax + b)n dx.

R

Solution: We substitute u = (ax + b). We have du = a dx. So,

du
R n
R
(ax + b) dx = un
| {z } a
un
1 un+1 (ax + b)n+1
R
= un du = +C= + C if n 6 = 1.
a a(n + 1) a(n + 1)
If n = 1,
dx 1 du 1 1
R R
= = ln|u| + C = ln|ax + b| + C
ax + b a u a a

∗∗∗

R2 x+1
Example 4: Evaluate the de nite integral dx.
x2 + 2x + 3
0

Solution: Comparing with Eqn. (2), here, c = 0, d = 2. We put

x2 + 2x + 3 = u(x) = u.

Note that, u(x) is a polynomial, so it has a continuous derivative everywhere on

the real line. We have u(x) = 3 when x = 0 and when x = 2, u(x) = 11. Further,
since u0 (x) > 0, in (0, 2), u(x) is increasing in [0, 2]. Hence, u([0, 2]) = [3, 11]. So,
a = 3, b = 11. (See Fig. 1.) We have f(u) = u1 is continuous on [3, 11],
F(u) = ln|u| is an antiderivative of f and u0 (x) = 2(x + 1). Thus,

R2 x+1 1
R2 1 1
R2
2
dx = 2
2(x + 1) dx = f(u(x))u0 (x) dx
x + 2x + 3 2 2
0 0 |x + {z
2x + 3} | {z }
u0 (x) 0
f(u)= 1u
41
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
u(x)
4
3
2
1

1 2 3

Fig. 1: Range of u(x) = x2 + 2x + 3.

From Eqn. (2),

1
R2 0 1
Ru(d) R11 1
1
f(u(x))u (x) dx = f(u) du = du
2 2 2 u
0 u(c) 3

Since u 6 = 0 in [3, 11], u1 is a continuous function of u and F(u) = ln|u| is an

antiderivative of 1u . Therefore, by Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

1
R11 1 1
du = (F(11) F(3))
2 u 2
3
So,
R2 x+1 1
R11 1 1 1 11
2
dx = du = (ln 11 ln 3) = ln .
x + 2x + 3 2 u 2 2 3
0 3

Another approach is to nd the inde nite integral of 2 x+1 and use

x +2x+3
Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus. Note that, the discriminant of the
equation x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 is negative, i.e. 22 4 · 1 · 3 = 8 < 0. So, the equation
doesn't have a real root, i.e. x2 + 2x + 3 6 = 0 on R. Hence, f is continous on R.
du dx. We have
We set u(x) = x2 + 2x + 3. Then, du = 2(x + 1) dx, so dx = 2(x+1)
x+1 x + 1 du
R R
2
dx =
x + 2x + 3 u 2(x + 1)
1 du 1 1
R
= = ln|u| + C = ln x2 + 2x + 3 + C.
2 u 2 2
So, 21 ln x2 + 2x + 3 is an antiderivative of x+1 . Recall that
x2 +2x+3

Rb
f(x) dx = F(b) F(a)
42 a
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

if f is continous on [a, b] and F is an antiderivative of f. So, We write F(x)|ba

for F(b) F(a).
R2 x+1 1 2
2
dx = ln x + 2x + 3
x2 + 2x + 3 2 0
0
1 1
= ln 22 + 2 · 2 + 3 ln 02 + 0 · 2 + 3
2 2
1 1 1 11
= ln|11| ln|3| = ln .
2 2 2 3

∗∗∗

2
Example 5: Evaluate the integral xe2x dx.
R

Solution: We set u = 2x2 . Then, du = 4x dx. We have

2 du 1 1 u 1 2
R R R
xe2x dx = eu x = eu du = e + C = e2x + C.
4x 4 4 4

∗∗∗

On the basis of the rules discussed in this section, you will be able to solve this
exercise.

E1) Evaluate the following integrals:

R√
R 6
R3 dx
i) 5x 3 dx ii) (2x + 1) dx iii) dx
4 + 5x
1
R 5
R x+1
R3 3x2 + 2x + 1
iv) dx v) dx vi) dx
10x + 7 x2 + 2x + 7 x3 + x 2 + x 8
2
x
R R
x1/3 x4/3 1 dx viii)
p
vii) √ dx
1 3x2

Now, we shall use the method of substitution to integrate some integrals

involving trigonometric functions.

Example 6: Evaluate the following:

R R R R
cos x2 x dx
 
i) sin(ax + b) dx ii) cot(ax + b) dx iii) tan(ax + b) dx iv)

Solution:

i) We proceed in the same manner as we did for sin 2x dx in Example 1.

R

We set u = ax + b. This gives du = a dx. Thus

du 1
R R R
sin(ax + b) dx = sin u = sin u du
a a
1 cos(ax + b)
= cos u + C = + C.
a a
ii) We make the substitution u = ax + b. Then, du = a dx.
du 1 1 cos u
R R R R
cot(ax + b) du = cot u = cot u du = du.
a a a sin u
Here, the trick is to notice that the numerator is the derivative of the
denominator and Eqn. (5) applies here. So, the integral in this case is
1 1
a ln|sin u| + C = a ln|sin(ax + b)| + C. 43
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

Table 1: Table of inde nite integrals

No. f(x) f(x) dx

R

1. (ax + b)n , n 6 = 1, 1 (ax+b) n+1 +C

a n+1

2. 1 1 ln|ax + b| + C
(ax+b) a

3. sin(ax + b) 1 cos(ax + b) + C
a

4. cos(ax + b)

5. tan(ax + b) 1 ln|sec(ax + b)| + C

a

6. cot(ax + b) 1 ln|sin(ax + b)| + C

a

7. sec(ax + b)

8. cosec(ax + b)

9. eax+b

iii) We make the substitution u = ax + b.Then, du = a dx. So,

sin u du 1 sin u
R R R
tan(ax + b) dx = = du.
cos u a a cos u

We have dud cos u = sin u. Here, the numerator is almost the derivative
of the denominator, but for the sign difference. So, we write

1 sin u 1 1
R R
du = ( sin u) du
a cos u a cos u

Recall that ln|x| = ln 1x . We can now apply Eqn. (5) to get

1sin u 1 sin u 1 1
R R
du = du = ln|cos u| + C = ln|sec u| + C
acos u a cos u a a
1
= ln|sec(ax + b)| + C
a
2
iv) We set u = x . Then, du = 2x dx. So, we have

du 1
R R R
x cos x2 dx =
 
x cos u
= cos u du
2x 2
1 1
= sin u + C = sin x2 + C
 
2 2
∗∗∗

Try the exercises below to check you understanding of the discussion so far.

44 E2) Fill in the blanks in Table 1.

Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

E3) Evaluate the following integrals:

𝜋
R3 R
2
i) cot 2x cosec 2x dx ii) sin 2𝜃ecos 2𝜃 d𝜃
𝜋
6
𝜋
R2 R
sin 𝜃 1 + cos4 𝜃 d𝜃 iv) (1 + cos 𝜃)4 sin 𝜃 d𝜃
 
iii)
0
𝜋
4
sec2 𝜃
R R
v) d𝜃 vi) sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃(1 + sec 𝜃)3 d𝜃
(1 5 tan 𝜃)3
0

18.2.2 Integrals Using Trigonometric Formulae

We will now see how to use trigonometric identities for evaluating integrals. We
need the following trigonometric formulae you studied in your higher secondary
Mathematics course.
sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1 . . . (7)
sec2 𝜃 = 1 + tan2 𝜃 . . . (8)
cosec2 𝜃 = 1 + cot2 𝜃 . . . (9)
1
sin A cos B = (sin(A + B) + sin(A B)) . . . (10)
2
1
cos A cos B = (cos(A + B) + cos(A B)) . . . (11)
2
1
sin A sin B = (cos(A B) cos(A + B)) . . . (12)
2
Here is an example to show you how to apply some of these formulae.
Example 7: Evaluate the following integrals:
R R R
i) sin 3x cos 4x dx ii) sin 4x sin 7x dx iii) cos 4x cos 6x dx
R
iv) cos 3x cos 4x sin 6x dx

Solution:
i) From Eqn. (10), we have
1
sin 3x cos 4x = (sin(3x + 4x) + sin(3x 4x))
2
1 1
= (sin 7x + sin( x)) = (sin 7x sin x)
2 2
So,
1 1 1
R R  
sin 3x cos 4x dx = (sin 7x sin x) dx = cos 7x + cos x + C
2 2 7
1 1
= cos 7x + cos x + C
14 2
ii) By Eqn. (12) We have
1 1
sin 4x sin 7x = (cos(4x 7x) cos(4x + 7x)) = (cos( 3x) + cos 11x)
2 2
1
= (cos 3x + cos 11x)
2 45
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

So, we have
1
R R
sin 4x sin 7x dx = (cos 3x + cos 11x) dx
2
1 1
= sin 3x + sin 11x + C
6 22
iii) From Eqn. (12), we get
1 1
cos 4x cos 6x = (cos(4x + 6x) + cos(4x 6x)) = (cos 10x + cos( 2x))
2 2
1
= (cos 10x + cos 2x)
2
So, we have
1
R R
cos 4x cos 6x dx = (cos 10x + cos 2x) dx
2
1 1
= sin 10x + sin 2x + C
20 4
iv) We have
1
cos 3x cos 4x = (cos 7x + cos x) using Eqn. (11)
2
So, we have
1
cos 3x cos 4x sin 6x = (cos 7x sin 6x + cos x sin 6x)
2
1 1
= (sin(6x + 7x) + sin(6x 7x)
2 2
1

+ (sin(6x + x) + sin(6x x))
2
1
= (sin 13x sin x + sin 7x + sin 5x)
4
So,
1 1 1
R 
cos 3x cos 4x sin 6x dx = cos 13x + cos x cos 7x
4 13 7
1

cos 5x + C
5
1 1 1
= cos 13x + cos x cos 7x
52 4 28
1
cos 5x + C
20
∗∗∗

We will now see how to integrate powers of sin x and cos x. Using Eqn. (7), we
can write
R R n
sin2n+1 x dx = 1 cos2 x sin x dx

. . . (13)

and
R R n
cos2n+1 x dx = 1 sin2 x cos x dx . . . (14)

To evaluate the integralin Eqn. (13), we substitute u = cosnx. The integral in

n
Eqn. (13) becomes
R
1 u 2 du. We expand 1 u 2 using binomial
46
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

theorem and integrate itterm by

nterm. In case of Eqn. (14), the substitution
u = sin x reduces it to 1 u
R 2 du.

Note that we can evaluate integrals of the form sinm x cosn x dx similarly if one
R

of m or n is odd. If m is odd we use the substitution u = cos x. If n is odd, we

use the substitution u = sin x.

We will now look at an example that illustrates all the methods we have
discussed above.

Example 8: Evaluate the following integrals:

R 5 R 7 R
i) sin x dx ii) cos x dx iii) sin2 x cos3 x dx
R 3 4 R 2
v) sin x cos x dx iv) cos x dx

Solution:

i) We have
R R R 2
sin5 x dx = sin4 x sin x dx = 1 cos2 x sin x dx

using Eqn. (7). We set u = cos x. Then, du = sin x dx. So, we have
R R 2 R
sin5 x dx = 1 u2 du = 1 2u2 + u4 du
  

u3 u5 cos5 x cos3 x
= u+2 +C= +2 cos x + C
3 5 5 3
ii) We use Eqn. (7) to rewrite the integral as
R R R 3
cos7 x dx = cos6 x cos x dx = sin2 x cos x dx.

1

Now, we set v = sin x. Then, dv = cos x dx. So, we have

R R 3
cos7 x dx = 1 v2 dv


v5 v7
R
3v2 + 3v4 v6 dv = v v3 + 3

= 1 +C
5 7
3 sin7 x
= sin x sin3 x + sin5 x +C
5 7
iii) We have

sin2 x cos3 x = sin2 x 1 sin2 x cos x

 

So,
R 2
R
3
sin2 x sin4 x cos x dx

sin x cos x dx =

We set u = sin x. Then, du = cos x dx. Therefore,

R R
sin2 x sin4 x cos x dx = u2 u4 du
   

u3 u5
= +C
3 5
sin3 x sin5 x
= +C
3 5 47
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

iv) We have
R 3 4
R
cos2 x cos4 x sin x dx

sin x cos x dx = 1

We set u = cos x. Then, du = sin x dx. So, we have

R R
1 cos2 x cos4 x sin x dx = u4 u6 du
   

u5 u7
= + +C
5 7
cos5 x cos7 x
= + +C
5 7

v) We have cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1. (Put A = B = x in Eqn. (11)). So,

cos2 x = 1+cos
2
2x . Therefore,

1 1
R R R R 
2
cos x dx = (1 + cos 2x) dx = dx + cos 2x dx
2 2
1 sin 2x
 
= x+ +C
2 2

∗∗∗

Remark 1: We will see how to integrate powers of sin x and cos x, even or odd,
using reduction formulae in the next Unit. But, the substitution method is a
quicker method for integrating odd powers of sin x and cos x.

Here are some exercises for you to check your understanding of the example.

E4) Evaluate the following:

R 7 R 5 R 2 3
i) sin x dx ii) cos x dx iii) cos x sin x dx
R R R
iv) sin 5x cos 3x dx v) cos 3x cos 4x dx vi) sin 4x sin 3x dx
R
vii) sin 2x sin 3x sin 5x dx

A
ptrigonometric
p substitution is generally used to integrate expressions involving
a2 or a2 + x2 . We suggest the substitutions in
p
a2 2 2 2
x , a +x , x 2
Table 2.

Table 2: Trigonmetric substitutions

Expression involved Substitution

p
a2 x 2 x = a sin 𝜃
p
a2 + x 2 x = a tan 𝜃
p
x2 a 2 x = a sec 𝜃
a2 + x 2 x = a tan 𝜃

We now derive the formulae for integration for the functions √ 21 and √ 21
a ±x2 x a2
48 using Table 2 and Eqn. (7), Eqn. (8) and Eqn. (9).
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Theorem 2: We have
dx x
R
= sin 1 +C . . . (15)
a
p
a2 x 2
dx 1 x
R
= tan 1 +C . . . (16)
a2 + x2 a a
p
dx x + x2 + a 2
R
= ln +C . . . (17)
a
p
a2 + x2
p
1 x + x2 a 2
R
dx = ln +C . . . (18)
a
p
x2 a 2
1 1 x
R
dx = sec 1 +C . . . (19)
a a
p
x x2 a 2

Proof: If we put x = a sin 𝜃, we have dx = a cos 𝜃d𝜃. Further,

q r 
a2 sin2 𝜃 = sin2 𝜃 = a cos 𝜃
p 
a2 x2 = a2 a2 1

So, we have
dx a cos 𝜃 d𝜃
R R R
√ = = d𝜃 = 𝜃 + C
a2 x2 a cos 𝜃

From x = a sin 𝜃, we have 𝜃 = sin 1 ax . So,

dx x
R
√ = sin 1 +C
a2 x2 a
proving Eqn. (15).

Let us now prove Eqn. (16). From the Table 2, we know that we need to
substitute x = a tan 𝜃. We get dx = a sec2 𝜃 d𝜃. We have

1 a sec2 𝜃 1 sec2 𝜃
R R R
dx =  d𝜃 = d𝜃
a + x2
2 a sec2 𝜃

a2 1 + tan2 𝜃

since sec2 𝜃 = 1 + tan2 𝜃.

1 1 1
R R
∴ 2 2
dx = d𝜃 = 𝜃 + C
a +x a a
1 x
= tan 1

+C
a a

Let us now prove Eqn. (17). Setting x = a tan 𝜃, we get dx = a sec2 𝜃 d𝜃. We
have
dx a sec2 𝜃 a sec2 𝜃
R R R
√ =  d𝜃 = d𝜃
a2 + x2 a 1 + tan2 𝜃
r p
a2 + a2 tan2 𝜃

sec2 𝜃
R R
= d𝜃 = sec 𝜃 d𝜃 = ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃| + C . . . (20)
sec 𝜃
We have
s √
p  x 2 a2 + x2
sec 𝜃 = 1 + tan2 𝜃 = 1+ =
a a
49
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

Also,
x
tan 𝜃 =
a√
x + x2 + a2
∴ sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 =
a
So, from Eqn. (20), we have
√
dx x + x2 + a2
R
√ = ln +C
a2 + x 2 a

We leave Eqn. (18) and Eqn. (19) to you as exercises. 

We now look at some easy applications of Theorem 2 in the next example.

Example 9: Evaluate the following integrals:

dx dx dx dx dx
R R R R R
i) √ ii) 2
iii) √ iv) √ v)
4 x 2 9+x 25 + x2 1 2x2 1 + 4x2
Solution:

i) We have
dx dx
R R
√ = √
4 x2 2 2 x2
Applying Eqn. (15) with a = 2 to the RHS of the above equation, we get
dx x
R
√ = sin 1 +C
4 x2 2

ii) We have
dx dx
R R
=
9 + x2 32 + x2
Applying Eqn. (16) with a = 3 to the RHS of the above equation, we get
dx 1 1 x
R  
= tan +C
9 + x2 3 3

iii) We have
dx dx
R R
√ = √
25 + x2 52 + x 2
Using Eqn. (17), we get
√
dx x+ 25 + x2
R
√ = ln +C
25 + x2 5

iv) We have
1 dx dx
R R R
√ dx = =
2x2 √
r  r 
1 1 2
2 2 x 2 √1
2 x2
2
1 x 1 √
= √ sin 1 1 + C = √ sin 1 ( 2x) + C
2 √ 2
50 2
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

v) We have
dx dx 1 dx
R R R
√ = r   = 2 r 2
1 + 4x 2
4 14 + x2 1 + x2
2
q
x2 + 14
 
1 x +
 + C = 1 ln 2x + 4x2 + 1 + C
p
= ln 1
2 2
2

∗∗∗

Here are some exercises that may help you in testing your understanding of the
discussion in the above example.

E5) We evaluated the integral of √ 21 2 using the substitution x = a sin 𝜃.

a x
Evaluate the integral using the substitution x = a cos 𝜃. You

will get the
answer cos 1 ax + C. But we got the answer sin 1 ax + C when we

used the substitution x = a sin 𝜃. How would you explain this difference in
the answers ?

E6) Prove the results in Eqn. (18) and Eqn. (19).

E7) Evaluate the following integrals:

dx dx dx dx
R R R R
i) √ ii) √ iii) iv)
3 x2 1 5x2 x2 + 5 3x2 + 1
dx dx dx dx
R R R R
v) √ vi) √ vii) √ viii) √
2
x +7 1 + 5x2 x2 9 x x2 4
dx dx
R R
ix) √ x) √
9x2 1 x 2x2 1

We conclude our discussion of substitution for now and discuss another

method, the method of integration by parts, in the next section. However, we
are not through with the use of substitution yet! We will come back to the
method in the later sections of this unit.

18.3 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

In this section we shall evolve a method for evaluating integrals of the type
u(x)v(x) dx, in which the integrand u(x)v(x) is the product of two functions. In
R

other words, we shall rst evolve the integral analogue of

d d d
[u(x)v(x)] = u(x) v(x) + v(x) u(x)
dx dx dx
and then use that result to evaluate some standard integrals.

18.3.1 Integrals of a Product of Two Functions

We can calculate the derivative of the product of two functions by the formula
d d d
[u(x)v(x)] = u(x) v(x) + v(x) u(x).
dx dx dx
Let us rewrite this as
d d d
u(x) v(x) = [u(x)v(x)] v(x) u(x)
dx dx dx 51
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

Integrating both the sides with respect to x, we have

R d (v(x))dx = R d (u(x)v(x))dx R v(x) d (u(x))dx, or
u(x) dx dx dx
d d
R R
u(x) (v(x))dx = u(x)v(x) v(x) (u(x))dx . . . (21)
dx dx
To express this in a more symmetrical form, we replace u(x) by f(x), and put
d
dx v(x) = g(x). This means v(x) = g(x)dx.
R

As a result of this substitution, Eqn. (21) takes the form

R R  R  R
0
f(x)g(x)dx = f(x) g(x)dx f (x) g(x)dx dx

This formula may be read as:

The integral of the product of two functions = First factor × integral of second
factor integral of (derivative of rst factor × integral of second factor)

It is called the formula for integration by parts. This formula may appear a
little complicated to you. But the success of this method depends upon
choosing the rst factor in such a way that the second term on the right-hand
side may be easy to evaluate. It is also essential to choose the second factor
such that it can be easily integrated.

The following examples will show you the wide variety of integrals which can be
evaluated by this technique. You should carefully study our choice of rst and
second functions in each example. You may also try to evaluate the integrals
by reversing the order of functions. This will make you realise why we have
chosen these functions the way we have.

Example 10: Evaluate the following integrals:

𝜋
R R R 2 R
i) ln|x| dx ii) xex dx iii) x2 cos x dx iv) x ln|x| dx
0

Solution:

i) We can nd ln x dx by taking ln x as the rst factor and 1 as the second

R

factor. Thus,
1
R R R  
R R
ln x dx = (ln x) (1) dx = ln x 1dx 1dx dx
x
1
R R
= (ln x) (x) (x) dx = x ln x dx = x ln x x + C
x
ii) In the integrand xex we choose x as the rst factor and ex as the second
factor. Thus, we get
d
R R  R  R R
x x
xe dx = x e dx (x) e dx dx = xex
x
ex dx
dx
= xex ex + C.

iii) We shall take x2 as the rst factor and cos x as the second. Let us rst
evaluate the corresponding inde nite integral.
d 2
R R  R  R
2 2
x cos x dx = x cos x dx (x ) cos x dx dx
dx
R R
= x2 sin x 2x sin x dx = x2 sin x 2 x sin x dx
52
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................
R
We shall again use integration by parts to evaluate x sin x dx. We have,
R R
x sin x dx = x( cos x) (1) ( cos x)dx (f(x) = x, g(x) = sin x)
R
= x cos x + cos x dx = x cos x + sin x + C

Hence,
R
x2 cos x dx = x2 sin x + 2x cos x 2 sin x + C

Note that we have written the arbitrary constant as C instead of 2C.

Now
R𝜋/2 𝜋/2 𝜋2
x2 cos x dx = (x2 sin x + 2x cos x 2 sin x + C) = 2.
0 4
0

iv) Here we take ln |x| as the rst factor since it can be differentiated easily, but
cannot be integrated that easily. We shall take x to be the second factor.

x2 x2
!!
1
R R   R
x ln |x| dx = (ln |x| )x dx = ln |x| dx
2 x 2
1 2 1 1 2 1 2
R
= x ln |x| x dx = x ln |x| x +C
2 2 2 4
∗∗∗

Try the following exercises to see if you have understood example You will be
able to solve the following exercises by using the method of integration by
parts.

E8) Evaluate the following integrals:

R 2
i) x ln|x| dx (Take f(x) = ln|x| and g(x) = x2 )
R
ii) (1 + x)ex dx (Take f(x) = 1 + x and g(x) = ex )
R  2 x
iii) 1 + x e dx
R 2
iv) x sin x cos x dx (Take f(x) = x and g(x) = sin x cos x = 12 sin 2x.)
2

E9) Evaluate the following integrals by choosing 1 as the second factor.

R 1
R1 1
R
i) sin x dx ii) tan x dx iii) cot 1 x dx
0
 
E10) Integrate x ln 1 + x2 w.r.t. x.

18.3.2 Evaluation of eax sin bx dx and eax cos bx dx

R R

To evaluate eax sin bx dx and eax cos bx dx, we use the formula for
R R

integration by parts.
1 1
R     R
eax sin bx dx = eax cos bx aeax cos bx dx



b b 53
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

1 ax a
R
= e cos bx + eax cos bx dx
b b
1 ax a 1

ax

  R  ax a  
= e cos bx + e sin bx e sin bx dx
b b b b
1 ax a a2
R
= e cos bx + 2 eax sin bx 2
eax sin bx dx
b b b

You would have noted that the last integral on the right hand side is the same
as the integral on the left hand side. Now we transfer the third term on the right
to the left hand side, and obtain,

a2
!
a 1
R  
ax ax
1+ 2 e sin bx dx = e sin bx cos bx
b b2 b

This means,

1
R
eax sin bx dx = eax (a sin bx b cos bx) + C
2
a2 +b

We leave it to you as an exercise to show that

1
R
eax cos bx dx = eax (a cos bx + b sin bx) + C
2
a2 + b

If we put a = r cos 𝜃, b = r sin 𝜃, these formulas become

1
R
eax sin bx dx = q eax sin(bx 𝜃) + C . . . (22)
a2 + b 2
1
R
eax cos bx dx = q eax cos(bx 𝜃) + C . . . (23)
a2 + b 2

Here is an example to help you understand how to apply Eqn. (22) and
Eqn. (23).

Example 11: Use Eqn. (22) and Eqn. (23) to evaluate the following integrals:
R √ R R
i) ex sin x dx ii) ex cos 3x dx iii) e x cos x dx

Solution:

i) Let us apply Eqn. (22) with a = 1, b = 1.√Then, a2 + b2 = 2. Also,

a2 + b2 = r2 cos2 𝜃 + r2 sin2 𝜃 = r2 or r = 2. So, cos 𝜃 = ar = √1 and
2
sin 𝜃 = b = √1 . Therefore, it follows that 𝜃 = 𝜋. So, using Eqn. (22), we
r 2 4
get

1 𝜋
R
ex sin x dx = √ ex sin x

+C
2 4

√
ii) Let p
us apply Eqn. (23) with a = 1, b = 3. Then, as before√
√
r = a2 + b2 = 4 = 2. Further, cos 𝜃 = ar = 21 , sin 𝜃 = br = 23 . So, 𝜃 = 𝜋3 .
So, we have
R √ 1 √ 𝜋
ex cos 3x dx = ex cos 3x +C
54 2 3
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................
√
a2 + b2 = 2, cos 𝜃 = ar = √1 ,
p
iii) Here a = 1, b = 1, so r =
2
sin 𝜃 = br = √1 . Since sin 𝜃 is positive and cos 𝜃 is negative, 𝜃 is in the
2
second quadrant. We take 𝜃 = 𝜋 𝜋4 = 3𝜋 4 . So, we have

1 3𝜋
R  
x x
e cos bx dx = √ e cos x +C
2 4

∗∗∗

Here are some exercises for you to try.

E11) Evaluate the following:

R R R
i) e3x cos 4x dx ii) e4x sin 3x dx iii) e 4x cos 4x dx

Let us look at some more examples that illustrate the method of integration by
parts.

Example 12: Evaluate e2x sin x cos 2x dx.

R

Solution: We shall rst write sin x cos 2x = 12 (sin 3x sin x) as in Sec. 18.2.
Therefore,
1 1
R R R
e2x sin x cos 2x dx = e2x sin 3x dx e2x sin x dx
2 2
Now the two integrals on the right hand side can be evaluated. We see that

1 2x 3
R  
2x 1
e sin 3x dx = √ e sin 3x tan +C
13 2

and
1 1
R  
2x
e sin x dx = √ e2x sin x tan 1
+ C0
5 2

Hence

e2x 1 3
R   
2x 1
e sin x cos 2x dx = √ sin 3x tan
2 13 2
1 1
 
√ sin x tan 1 + C.
5 2

∗∗∗

Example 13: Evaluate x3 sin(a ln x)dx.

R

Solution: Let ln x = u. This implies x = eu and du/dx = 1/x. Then,

R R R
x3 sin(a ln x) dx = x4 sin(a ln x) (1/x) dx = e4u sin au du
1
=p e4u sin(au tan 1 (a/4)) + C
16 + a 2
1 a
x4 sin a ln x tan 1

=p +C
16 + a2 4

∗∗∗ 55
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

dx
R
We have already seen how to evaluate integrals of the form p and
x2 ± a2
dx
R
p . In the next subsection, we will see how we can combine this
a2 ± x2
knowledge with the technique of integration by parts and use them to evaluate
R R
p p
integrals of the form x2 ± a2 dx and a2 ± x2 dx. But, before we move
on to this topic, check if you have understood the technique of integrarion by
parts by trying the following exercises now.

E12) Evaluate the following integrals

R R R
4x 2x 2
i) e cos x cos 2x dx ii) e cos x dx iii) xeax sin bx dx.

Rp 2 Rp 2 Rp 2
18.3.3 Evaluation of a x2 dx, a + x2 dx, and x a2 dx

In this sub-section, we shall see that we can evaluate integrals like

Rp 2 2
Rp 2 2
Rp 2
a x dx, a + x dx and x a2 dx with the help of the formula for
integration by parts and Theorem 2.
Rp2 Rp2
a x2 dx = a x2 (1) dx
!
x
p R
= a2 x2 × x p ×x dx
a2 x2
p R x 2
= x a2 x2 + p dx
a2 x 2
(a2 x2 ) a2
p R
= x a2 x2 p dx
a2 x 2
dx
R q R
2
p
= x a2 2
x +a p a2 x2 dx
a 2 x 2

Shifting the last term on the right hand side to the left we get,

dx
Rp2 R
x2 + a2
p
2 a x2 dx = x a2 p
a2 x2
Using the formula,

dx x
R
= sin 1 + C,
a
p
a2 x2
we obtain

1 p 2 a2 x
Rp2
a x2 dx = x a x2 + sin 1 +C . . . (24)
2 2 a
We leave it to you as an exercise to prove
√
1 p a2 x+ a2 + x2
Rp2
a + x2 dx = x a2 + x2 + ln +C . . . (25)
2 2 a

and
√
1 p a2 x+ x2 a2
Rp2
x a2 dx = x x2 a2 ln +C . . . (26)
2 2 a
56
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Let us look at some examples now.

Example 14: Evaluate the following integrals:

Rp Rp Rp2
i) 4 x2 dx ii) 25 + x2 dx iii) x 9 dx

Solution:

i) We write the integral in the form

Rp Rp2
4 x2 dx = 2 x2 dx

and apply Eqn. (24) with a = 2. We have

1 p 2 22 x
Rp2
2 x2 dx = x 2 x2 + sin 1 + C
2 2 2
1 p x
= x 4 x2 + 2 sin 1 + C
2 2
ii) We apply Eqn. (25) with a = 5. We have
Rp Rp2
25 + x2 dx = 5 + x2 dx
√
1 p 25 x + x2 + 52
= x 25 + x2 + ln +C
2 2 5

iii) We use Eqn. (26) with a = 3. We have

√
1 p 9 x + x2 9
Rp2 Rp2
x 9 dx = x 32 dx = x x2 9 ln +C
2 2 3

∗∗∗

Let us now look at an elaborate example that involves more than one of the
types of integrands we have seen so far.

Example 15: Evaluate the integral

a x
r
R
x dx
a+x

Solution: We have

a x
Rr
x dx
a+x
 
R x(a a 2 x2 a2 + ax
x)
R
= p dx = p dx
R p a22 x2
2 2
R a2
dx
x2
a
R 2x
= a x dx a dx
x2 2
p p
a2 a2 x 2
1 p a2 x x
sin 1 a2 sin 1
p
= x a2 x2 + a a2 x 2 + C
2 2 a a

∗∗∗

Check if you have understood the discussion so far in this subsection by trying
the following exercises now. 57
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

E13) Prove that:

R p 2 2 1 p 2 2 a2 x + pa2 + x2
i) a + x dx = x a + x + ln +C
2 2 p a
R q 2 2 1 p 2 2 a2 x + x2 a2
ii) x a dx = x x a ln + C.
2 2 a
E14) Evaluate the following integrals:
p R p R Rp2
i) 3 x2 dx ii) 1 5x2 dx iii) x + 7 dx
Rp 2 Rp2 Rp 2
iv) 1 + 5x dx v) x 9 dx vi) 9x 1 dx
R 1
vii) x sin x dx

We conclude this section on the method of integration by parts here. In the next
section, we will see how to integrate rational functions.

18.4 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

If you have gone through Appendix 2 of Block 3, you may already know what a
rational function is. You also know that we can split a proper rational function
into a sum of simple rational functions. We will use this knowledge to integrate
rational functions.

We begin by considering some simple types of proper rational functions of the

form 1 k and Ax+B . Later we will use the fact that any proper rational
(x b) ax2 +bx+c
function can be written as a sum of these simple types of functions and use it to
integrate general rational functions.
1 . So, let us see how to
We already know how to integrate function of type ax+b
integrate functions of the type Ax+B
2
.
ax +bx+c

Before we take up the integration of functions of the form Ax+B we take up a

ax2 +bx+c
particular case of this type in the next example; we will see later that this
particular case is useful in integrating the general case.
dx
R
Example 16: Evaluate .
x2 a2

Solution: We have x2 a2 = (x a)(x + a). So, we write

1 𝛼 𝛽
= + . . . . (27)
x2 a2 x a x+a

Multiplying both sides of the equation by x2 a2 we get

1 = 𝛼(x + a) + 𝛽(x a).

1 . Similarly, putting x = a, we get
Putting x = a, we get 1 = 2𝛼a or 𝛼 = 2a
1 = 2𝛽a or 𝛽 = 2a 1 . So, We have

1 1
1 2a 2a
=
58 x2 a2 x a x+a
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

So,
1 1 dx 1 dx
R R R
dx =
x2 a 2 2a x a 2a x + a
1 1
= ln|x a| ln|x + a| + C
2a 2a
1 x a
= ln +C
2a x + a
Let us now assign a number to the nal result for reference. We have
1 1 x a
R
dx = ln +C . . . (28)
x2 a2 2a x + a

∗∗∗

We will now see how to integrate rational functions of the form Ax+B . We
ax2 +bx+c
rst write the numerator Ax + B in the form p(2ax + b) + q, i.e. we set

Ax + B = p(2ax + b) + q

and solve for p and q. We have

Ax + B 2ax + b dx
R R R
2
dx = p dx + q . . . (29)
ax + bx + c ax2 + bx + c ax2 + bx + c

f0 (x)
R
The rst integral in the RHS of Eqn. (29) is of the form dx where
f(x)
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. So,
2ax + b
R
2
dx = ln ax2 + bx + c + C.
ax + bx + c

Let us nowconsider the second

 integral.
 Note that, we can write ax2 + bx + c in
the form a x2 + 𝛼 2 or a x2 𝛽 2 where 𝛼 > 0, 𝛽 > 0. More precisely,
 (
2 √ 2 )
2
if b2 ≤ 4ac

a x+ b + 4ac b


2a 2a



2
ax + bx + c = (
2 √ 2 ) . . . (30)
2
2

a x+ b b 4ac if b > 4ac


2a 2a




b we can rewrite the second integral in Eqn. (29) as

So, on substituting u = x + 2a

dx 1 dx
R R
2
= ,
ax + bx + c a u2 + 𝛼2
or
dx 1 dx
R R
2
= .
ax + bx + c a u2 𝛽2

dx
R
We already know how to integrate dx from Eqn. (16). We also know
a2 + x2
dx
R
how to integrate from Eqn. (28). So, we can integrate any function of
x2 a2
the form Ax+B .
ax2 +bx+c

Example 17: Integrate the function f(x) = 2x+3 .

x2 4x+5 59
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

Solution: As we discussed above, we write

2x + 3 = p(2x 4) + q = 2px + (q 4p)

Comparing the coef cient of x on both sides, we get p = 1. Comparing the

constant terms on both sides, we get q 4p = 3. Substituting p = 1, we get
q = 7. So, we can write 22x+3 dx as
R
x 4x+5

2x 4 7
R R
dx + dx.
x2 4x + 5 x2 4x + 5
0
As we noted in our earlier discussion, the rst integral is of the form ff(x)
(x)
; and
we know that
f0 (x)
R
dx = ln |f(x)| + C.
f(x)
Thus,
2x 4
R
dx = ln |x2 4x + 5| + C1
x2 4x + 5

To evaluate the second integral, we write

1 1 1
R R R
dx = dx = dx
x2 4x + 5 x2 4x + 4 + 1 (x 2)2 + 1

Now, if we put x 2 = u,
1 1
R R
dx = du = tan 1 u + C2 = tan 1 (x 2) + C2
x2 4x + 5 u2 +1
This implies,
2x + 3
R
dx = ln |x2 4x + 5| + 7 tan 1 (x 2) + C.
x2 4x + 5

∗∗∗

Let us now look at an example where Eqn. (28) is useful.

2x + 1
R
Example 18: Evaluate dx.
+ 8x + 1 x2
 
d x2 + 8x + 1 = 2x + 8. We can write 2x + 1 = 2x + 8 7.
Solution: We have dx
So, we have
2x + 1 2x + 8 dx
R R R
2
dx = 2
dx 7
x + 8x + 1 x + 8x + 1 x2 + 8x + 1
R f0 (x) 2
The rst integral is of the form f(x) dx, with f(x) = x + 8x + 1. So,

2x + 8
R
dx = ln x2 + 8x + 1 + C1
x2 + 8x + 1
We now evaluate the second integral.
dx dx
R R
dx = √
x2 + 8x + 1
2
(x + 4)2 15
60
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Substituting u = x + 4, we get
dx du
R R
2
= √
2
x + 8x + 1
u2 15
√
1 u 15
= √ ln √ + C2 , using Eqn. (27).
2 15 u + 15
√
1 x+4 15
= √ ln √ + C2
2 15 x + 4 + 15

So,
√
2x + 1 7 x+4 15
R
2
dx = ln x2 + 8x + 1 √ ln √ +C
x + 8x + 1 2 15 x + 4 + 15

∗∗∗

Let us look at some more examples now.

Example 19: Evaluate the following integrals:

3x + 5 4x + 1
R R
i) 2
dx ii) 2
dx
x + 7x + 10 3x + 4x + 1
Solution:
 
d x2 + 7x + 10 = 2x + 7. Writing 3x + 5 = p(2x + 7) + q and
i) We have dx
solving for p and q, we get p = 23 , 7p + q = 5 or q = 5 7p = 5 21
2 = 11
2.
So, we have
3x + 5 3 2x + 7 11 dx
R R R
2
dx = 2
dx
x + 7x + 10 2 x + 7x + 10 2 x2 + 7x + 10
As before,
2x + 7
R
dx = ln x2 + 7x + 10 + C1
x2 + 7x + 10
We have
dx dx dx
R R R
2
= 2 = 2  2
x + 7x + 10
 
x + 27 + 10 49
4
7
x+ 2 3
2

Subsituting u = x + 72 and using Eqn. (28), we get

R dx 1 x + 27 32 1 x+2
2
= ln 7 3
+ C2 = ln + C2
x + 7x + 10 3 x + + 3 x+5
2 2

Therefore,
3x + 5 3 11 x + 2
R
dx = ln x2 + 7x + 10 ln +C
x2 + 7x + 10 2 6 x+5
 
d 3x2 + 4x + 2 = 6x + 4. Writing 4x + 1 = p(6x + 4) + q and
ii) We have dx
solving for p and q, we get p = 23 , q = 1 4p = 1 8
3 = 35 . So, we have

4x + 1 2 6x + 4 5 dx
R R R
dx = dx
3x2 + 4x + 1 3 3x2 + 4x + 1 3 3x2 + 4x + 1
61
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

We have
6x + 4
R
dx = ln 3x2 + 4x + 1 + C1
3x2+ 4x + 1
Also,
dx dx 1 dx
R R R
2
= = 2
3x + 4x + 1 3
  
3 x2 + 43 x + 13 x + 23 + 13 4
9
1 dx
R
= 2  2
3 
2 1
x+ 3 3
1 du 2
R
=  2 on substituting u = x + 3 .
3 1
u2 3

1 u 13 1 x+ 3
1
= ln + C 2 = ln + C2
2 u+ 1 2 x+1
3
Therefore,
1
4x + 1 2 5 x+ 3
R
2
dx = ln 3x2 + 4x + 1 ln +C
3x + 4x + 1 3 6 x+1

∗∗∗

Before we take up the discussion of integration of general rational functions,

you may nd it useful to try the following exercises to check your understanding
of what we have discussed so far.

E15) Evaluate the following integrals:

dx dt 4x + 1 5x 1
R R R R
i) ii) iii) dx iv) dx
2x 3 (t + 5)2 x2 + x + 2 x2 1
3x + 1
R
v) 2
dx
x 6x + 3

Let us now discuss the integration of general rational functions using partial
fractions.
3x + 1
R
Example 20: Evaluate dx.
2x3 + 3x2 3x 2
Solution: The denominator of the integrand has factors as
(2x + 1)(x 1)(x + 2). Let us write
3x + 1 A B C
= + +
2x3 + 3x2 3x 2 2x + 1 x 1 x + 2
Multiplying throughout by 2x3 + 3x2 3x 2, we get
3x + 1 = A(x 1)(x + 2) + B(2x + 1)(x + 2) + C(2x + 1)(x 1) . . . (31)
Note that 12 , 1, 2 are the roots of the polynomial in the denominator. We can
easily solve for A, B and C by succesively putting x = 21 , x = 1 and x = 2. For
example, if we put x = 12 , all the terms in the RHS of Eqn. (31), except the rst
term, will vanish. We get 32 + 1 = A( 12 1)( 21 + 2). So,
3 +1
2  2
A=  = .
1 1 1 +2 9
62 2 2
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Similarly, we get B = 49 , C = 95 . So, we have

3x + 1 2 dx 4 dx 5 dx
R R R R
dx = +
2x + 3x2 3x
3 2 9 2x + 1 9 x 1 9 x+2
1 4 5
= ln|2x + 1| + ln|x 1| ln|x + 2| + C
9 9 9

∗∗∗

Let us now look at an example where there are repeated linear factors in the
denominator.
x
R
Example 21: Evaluate dx.
x3 3x + 2

Solution: The denominator of the integrand factors into (x 1)2 (x + 2). The
linear factor (x 1) is repeated twice in the decomposition of x3 3x + 2.

In this case we write

x A B C
= + + .
x3 3x + 2 x + 2 x 1 (x 1)2
From this point we proceed as before to nd A, B and C. Multiplying both sides
of the equation above by x3 3x + 2 we get

x = A(x 1)2 + B(x + 2)(x 1) + C(x + 2)

We put x = 1 and x = 2 and get C = 1/3 and A = 2/9.

Then to nd B, let us put any other convenient value, say x = 0. This gives us
0 = A 2B + 2C or, 0 = 29 2B + 23 or 2B = 94 . This implies B = 2/9. Thus,

x 2 1 2 1 1 1
R R R R
dx = dx + dx + dx
x3 3x + 2 9 x+2 9 x 1 3 (x 1)2
2 2 1 1
 
= ln |x + 2| + ln |x 1| +C
9 9 3 x 1
2 x 1 1
= ln + C.
9 x+2 3(x 1)

∗∗∗

In our next example, we shall consider the case when the denominator of the
integrand contains an irreducible quadratic factor (i.e., a quadratic factor which
cannot be further factored into linear factors).

Example 22: Evaluate

6x3 11x2 + 5x 4
R
dx,
x4 2x3 + x2 2x

Solution: We factorise x4 2x3 + x2 2x as x(x 2) (x2 + 1). Then we write

6x3 11x2 + 5x 4 A B Cx + D
= + + .
x4 2x3 + x2 2x x x 2 x2 + 1

Thus, 6x3 11x2 + 5x 4 = A(x 2) (x2 + 1) + Bx(x2 + 1) + (Cx + D)x(x 2).

Next, we substitute x = 0 and x = 2 to get A = 2 and B = 1. 63

Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

Then we put x = 1 and x = 1 (some convenient values) to get C = 3 and

D = 1.

Thus

6x3 11x2 + 5x 4 1 1
R R R R 3x 1
dx = 2 dx + dx + dx
x4 2x3 + x2 2x x x 2 x2 + 1
3
R 2x R dx
= 2 ln |x| + ln |x 2| + dx
2 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
3
= 2 ln |x| + ln |x 2| + ln |x2 + 1| tan 1 x + c.
2
Thus, you see, once we decompose our integrand, which is a proper rational
function, into partial fractions, then the given integral can be written as the sum
of some integrals of the type discussed in Examples 1, 2, and 3.

∗∗∗

All the functions which we integrated till now were proper rational functions.
Now we shall take up an example of an improper rational function.

x3 + 2x
R
Example 23: Evaluate dx.
x2 x + 2
Solution: Since the integrand is an improper rational function, we shall rst
write it as the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function.

Thus,

x3 + 2x x 2
2
=x+1+ 2 .
x x+2 x x+2
Therefore,

x3 + 2x x 2 x2 x 2
R R R R R
dx = xdx + dx + dx = +x+ dx
x2 x + 2 x2 x+2 2 x2 x+2

The polynomial x2 x + 2 is irreducible over R since it has complex roots. It is

possible to factor this polynomial over C and split the function 2x 2 into partial
x x+2
fractions with complex coef cients, but this will lead to integration of complex
valued functions. The integration of complex valued functions of a real variable
is not very dif cult. Since we haven't discussed the integration of such
functions, we avoid integration of complex valued functions by using the
methods used in Example 17, Example 18 and Example 19.
 
We have dx d x2 x + 2 = 2x 1. Writing x 2 = p(2x 1) + q and solving for p

and q, we get p = 21 , q = 2 + p = 32 . So, we have

x 2 1 2x 1 3 dx
R R R
dx = dx
x2 x+2 2 x2 x+2 2 x2 x+2
1 3 dx
R
= ln x2 x+2 2
2 2 
1 1
x 2 4 +2
1 3 dx
R
= ln x2 x+2 2  √ 2
2 2 
1
x 2 + 27
1 6 2x
= ln x2 x+2 √ tan 1 √ + C
2 7 7
64
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Therefore,
x3 + 2x x2 1 6 2x
R
dx = + x + ln x2 x+2 √ tan 1 √ + C
x2 x + 2 2 2 7 7
∗∗∗
Try to do the following exercise now. You will nd that each integrand falls in
one of the various types we have seen so far.

E16) Evaluate the following integrals:

2 x
R R
i) 2
dx ii) 2
dx
x + 2x x 2x 3
3x 13 6x2 + 22x 23
R R
iii) dx iv) dx.
x2 + 3x 10 (2x 1) (x2 + x 6)
3x3 x2 + x 1
R R
v) dx vi) dx
x2 + x 2 (x 1) (x2 x + 1)
x3 4x
R
vii) dx
(x2 + 1)2

18.4.1 Method of Substitution

The method of partial fraction decomposition which we studied in the last

sub-section can be applied to all rational functions. We can say this because
the Fundamental theorem of algebra guarantees the factorisation of any
polynomial into linear and quadratic factors. But the actual process of
factorising a polynomial is sometimes not quite simple. In such cases it would
be a good idea to carefully examine the integrand to check if the method of
substitution can be applied. We will now give two examples to show how we
can sometimes integrate a given rational function with the help of a suitable
substitution.
Example 24: Integrate 1 with respect to x.
x(x5 +1)

Solution: For this we write

dx x4 dx
R R
5
=
x(x + 1) x5 (x5 + 1)
dt = 5x4 .
Now let us write x5 = t. Then dx

x4 dx 1 dt 1 1 1 1 t
R R  R 
5 5
= = dt = ln +C
x (x + 1) 5 t(t + 1) 5 t t+1 5 t+1
1 x5
= ln 5 + C.
5 x +1

∗∗∗

Example 25: Integrate x2 1 w.r.t. x

x4 +x2 +1
Solution: We have
 
R x2 1
R 1 1/x2
dx = dx on division by x2 .
x4 + x2 + 1 x2 + 1 + 1/x2
(1 1/x2 ) dt 1
R R
= dx = if we put t = x + .
(x + 1/x)2 1 t2 1 x 65
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

1 1 1 1 t 1
R 
= dt = ln +C
2 t 1 t+1 2 t+1
1 x2
x+1
= ln 2 + C.
2 x +x+1

∗∗∗
In Example 24 and Example 26 you must have noted that the denominators of
the integrands were not easily factorisable. The method of substitution provided
an easier alternative. See if you can solve this exercise now.

E17) Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x:

x2 1 1 + x2
i) ii) .
1 + x4 1 + x 2 + x4

The exercises in this section have given you a fair amount of practice in
integrating rational functions. In the next section we take up the case of rational
trigonometric functions.

18.5 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS
We begin by discussing of integration of rational trigonometric functions.

18.5.1 INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

You know that a polynomial in two variables x and y is an expression of the form
p
k X
am, n xm yn , am, n ∈ R
X
P(x, y) =
n=0 m=0
Accordingly, a polynomial in sin x and cos x is an expression of the form
p
k X
am, n sinm x cosn x, am, n ∈ R.
X
P(sin x, cos x) =
n=0 m=0
An expression, which is the ratio of two polynomials, P(sin x, cos x) and
Q(sin x, cos x) is called a rational function of sin x and cos x. In this section
we shall discuss the integration of some simple rational functions in sin x and
cos x. We shall rst indicate a general method for integrating these functions.
Let f(sin x, cos x) be a rational function in sin x and cos x. The rst step in the
evaluation of the integral of f is to make the substitution tan 2x = t.
dt = 1 sec2 x = 1+t2 . Since
Thus, dx 2 2 2
x
x x 2 tan 2 2t
sin x = 2 sin cos = x = ,
2 2 sec2 2 1 + t2
and
2 x
x x 1 tan 2 1 t2
cos x = cos2 sin2 = =
2 2 sec2 2x 1 + t2
we get
t2
!
2t 1 2
R R R
f(sin x, cos x)dx = f , dt = F(t) dt,
66 1 + t2 1 + t2 1 + t2
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

where
t2
!
2t 1 2
F(t) = f ,
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 + t2
is a rational function of t. Now we can use the method of partial fraction
decomposition to integrate F(t). In principle then, we can integrate any rational
function in sin x and cos x. But in actual practice we nd that the rational
function F(t) is often complicated, and it is not feasible to apply the method of
partial fractions. In this unit, however, we shall restrict ourselves to a few simple
rational functions only.
Example 26: Integrate a+b 1cos x .
Solution: Now
x x x x
a + b cos x = a sin2 + cos2 + b cos2 sin2
 
2 2 2 2
2 x 2 x
= (a + b) cos + (a b) sin
2 2
Therefore,
R dx
R sec2 2x dx R sec2 2x dx
= =
a + b cos x b) tan2 2x
h i
(a + b) + (a (a b) a+b + tan 2 x
a b 2

If we put tan 2x = t, we get

dx dt 2 dt
R R R
=2 =
a + b cos x a b a+b + t2

(a b) a+b
a b + t2 a b

If a > b > 0, then a+b

a b > 0, and we get
r !
dx 2 a b
R
=p tan 1 t
a + b cos x a2 b 2 a+b
r !
2 a b x
=p tan 1 tan . . . (32)
a2 b 2 a+b 2

If 0 < a < b, then a+b

a b < 0, and
√ √
dx 2 dt 1 b + a + b at
R R
= 2 = p 2 ln √ √ +C
a + b cos x a b q
b a2 b+a b at
t2 b+a
b a
√ √
1 b + a + b a tan 2x
=p ln √ √ +C . . . (33)
b2 a2 b+a b a tan 2x
∗∗∗
Example 27: Evaluate the following:
dx dx
R R
i) ii)
a + b sin x a + b cos x + c sin x
Solution:

i) We use the substitution x = 𝜋2 + y. Then,

dx dy dy
R R R
=
= .
a + b sin x a + b sin 𝜋2 + y a + b cos y
dx
R
which is of the form .
a + cos x 67
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

ii) We have

b
q  
2 2 1
b cos x + c sin x = b + c cos x tan
c

So, we can reduce this integral also to an integral of the form

dx
R
.
a + b cos x
∗∗∗

1 + sin x
R
Example 28: Evaluate dx.
sin x(1 + cos x)

Solution: We write

x R 1 + sin x
R dx
R dx
1 + cos x = 2 cos2 dx = +
2 sin x(1 + cos x) sin x(1 + cos x) 1 + cos x
x x
sin x = 2 sin cos 1 dx 1 dx
R R
2 2 = +
4 sin 2x cos3 2x 2 cos2 2x
x
1 sec4 2 1 x
R R
= dx + sec2 dx
4 tan 2x 2 2
1 1 + t2 x
R R  
= dt + dt tan = t
2 t 2
t2
" #
1 1 1
 R R  R
= dt + t dt + dt = ln |t| + + t + C.
2 t 2 2

Thus,

1 + sin x 1 x 1 x x
R
dx = ln tan + tan2 + tan + C.
sin x(1 + cos x) 2 2 4 2 2

∗∗∗

Now proceeding exactly as in Example 26 and Example 27, you can do these
exercises.

E18) Integrate the following w.r.t. x:

i) 1 ii) cos x
4+5 cos x 2 cos x

By now you have seen and applied many different methods of integration. The
crux of the matter lies in choosing the appropriate method for integrating a
given function. For example, suppose we ask you to integrate the function
sin x cos x . Realising that this is a rational function in sin x and cos x, you may put
2
1+sin x
tan 2x = t and proceed:
 
R sin x cos x
R t 1 t2 dt
dx = 4
1 + sin2 x
   
1 + t2 1 + 6t2 + t4

√ √
Now 1 + 6t2 + t4 = (3 + 8 + t2 ) (3 8 + t2 ). By this step you will realise that it is
68 going to be a tough job. But don't worry. There is an easy way out.
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

dx, if we make the substitutiong 1 + sin2 x = t, we get

R sin x cos x
In
1+sin2 x
sin x cos xdx
1 dt 1
R R
= = ln |t| + C.
1 + sin2 x 2 t 2
1
= ln (1 + sin2 x) + C.
2
Thus, the choice of the method is very crucial. And only practice can help you
make a good choice.
We shall now illustrate some techniques used in integrating irrational functions.

18.6 INTEGRATION OF IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS

The task of integrating functions gets tougher if the given function is an irrational
P(x)
one, that is, it is not of the form Q(x) . In this section, we shall give some tips for
evaluating some particular types of irrational functions. In most cases, we will
try to arrive at a rational function through an appropriate substitution. We can
integrate this rational function using the techniques in the previous section.
I) Integration of functions containing only fractional powers of x
In this case we put x = tn , where n is the lowest common multiple (l.c.m.) of the
denominators of powers of x. This substitution reduces the function to a rational
function of t. Look at the following example.
2x1/2 + 3x1/3
R
Example 29: Evaluate dx.
1 + x1/3
Solution: We put x = t6 , as 6 is the l.c.m. of 2 and 3. We get
2x1/2 + 3x1/3 2t3 + 3t2 5
R R
dx = 6 t dt
1 + x1/3 1 + t2
2t8 + 3t7
R
=6 2
dt
1 + t
3t 2
R  
=6 2t6 + 3t5 2t4 3 2
3t + 2t + 3t 2 dt
1 + t2
27 16 25 34 23 32

=6 t + t t t + t + t 2t
7 2 5 4 3 2
3

2 1
ln(1 + t ) + 2 tan t + C
2
12 7/6 12 5/6 9 2/3
= x + 3x x x + 4x1/2 + 9x1/3 12x1/6
7 5 2
9 ln |1 + x1/2 | + 12 tan 1 x1/6 + C.

∗∗∗
Here is an exercise to test your understanding of Example 29.

√
x
R
E19) Integrate √ dx.
1+
4 x

II) Integral of the type √ dx

R
ax2 +bx+c
Here we shall have to consider two cases: (i) a > 0 and (ii) a < 0. In each case
we will try to put the given integrand in a form which we have already seen how
to integrate. 69
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

i) If a > 0, from Eqn. (30), we have

dx 1 dx
R R
=√
a
p r 2 
ax2 + bx + c b2

b
x + 2a + ac
4a2

If we put t = x + b/2a, we get

dx 1 dt
R R
=√
a
p r
ax2 + bx + c b2
 
t2 + ac
4a2

If b2 > 4ac, we have

dx 1 dx
R R
=√ √ . . . (34)
a
p s 2
ax2 + bx + c 2
t2 b 4ac
2a

If b2 < 4ac, we have

dx 1 dx
R R
=√ √ . . . (35)
a
p s 2
ax2 + bx + c 2
t2 + 4ac b
2a

We can evaluate both the integrals in the RHS of Eqn. (34) and Eqn. (35)
using Theorem 2.

ii) a < 0: If we put a = d, then d > 0, and we can write

(
2  2 )
1 4cd + b b
ax2 + bx + c = x . . . (36)
d 4d2 d

If 4cd + b2 < 0, the RHS of Eqn. (36) will be negative for all values of x and
√ 1 will be a complex valued function. We haven't developed the
ax2 +bx+c
mathematical concepts required to handle such functions, so we will
discuss only the case 4cd + b2 ≥ 0. In this case, if we substitute t = x b/d
we have
dx 1 dx 1 dt
R R R
=√ =√
d √ d
p s p
𝛼 2 t2
2
ax2 + bx + c b2 +4dc

b
2
x d
2d
√
with 𝛼 = b2 +4dc . This is again in one of the standard forms.
2d

Let us now look at some examples that will help in understanding our
discussion so far.

Example 30: Evaluate the following integrals:

1 dx dx
R R R
i) p dx ii) p iii) p
8 2x x2 x2 + 4x + 5 2x2 + 4x + 1
Solution:

i) Completing the square, we get x2 + 2x = (x + 1)2 1. So,

70 8 x2 2x = 8 (x + 1)2 + 1 = 9 (x + 1)2 .
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

We can rewrite the integral as

dx dx dx
R R R
p = q = q
8 2x x2 9 (x + 1)2 32 (x + 1)2

Setting u = x + 1, we get du = dx. So,

dx du u x+1
R R  
1 1
= = sin + C = sin +C
3 3
p p
8 2x x2 32 u2

ii) Completing the square, we get x2 + 4x = (x + 2)2 4. So,

x2 + 4x + 5 = (x + 2)2 + 1.

We have
dx dx
R R
p = q
x2 + 4x + 5 (x + 2)2 + 1

Setting u = x + 2, we get du = dx. So,

dx du
R R p
q = p = ln u + u2 + 1 + C
2
(x + 2) + 1 u2 + 1
p
= ln x + 2 + x2 + 4x + 5 + C
 
iii) We have 2x2 + 4x + 1 = 2 x2 + 2x + 12 . Also, x2 + 2x = (x + 1)2 1. So,
x2 + 2x + 21 = (x + 1)2 1.
2 We have

dx 1 dx
R R
p =√
2
r 2
2x2 + 4x + 1

(x + 1)2 √1
2

Substituting u = x + 1, we have

dx 1 dx
R R
p =√
2
r 2
2x2 + 4x + 1

u2 √1
2
r  2
u+ u2 √1
1 2
= √ ln +C
2 √1
2

1 √ p
= √ ln 2(x + 1) + 2x2 + 4x + 1 + C
2
∗∗∗

You may like to test your understanding of the above example by trying the
following exercise.

E20) Evaluate the following integrals:

dx dx dx
R R R
i) p ii) p iii) p
3x2 + 4x + 1 3x2 4x + 3 5 2x x2

Let us now move on to the next type. 71

Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

III) Integration of √ (Ax+B)

ax2 +bx+c

We break Ax + B into two parts such that the rst part is a constant multiple of
the differential coef cient of ax2 + bx + c, that is, 2ax + b, and the second part is
independent of x. Thus, Ax + B = 2a A (2ax + b) + B Ab and
2a

(Ax + B)dx A (2ax + b)dx (2aB Ab) dx

R R R
= +
2a 2a
p p p
ax2 + bx + c ax2 + bx + c ax2 + bx + c
A (2aB Ab) dx
p R
= ax2 + bx + c +
a 2a
p
ax2 + bx + c
Evaluation of the last integral has already been discussed in II). Let us look at
an example.
2x + 1
R
Example 31: Evaluate p dx.
8 2x x2

Solution: We have dx d (8 2x x2 ) = 2 2x. Writing 2x + 1 = A( 2x 2) + B

and solving for A and B, we get A = 1, B = 1. So, we have

2x + 1 2 2x dx
R R R
p dx = p dx p dx
8 2x x2 8 2x x2 8 2x x2
R f0 (x)
The rst integral is of the form √ dx. So, we have
f(x)

2 2x
R p
p dx = 2 8 2x x2 + C1
8 2x x2
From Example 30, we have

dx x+1
R  
1
= sin + C2
3
p
8 2x x2
So,

2x + 1 x+1
R  
sin 1
p
dx = 2 8 2x x2 +C
3
p
8 2x x2

∗∗∗
x+2
R
Example 32: Evaluate √ dx.
x2 + 2x + 3

Solution: We note that x + 2 = 12 (2x + 2) + 1, and write

x+2 1 (2x + 2) dx
R R R
√ dx = dx + p
2 2
p
x + 2x + 3 x2 + 2x + 3 x2 + 2x + 3
dx
p R
= x2 + 2x + 3 + q
(x + 1)2 + 2
√ √
p
2 x + 1 + 2 + x2 + 2x + 3
= x + 2x + 3 + ln √ + C.
2

∗∗∗

72
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Here is an exercise for you.

E21) Evaluate the following integrals:

3x + 1 2x 3 x+2
R R R
i) p dx. ii) p dx iii) p dx
3x2 + 4x + 1 3x2 4x + 3 5 2x x2
Rp
IV) Integration of ax2 + bx + c dx

RThe method
dx
is similar to the one we used for evaluating integrals of the form
p . If a > 0 we can write these integrals in the form
ax2 + bx + c
Rp2 2 Rp2 2
x ± a dx or a ± x dx and use Eqn. (24), Eqn. (25) and Eqn. (26).
As before, if a < 0, we can evaluate the integral only in the case b2 > 4ac.

Here is an example to illustrate the method.

Example 33: Evaluate the following integrals:

Rp p R R1 p
i) 8 2x x2 dx. ii) x2 + 2x + 2 dx iii) x + x2 dx.
0

Solution:

i) We have
R p Rq2
8 2x x2 dx = 3 (x + 1)2 dx

On substituting u = x + 1, we get
R p pR
8 2x x2 dx = 32 u2 du

1 p 2 32 u
= u 3 u2 + sin 1 + C from Eqn. (24)
2 2 3
1 9 1 x+1
p  
2
= (x + 1) 8 2x x + sin +C
2 2 3
ii) We have
R p Rq
x2 + 2x + 2 dx = (x + 1)2 + 1 dx

Substituting u = x + 1, we get
R p p R
x2 + 2x + 2 dx = u2 + 1 dx
1 p 2 1 p
= u u + 1 + ln u + u2 + 1 + C
2 2
1 p
= (x + 1) x2 + 2x + 2
2
1 p
+ ln x + 1 + x2 + 2x + 2 + C
2
iii) Now

R1 p R1 s 1 2

1
x + x2 dx = x+ dx
2 4
0 0
73
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

Let x + 12 = u. Then,

3  3
R1 p 2
Rr2 1
 r
1 1 1
q
u + u2 1 2
4 
x + x2 dx = u du = u u2 ln 1
4 2 4 8
2

1
0 1
2
2
√
3 2 1  √ 
= ln 3 + 2 2 .
4 8
∗∗∗

Here are some exercises for you to try.

E22) Evaluate the following integrals:

R R Rp
p p
i) 3x2 + 4x + 1 dx ii) 3x2 4x + 3 dx iii) 5 2x x2 dx

V) Integration of √1 .
(fx+e) ax2 +bx+c

dy
1 , we get dy =
Substituting fx + e = 1y or y = fx+e f dx = fy2 dx or dx = .
(fx+e)2 fy2
Letting h(x) = ax2 + bx + c, we write h(x) = A(fx + e)2 + B(fx + e) + C. We have
 e  e  e
C=h , fB = h0 , 2f2 A = h00 .
f f f
So, we can nd A, B and C such that

A B A + By + Cy2
ax2 + bx + c = 2 + + C = .
y y y2

So, we have
dy
1 fy2 1 dy
R R R
dx = = .
f
p q q
(fx + e) ax2 + bx + c 1 A+By+Cy
2
A + By + Cy2
y y

You may recall that we have already seen how to evaluate the last integral in
the equation above in Example 30.

We will illustrate the method through an example.

dx
R
Example 34: Evaluate √ .
(x + 1) x2 + 4x + 2
dy
Solution: Let us put x + 1 = 1/y. Then 12 dx = 1.
y

Now we will express x2 + 4x + 2 in terms of 1y . We let

h(x) = x2 + 4x + 1 = A(x + 1)2 + B(x + 1) + C.

We have h( 1) = ( 1)2 + 4( 1) + 2 = 1. So, 1 = h( 1) = C, 2 = h0 ( 1) = B,

2 = h00 ( 1) = A. Therefore, we have

1 2 1 + 2y y2
x2 + 4x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 2(x + 1) 1= 2 + 1=
74 y y y2
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Therefore,
1 dy
dx y2 dy
R R R
√ = =
(x + 1) x2 + 4x + 2
r q
1 1+2y y2 1 + 2y y2
y y2
dy y 1
R  
1
= q = cos √ +C
2 1)2 (y 2

x
 
1
= cos √ + C.
(x + 1) 2

∗∗∗

Here is an exercise for you to check your understanding of the above example.

E23) Evaluate the following integrals:

dx dx
R R
i) p ii) p
(x 2) 8 + 2x x2 (x + 2) x2 + 6x + 10

Let us move over to the next type now.

p
VI) Integration of (Ax + B) ax2 + bx + c

We break Ax + B as we did in IV), and obtain

R p
(Ax + B) ax2 + bx + cdx
A B2a Ab p 2
R p R
= (2ax + b) ax2 + bx + c dx + ax + bx + c dx
2a 2a
A 2aB Ab p 2
R
= (ax2 + bx + c)3/2 + ax + bx + c dx.
3a 2a

We have already seen how to evaluate the integral on the right hand side in
part IV).

Let us use these methods to solve some examples now.

Example 35: Evaluate the following integrals:

R R
p p
i) (2x + 1) 8 2x x2 dx ii) (x + 2) x2 + 2x + 2 dx

Solution:
 
i) d 8
We have dx 2x x2 = 2x 2 and 2x + 1 = ( 2x 2) 1. So,
R p R p
(2x + 1) 8 2x x2 dx = ( 2x 2) 8 2x x2 dx
Rp
8 2x x2 dx

The rst integral is of the form f0 (x) f(x) dx. So, substituting u = f(x), it
R p
R√
becomes u du. Therefore,
R 2 3/2
x2
p
( 2x 2) 8 2x x2 dx = 8 2x + C1
3
75
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

From Example 33, we know that

1
Rp p
8 2x x2 dx = (x + 1) 8 2x x2
2
9 1 x+1
 
+ sin + C2
2 3

Therefore,
R 2 3/2 1
8 2x x2
p p
(2x + 1) 8 2x x2 dx = (x + 1) 8 2x x2
3 2
9 x + 1
 
sin 1 +C
2 3
 
ii) d x2 + 2x + 2 = 2x + 2. Further, x + 2 = 1 (2x + 2) + 1. So,
We have dx 2

1
R p R p
(x + 2) x2 + 2x + 2 dx = (2x + 2) x2 + 2x + 2 dx
2
Rp
+ x2 + 2x + 2 dx

1 2 3/2 Rq
= x + 2x + 2 + (x + 1)2 + 1 dx
3
1 2 3/2 1 p
= x + 2x + 2 + (x + 1) x2 + 2x + 2
3 2
1 p
+ ln x + 1 + x2 + 2x + 2 + C
2

∗∗∗

Here is an exercise for you to try.

E24) Evaluate the following integrals:

R R
p p
i) (2x 1) 3x2 + 4x + 1 dx ii) (x 3) 5 2x x2 dx

When you are faced with a new integrand, the following suggestions furnish a
thread through the labyrinth of methods.

1) Check the integrand to see if it ts one of the patterns un du or du

R R
u
2) See if the integrand ts any one of the patterns obtained by the reversal
of differentiation formulas. (We have considered these in Unit 17).
3) If none of these patterns is appropriate, and if the integrand is a rational
function, then our theory of partial fractions enables us to integrate it.
4) If the integrand is a rational function of sin x and cos x, and simpler
methods of previous units fail, the substitution t = tan 2x will make the
integrand into a rational function of t, which can then be evaluated.
5) If the integrand
√ √ is a radical
√ of one of the forms
a2 x2 , a2 + x2 , x2 a2 , then the trigonometric substitutions
x = a sin 𝜃, x = a cos 𝜃 and x = a sec 𝜃 will reduce the integrand to a
rational function of sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃. Ifqthe radical is of the form
√
ax2 + bx + c, a square completion a(x + b/2a)2 + c b2 /4a will reduce
76 it essentially to one of the above radicals.
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

6) If the integrand is an irrational function of x, try to express it as a rational

function or anintegrable radical through appropriate substitutions.

7) Inspect the integrand to see if it will yield to integration by parts.Finally, we

would like to remind you again that a lot of practice is essential if you want
to master the various techniques of integration. We have already
mentioned that a proper choice of the method of integration is the key to
the correct evaluation of any integral. Now let us brie y recall what we
have covered in this unit.

18.7 SUMMARY

In this unit we have covered the following points:

1) A rational function f of x is given by f(x) = P(x)/Q(x), where P(x) and Q(x)

are polynomials in x. It is called proper if the degree of P(x) is less than
the degree of Q(x). Otherwise it is called improper.

2) A proper rational expression can be resolved into partial fractions with

linear or quadratic denominators.

3) A rational function can be integrated by the method of partial fractions.

4) Integration of a rational function of sin x and cos x can be done by putting

t = tan 2x .

5) Integration of irrational fucntions of the following types is discussed.

i) Integrand contains fractional power of x,

ii) √ 1
ax2 +bx+c

iii) √1
(fx+e) ax2 +bx+c

iv) √ Ax+B
ax2 +bx+c
p
v) (Ax + B) ax2 + bx + c

6) A check list of points to be considered while evaluating any integral is

given.

18.8 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS

R√ R 1
E1) i) 5x 3 dx = (5x 3) 2 dx. Putting u = 5x 3, we have

R√ R√
1 1
R 1
5x 3 dx = 5x 3 5 dx = u 2 du
5 | {z } |{z} 5
1 du
u2 dx 77
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

3 3
1 u2 2(5x 3) 2
= 3
+C= +C
5 15
2

ii) Putting x = 2x + 1, we have du

dx = 2 We can write the integral as

1 1 1 u7 (2x + 1)7
R 6
R
2 dx =
(2x + 1) |{z} u6 du = +C= +C
2 | {z } 2 2 7 14
du
u6 dx

iii) Putting u = 4 + 5x, du = 5dx. We can write the integral as

1 1 1 du 1 1
R R
5 dx = = ln|u| + C = ln|4 + 5x| + C.
5 |4 +{z5x}
|{z} 5 u 5 5
du
1 dx
u

R3 dx 1 3
1 1 19
∴ = ln|4 + 5x| = (ln 19 ln 9) = ln .
4 + 5x 5 1 5 5 9
1

iv) Putting u = 10x + 7, we have du

dx = 10. We can rewrite the integral the
integral as
5 1 5 du 1 1
R R
10 dx = = ln|u| + C = ln|10x + 1| + C
10 (10x + 7) |{z} 10 u 2 2
| {z } du
1 dx
u

v) Putting u = x2 + 2x + 7, we have du = (2x + 2)dx. We can rewrite the

integral as
1 1 1 du 1
R R
(2x +
2 2x + 7 | {z }
2) dx = = ln x2 + 2x + 7 + C.
2 2 u 2
|x + {z } du
1 dx
u
 
vi) Putting u = x3 + x2 + x 8, we have du = 3x2 + 2x + 1 dx. We can
rewrite the integral as
1 1 du
R R
3 2
3x2 +{z2x + 1} dx = = ln|u| + C
2 u
|x + x {z+ x 8} |
du
1 dx
u

= ln x3 + x2 + x 8 +C

Therefore,
R3 3x2 + 2x + 1 1 3
dx = ln x3 + x2 + x 8
x3 + x2 + x 8 2 2
2
1
= (ln|27 + 9 + 3 8| ln|8 + 4 + 2 8|)
2
1 1 31
= (ln 31 ln 6) = ln
2 2 6
.
4 1
vii) Putting u = x 3 1, du = 43 x 3 dx. We can write the integral as
 3
2
3
Rq 4 4 1 3 √
R 3
3
u2 x4/3 1
x3 1 x 3 dx = u du = +C= +C
4 {z } 3
| √ 4 4 3 2
2
u
|{z}
du
78 dx
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

viii) Putting u = 1 3x2 , we get du = 6xdx. We can write the integral as

1
1 1 1 du 1 u2
R R
√ 6x dx = √ = +C
6 2 6 u 6 1
| 1 {z3x } du
|{z}
2
dx
√1
u
1
√

2
u 1 3x2
= +C= + C.
3 3

E2) 4. cos(ax + b). Putting u = ax + b, we have du = a dx, So, we can write

R

the integral as
1 1 1 sin(ax + b)
R R
cos(ax + b)a dx = cos u du = sin u + c = + C.
a a a a

7. sec(ax + b). Putting u = ax + b, we have du = adx. We can write the

R

integral as
1 1 1
R R
sec(ax + b)a du = sec u dx = ln|sec u + tan u| + C
a a a
1
= ln|sec(ax + b) + tan(ax + b)| + C
a
8. cosec(ax + b) dx. Putting u = ax + b, we have du = a dx. We can
R

write the integral as

1 1 1
R R
cosec(ax + b) a dx = cosec u du = ln|cosec u cot u| + C
a a a
1
= ln|cosec(ax + b) cot(ax + b)| + C
a
R ax+b
9. e . Putting u = ax + b, we have du = adx. We can write the
integral as

1 1 eu eax+b
R R
eax+b adx = eu du = +C= + C.
a a a a
𝜋
R3

E3) i) cot 2x cosec2 2x dx. Notice that cosec2 2x is almost the derivative
𝜋
6
of cot 2x, except for a constant factor 2. This suggests the
substitution u = cot 2x. Putting u = cot 2x, we have
du = 2 cosec2 2xdx. We can write the integral as

1 u2 cot2 2x
R
u du = +C= +C
2 4 4
𝜋
3 𝜋
cot2 2x 3
1 2𝜋 2𝜋
R  
∴ cot 2x cosec2 2x dx = = cot2 cot2
4 𝜋 4 3 6
𝜋 6
6
1 1 1
 
= = 0.
4 3 3

ii) Putting u = cos 2𝜃, we get du = 2 sin 2𝜃d𝜃. So, we can write the
integral as
1 1 1 u 1 cos 2𝜃
R cos 2𝜃
R
e ( 2 sin 2𝜃)d𝜃 = eu du = e +C= e +C
2 2 2 2 79
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

iii) Putting u = cos 𝜃 we have du = sin 𝜃d𝜃. So,

R R
sin 𝜃 1 + cos4 𝜃 d𝜃 = 1 + cos4 𝜃 ( sin 𝜃) d𝜃
  

u5
R !
4

= 1+u du = u+ +C
5

cos5 𝜃
!
= cos 𝜃 + +C
5
𝜋
2 ! 𝜋
cos5 𝜃 2
R
sin 𝜃 1 + cos4 𝜃 d𝜃 =
 
∴ cos 𝜃 +
5
0 0
1 6
  
=0 1+ =
5 5

iv) Putting u = 1 + cos 𝜃, we get du = sin 𝜃d𝜃. We can write the integral
5 𝜃)5
u du = u5 + C = (1+cos
R 4
as 5 + C.
v) Putting u = 1 5 tan 𝜃, we get du = 5 sec2 𝜃d𝜃. We can write the
integral as 15 du3 = 15 ( 12 ) + C = 1
2 + C.
R
u 2u 10(1 5 tan 𝜃)
vi) Putting u = 1 + sec 𝜃 we get du = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃d𝜃 So we have

u4 (1 + sec 𝜃)4
R R
sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃(1 + sec 𝜃)3 d𝜃 = +C= u3 du = +C
4 4
𝜋
4 𝜋 " √ #
1 + sec 𝜃 4 1+ 2 2
R 3
sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃(1 + sec 𝜃) d𝜃 = =
4 0 4 4
o
√
2 1
=
4

E4) i) We have
R R 3
sin7 x dx = 1 cos2 x sin x dx
R
3 cos2 x + 3 cos4 x cos6 x sin x dx

= 1

Putting u = cos x, we have du = sin x dx. The integral becomes

R
= (1 3u2 + 3u4 u6 )du

3u5 u7
!
= u u3 + +C
5 7
3 cos5 x cos7 x
= cos x + cos3 x + +C
5 7
2
We have cos5 x dx = (1 sin2 x cos x dx. Putting u = sin x, we
R
ii)
R

get du = cos x dx The integral becomes

R 2 R
1 u2 du = 1 + u4 2u2 du
  

u5 2u3
=u+ +C
5 3
sin5 x 2sin3 x
= sin x + +C
80 5 3
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

We have cos2 x sin3 x dx = cos2 x 1 cos2 x sin x dx. Putting

 
iii)
R R

u = cos x, we have du = sin x dx. The integral becomes

u3 u5
R !
2 4
 
u u du = +C
3 5

cos5 x cos3 x
!
= +C
5 3

iv) From Eqn. (10), we have

1 1
sin 5x cos 3x = (sin(3x + 5x) sin(3x 5x)) = (sin 8x + sin 2x) .
2 2
So,
1
R  R R 
sin 5x cot 3x dx = sin 8x dx + sin 2xdx
2
1 1 1 cos 2x
   
= cos 8x + +C
2 8 2 2
cos 8x cos 2x
= + C.
16 4
v) Using Eqn. (11) we get
1 1
cos 3x cos 4x = (cos(3x 4x) + cos(3x + 4x)) = (cos x + cos 7x)
2 2
So
1 cos 7x
R  
cos 3x cos 4x = sin x + +C
2 7
vi) We have
1
R R
sin 4x sin 3xdx = (cos(4x 3x) cos(4x + 3x))dx
2
1 1 sin 7x
R  
= (cos x cos 7x)dx = sin x +C
2 2 7
vii) We have
sin 2x
sin 2x sin 3x sin 5x = (cos(3x 5x) cos(3x + 5x))
2
sin 2x
= (cos 2x cos 8x)
2
1
= (sin 2x cos 2x sin 2x cos 8x)
2
1 1
= (sin 4x) (sin 10x + sin( 6x))
4 2
sin 4x sin 10x sin 6x
= + .
4 4 4
cos 4x cos 10x cos 6x
R
∴ sin 2x sin 3x sin 5x dx = + +C
16 40 24
E5) We have cos( 𝜋2 a) = sin a. Let x = cos( 𝜋2 a). Then cos 1 x = 𝜋2 a or
𝜋 1 x. 1
a= 2 cos We also have x = sin a. So, a = sin x i.e.
𝜋 𝜋
cos 1 x = sin 1 x or sin 1 x ( cos 1 x) = .
2 2
So, the two answers differ only by a constant. Since the primitive of a
function is determined only up to a constant, both sin 1 ax and

cos 1 ax are primitives of √ 21 2 .

a x 81
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

E6) Let us prove Eqn. (18). Putting x = a sec 𝜃, dx = a sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃d𝜃. Also
q p
a2 tan2 𝜃 = a tan 𝜃
p p
x2 a2 = a2 sec2 𝜃 a2 = a2 (sec2 𝜃 1) =

The integral becomes

a sec 𝜃. tan 𝜃
R
d𝜃 = ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃| + C
a tan 𝜃

from entry 8 in table 1 in unit 17. We have sec 𝜃 = ax . So,

s p
p  x 2 x2 a 2
tan 𝜃 = sec2 𝜃 1= 1=
a a

Therefore,
p p
dx x x2 a 2 x + x2 a2
R
= ln + + C = ln + C.
a a a
p
x2 a2

To prove (21) we use the substitution x = a sec 𝜃 again. We have

dx = a sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃d 𝜃. The integral becomes a asec 𝜃 tan 𝜃d 𝜃 R
sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 = d𝜃 = 𝜃 + C.
R

dx x
R
∴ = sec 1 + C.
a
p
x x2 a 2

dx dx x
R R  
1
E7) i) = q√ = sin √ +C
3
p
3 x2 ( 3)2 x2
ii) We have

dx dx 1 dx
R R R
= =√
5
p r  r 2
1 5x2 5 51 x2 √1 x2
5
1 √
= √ sin 1 ( 5x) + C
5

dx dx 1 x
R R  
iii) = √ = √ tan 1 √ +C
x2 + 5 x2 + ( 5)2 5 5
iv) We have

dx 1 dx 1 dx 1√ √
R R R 1
= =  2 = 3 3 tan ( 3x) + C
3x2 + 1 3 x2 + 13 3 1
x2 + √
3
1 √
= √ tan 1 ( 3x) + C
3

v) We have
√
dx dx x+ x2 + 7
R R
= √ = ln √ +C
x2 + 7
q
2
x + ( 7) 2 7
82
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

vi)

dx 1 dx
R R
=√
5
r  r 2
5 15 + x2 √1 + x2
5
s
1 1 2
 
= √ ln x + √ + x2 + C
5 5
1 √ √ p
= √ 5 ln 5x + 1 + 5x2 + C
5
1 √ p
= √ ln 5x + 1 + 5x2 + C.
5
p
dx x2 9
dx x+
R R
vii) = p = ln +C
3
p
x2 9 x2 3 2
dx dx 1 x
R R
viii) = = sec 1 +C
x x2 2 2 2 2
p p
x x2 4
ix) We have

dx dx 1 dx
R R R
√ = =3 r
9x2 1
r   2
9 x2 19 x2 1
3
r  2
x + x2 1
1 3 1 p
= ln 1
+ C = ln 3x + 9x2 1 + C.
3 3
3

x) We have

dx dx 1 dx
R R R
p = r  =√
2
r  2
x 2x2 1 x 2 x2 12 x x2 1
2
 
√ x √ √
= 2 sec 1  1  + C = 2 sec 1 ( 2x) + C.
√
2

x3 x3 1 x3
R R
E8) i) x2 ln|x|dx = ln|x| . dx = x3 ln|x| + C.
3 3 x 9
ii) RWe have x R
(1 + x)e dx = (1 + x)ex ex dx = (1 + x)ex ex + C = xex + C.

iii) We have
R R x d  2
1 + x2 ex dx = 1 + x2 ex
  
e 1 + x dx
dx
R x
= 1 + x2 ex
 
2 xe dx

R
Integrating xex dx by parts again, we get

R x x
R
xe dx = xe ex dx = xex ex
R
1 + x2 ex dx = 1 + x2 ex 2xex + 2ex + C
   
∴
83
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

iv) We have
1 2 sin 2x
R 2
R R
x sin x cos x dx = x dx = x2 sin 2x dx
2 2
1 cos 2x
    R
2
= x + x cos 2x dx .
2 2

Again,
x sin 2x 1
R R
x cos 2x dx = sin 2x dx
2 2
x sin 2x 1 cos 2x
 
= + C.
2 2 2
x2 cos 2x
!
1 x sin 2x cos 2x
R 2
∴ x sin x cos xdx =
2 2 2 4
x2 cos 2x x sin 2x cos 2x
= + + +C
4 4 8

E9) i) We have
x dx
R R
sin 1 x dx = x sin 1 x p .
1 x2

Putting u = 1 x2 , we get du = 2x dx. The integral becomes

1
1 2x dx 1 du 1 u2
R R p
= √ = + C = 1 x2 + C.
2 2 u 2 1
p
1 x2 2

So,
R
sin 1 x dx = x sin 1 x +
p
1 x2 + C

ii) We have
1
R 1 1
R
tan xdx = x tan x x dx.
1 + x2

Substituting u = 1 + x2 , du = 2x dx, we have

x 1 2x dx 1 du 1
R R R
2
dx = 2
= = ln (1 + x2 ) + C.
1+x 2 1+x 2 u 2
1
R
∴ tan 1 x dx = x tan 1 x ln(1 + x2 ) + C
2

iii) We have
1 x dx
R R   R
1 1 1
cot x dx = x cot x x dx = x cot x+
1 + x2 1 + x2
1
= x cot 1 x + ln 1 + x2 + C
2

E10) We have

x2  1 1
R 2
R
ln 1 + x2 x2
  
x ln 1 + x dx = .2x dx
2 2 1 + x2
x2 x3
R
= ln 1 + x2 dx.
2 1 + x2
84
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

Further,

 
R x3
R x 1 + x2 x R R x dx
2
dx = dx = x dx
1+x 1 + x2 1 + x2
x2 1 2x x2 1 
R
ln 1 + x2 + C.

= dx =
2 2 1 + x2 2 2
 
R x2 + 1 x2
2
ln x2 + 1
 
∴ x ln 1 + x dx = +C
2 2

E11) i) Comparing with Eqn. p (23) , we see that

a = 3, b = 4. ∴ r = 32 + 42 = 5.
∴ e3x cos 4x dx = 51 e3x cos(4x 𝜃) + C where 𝜃 is such that
R

cos 𝜃 = 35 , sin 𝜃 = 45 .

ii) Comparing with Eqn. (23), we see that a = 3, b = 4. ∴ r = 5.

e sin 3x dx = 15 e4x sin(3x 𝜃) + C where 𝜃 is such that
R 4x

cos 𝜃 = 54 , sin 𝜃 = 35 .
√ √
cos 4xdx. Here, a = 4, b = 4. r = 32 = 4 2. cos 𝜃 = ar = √1 ,
R 4x
iii) e
2
sin 𝜃 = √1 . ∴, 𝜃 = 𝜋 𝜋4 = 3𝜋
4 . So, we have
2

1 3𝜋
R  
4x 4x
e cos 4x dx = √ e cos 4x +C
4 2 4

E12) i) 1
RWe 4xhave cos x cos 2x = 12 (cos
R 3x4x + cos x). Therefore,
R 4x 
e cos x cos 2x dx = e cos 3x dx + e cos x dx . Both
2
the integrals are standard forms that we have seen already.

ii) We have cos2 x = 1+cos

2
2x . Therefore

1
R R R 
2x 2
e cos x dx = dx + cos 2x dx .
2

Both the integrals are easy to evaluate.

iii) We have eax sin bx dx = eax sin(bx 𝜃) where 𝜃 is such that

R

sin 𝜃 = √ a 2 and cos 𝜃 = √ b 2 . Integrating by parts, we get

a2 +b a2 +b

R ax ax
R
xe sin bx dx = xe sin(bx 𝜃) eax sin(bx 𝜃) dx

Substituting u = bx 𝜃, we have du = b dx. Therefore,

 
a u+𝜃 a𝜃 au
R ax
R b
R
e sin(bx 𝜃) dx = e sin u du = e b e b sin u du

This is a standard form which we know how to integrate.

85
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

E13) i) Integrating by parts, we have

Rp2 Rp2
a + x2 dx = a + x2 (1)dx
1 1
p R
= x a2 + x 2 x. p 2x dx
2 a2 + X 2
x2
p R
= x a2 + x 2 √ dx
a2 + x 2
(x2 + a2 ) a2
p R
= x a2 + x 2 √ dx
a2 + x2
dx
R R
= x a2 + x 2 + a 2 √
p p
a2 + x2 dx
a2 + x2
dx
R R
a2 + x2 dx = x a2 + x2 + a2 √
p p
∴2
2 x2
" a + √ #
x + a 2 + x2
2
p
= x a2 + x2 + a ln + C.
a
√
R p x p a 2 x + a2 + x2
∴ a2 + x2 dx = a2 + x 2 + ln +C
2 2 a

ii) Integrating by parts,

1 1
Rp2 p R
x a2 dx = x x2 x √ a2 .2x dx
2 x 2 a2
x2
p R
= x x2 a 2 √ dx
2 a2
x 
p x2 a 2 + a 2
R
=x x 2 a 2 √ dx
x2 a 2
dx
R R
x2 a2 dx a2 √
p p
= x x2 a 2 .
x 2 a2
√
x + x2 a2
Rp2
a2 dx = x x2 a2 a2 ln
p
∴2 x + C.
a
√
xp 2 a2 x + x2 a2
Rp2 2 2
∴ x a dx = x a ln +C
2 2 a

R r√ 2 1 p 3

x

E14) i) We have 3 x2 dx = x 3 x2 + sin 1 √ +C
2 2 3
ii) We have

Rp √ R s 1 2
1 5x2 dx = 5 √ x2 dx
5
!
√ √ 
r
x 1 1 1
= 5 x2 + sin 5x +C
2 5 10
xp 1 √ 
= 1 5x2 + √ sin 1 5x + C.
2 2 5
√
x2 + 7
Rr √ 2 xp 7 x +
iii) x+ 7 dx = 7 + x2 + ln + C.
2 2 7
86
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

iv) We have
Rp √ Rv
u1
1 + 5x2 dx = t √ 2 + x2 dx
5u
5
q
x + 15 + x2
 s 
2
√ x 1 1

= 5 √ + x2 + ln +C
2 5 10 √1
5
xp 1 √ p
= 1 + 5x2 + √ ln 5x + 1 + 5x2 + C
2 2 5

v) We have
Rp2 Rp2
x 9 dx = x 32 dx
p
xp 2 9 x + x2 9
= x 9 ln +C
2 2 3

vi) We have
Rp Rr2 1
9x2 1 dx = 3 x dx
9
 r  2 
x+ x2 1
s
 2
x 1 1 3
= 3 x2 ln .

2 3 18 1 
3

xp 2 1 p
= 9x 1 ln 3x + 9x2 1 +C
2 6

vii) Integrating by parts we have

x2 sin 1 x x2
R R
x sin 1 x dx = dx
2
p
1 x2
We have
 
R x2
R 1 x2 1
p dx = p dx
1 x2 1 x 2
dx
R q R
= 1 x2 dx + p
1 x2
xp 1 x x
= 1 x2 + sin 1 + sin 1 + C.
2 2 2 2

E15) i) We have

dx 1
R
= ln|2x 3| + C
2x 3 2

using entry 2 in Table 1.

dt 1
R
ii) Using entry 1 in Table 1, we have 2
= + C.
(t + 5) (t + 5)
iii) We have

4x + 1 1 2x + 1 dx
R 
R R 
2
dx = 2
dx 2
x +x+2 2 x +x+2 x +x+2 87
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

2x + 1 f0 (x)
R R
2
dx is of the form dx where f(x) = x2 + x + 2.
x +x+2 f(x)

2x + 1
R
∴ dx = ln x2 + x + 2 + C1 .
x2 +x+2

We have
dx dx
R R
2
=
x +x+2  2 q 2
x + 12 + 7
2
du 1
R
= q 2 on putting u = x + 2 .
u2 + 7
2

dx 2 2u
R    
1
∴ = √ tan √ + C2
x2 + x + 2 7 7
2 2x + 1
   
1
= √ tan √ + C2 .
7 7
4x + 1 4 2x + 1
R  
2 1
∴ dx = 2 ln x + x + 2 √ tan √ +C
x2 + x + 2 7 7

iv) We have

5x 1 5x 1 A B
2
= = + .
x 1 (x + 1)(x 1) (x + 1) (x 1)

Multiplying by x2 1 both sides, we get 5x 1 = A(x 1) + B(x + 1).

Putting, x = 1, we get 4 = 2B or B = 2. Putting x = 1, we get
6 = 2A or A = 3. Therefore, the integral becomes

5x 1 dx dx
R R R
dx = 3 +2 = 3 ln|x + 1| + 2 ln|x 1| + C.
x2 1 x+1 x 1

v) We have dx d (x2 6x + 3) = 2x 6. Writing 3x + 1 = A(2x 6) + B and

solving for the values of A and B by comparing the constant term and
the coef cient of x both sides, we get A = 3/2, B = 1 + 6A = 10. So,
we have
3x + 1 3 2x 6 dx
R R R
2
dx = 2
dx + 10
x 6x + 3 2 x 6x + 3 x2 6x + 3

2x 6 f0 (x)
R R
2
dx is of the form dx where f(x) = x2 6x + 3.
x 6x + 3 f(x)

2x 6
R
∴ dx = ln x2 6x + 3 + C1 .
x2 6x + 3

dx dx
R R
We have 2
= . Putting u = x 3, the integral
x 6x + 3 (x 3)2 6
becomes
√
du 1 u 6
R
√ = √ ln √ + C.
u2 ( 6)2 2 6 u + 6
√
3x + 1 3 5 x 3 6
R
∴ dx = ln x2 6x + 3 + √ ln √ + C.
x2 3x + 6 2 6 x 3+ 6
88
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

E16) i) We can integrate this by completing the square also. However, the
denominator factors as x(x + 2). So, we can use the method of partial
fractions. We have
1 A B
= + .
x(x + 2) x x + 2

Multiplying both sides by x(x + 2), we get 1 = A(x + 2) + Bx. Putting

x = 0, we get 2A = 1 or A = 21 . Putting x = 2, we get 1 = 2B or
B = 21 .

2 1 1 1 dx dx
R R   R R
∴ dx = 2 dx =
x2 + 2x 2 x x+2 x x+2
x
= ln|x| ln|x + 2| + C = ln +C
x+2

ii) We have x2 2x 3 = (x x
3)(x + 1). To split (x 3)(x+1) into partial
fractions, we write
x A B
= + .
(x 3)(x + 1) (x 3) (x + 1)

Multiplying both sides by (x 3)(x + 1), we get x = A(x + 1) + B(x 3).

Putting x = 1, we get 1 = 4B or B = 14 . Putting x = 3, we get
3 = 4A or A = 34 .

x 3 dx 1 dx
R R R
∴ dx = +
x2 2x 3 4 x 3 4 x+1
3 1
= ln|x 3| + ln|x + 1| + C.
4 4
iii) We can factor the denominator as (x + 5)(x 2). We write

3x 13 A B
= + .
(x + 5)(x 2) (x + 5) x 2

Multiplying both sides by (x + 5)(x 2). we get

3x 13 = A(x 2) + B(x + 5). Putting x = 2, we get 7 = 7B or B = 1.
Putting x = 5, we get 28 = 7A or A = 4.

3x 13 dx dx
R R R
∴ 2
dx = 4 = 4 ln|x + 5| ln|x 2| + C.
x + 3x 10 x+5 x 2

iv) We have x2 + x 6 = (x + 3)(x 2). We write

6x2 + 22x 23 A B C
= + +
(2x 1)(x + 3)(x 2) (2x 1) x + 3 x 2

Multiplying both sides by (2x 1)(x + 3)(x 2), we get

6x2 + 22x 23 = A(x + 3)(x 2) + B(2x 1)(x 2) + C(2x 1)(x + 3)

Putting x = 12 , we get 21A = 42 or A = 2. Putting x = 3, we get

35 = 35B or B = 1. Putting x = 2, we get 5C = 15 or C = 3. The
integral becomes

6x2 + 22x 23 dx dx dx
R R R R
∴ dx = 2 +3
(2x 1)(x + 3)(x 2) 2x 1 x+3 x 2
= ln|2x 1| ln|x + 3| + 3 ln|x 2| + C. 89
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

v) Check using long division 3x3 = (3x 3)(x2 + x 2) + 9x 6. We can

write the integral as
9x 6 3x 2
R R R R
(3x 3)dx + 2
dx = 3 (x 1)dx + 3 dx.
x +x 2 (x + 2)(x 1)
3x 2
Splitting into partial fractions, we get
(x + 2)(x 1)
3x 2 8 1
= +
(x + 2)(x 1) 3(x + 2) 3(x 1)
3x 2 8 dx 1 dx
R R R
∴ dx = +
(x + 2)(x 1) 3 x+2 3 x 1
8 1
= ln|x + 2| + ln|x 1| + C1 .
3 3
3
R
3 (x 1)dx = (x 1)2 + C2 .
2
R x 3 3(x 1)2 8 1
∴ 2
dx = + ln|x + 2| + ln|x 1| + C.
x +x 2 2 3 3

vi) Notice that x2 x + 1 has complex roots. To split the expression into
partial fractions we write

x2 + x 1 A Cx + D
2
= + 2 .
(x 1)(x x + 1) x 1 x x+1

Multiplying both sides by (x 1)(x2 x + 1), we get

x2 + x 1 = A(x2 x + 1) + (Cx + D)(x 1).

Putting x = 1, we get 1 = A or A = 1. Comparing the coef cients of x2

both sides we get 1 = A + C. ∴ C = 0. Comparing the constant terms
both sides, we get A D = 1,. ∴ D = 2. We can write the integral as
dx dx
R R
+2 .
x 1 x2 x+1
dx dx
R R
2
= 2 .
x x+1

x 1 + 34
2

Substituting u = x 1,
we get du = dx.
2

dx du 2 2u 2 2x 1
R R    
1 1
∴ = = √ tan √ +C1 = √ tan √ +C1 .
x2 x + 1 u2 + 34 3 3 3 3

x2 + x 1 4 2x 1
R  
∴
dx = ln|x 1| + √ tan 1 √ +C
x 1)(x2 x + 1 3 3
.
vii) Let

x3 4x (Ax + B) Cx + D
2 2
= 2 + 2 .
(x + 1) x +1 (x + 1)2

Multiplying both sides by (x2 + 1)2 , we get

(x3 4x) = (Ax + B)(x2 + 1) + Cx + D.

Comparing coef cient of x3 both sides, we get A = 1. Comparing

90 coef cients of x2 both sides, we get B = 0. Comparing coef cients of
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

x both sides, we get A + C = 4, so that C = 5. Comparing constant

terms both sides, we get B + D = 0, so that D = 0.

(x3 4x) x dx 5x
R R R
∴ dx = 5
2 dx.
(x2 + 1)2 x2 + 1


x2 + 1

Now

x dx 1 2x dx
R R
= .
x2 + 1 2 x2 + 1

Substituting u = x2 + 1, du = 2 dx.

x dx 1 du 1 1
R R
2
= = ln|u| + C = ln x2 + 1 + C1 .
x +1 2 u 2 2

x dx
R
Substituting u = x2 + 1, in
2 we get du = 2x dx. So,
x2 +1

u 1
!
xdx 1 du 1 1
R R

2 = 2 = +C=
+ C2 .
x2 + 1 u2 2 1 2 x2 +1
(x3 4x) 1 5
R 2
∴
2 dx = 2 ln x + 1 + 2

+ C.
x2 + 1 2 x +1

E17) i) We have

1 1 1 1
x2 1
R R x2
R x2
dx = dx = dx
1 + x4 1 + x2  2
x+ 1 2
x2 x

Putting t = x + 1x , we get dt = 1 1. Therefore,

x2
√
R x2 1
R dt 1 x + 1x 2
dx = = √ ln √ +C
1 + x4 t2 2 2 2 x + 1x + 2

ii) We have

1 +1 1 +1
1 + x2
R R x2
R x2
dx = dx = dx.
1 + x 2 + x4 1 2
+ 1 + x2

x 1 +3
x2 x

If t = x 1 , dt = 1 + 12 ,
x dx x

1 + x2 dt 1 1 1
R R   
1
dx = = √ tan √ x +C
1 + x 2 + x4 t2 + 3 3 3 x
x2 1
!
1 1
= √ tan √ +C
3 3x

E18) i) Here a < b. Therefore

√ √
R dx 1 4 + 5 + 5 4 tan 2x 1 3 + tan 2
x
=√ ln √ √ +C = ln +C.
4 + 5 cos x 52 4 2 4+5 5 4 tan 2x 3 3 tan 2x 91
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

ii) We have

cos x (2 cos x) 2 dx
R R R R
dx = dx = dx + 2 .
2 cos x (2 cos x) (2 cos x)

We have dx = x + C + C1 . In the second integral a = 2, b = 1, So

R

a > b. Therefore
s !
dx 2 2 ( 1) x
R
=p tan 1 tan + C2
(2 cos x) 22 ( 1)2 2 + ( 1) 2
2 √ x
= √ tan 1 3 tan + C2
3 2
Rcos x dx 2 √ x
∴ = x + √ tan 1 3 tan +C
2 cos x 3 2

E19) We have

√
x t2 √
R R
√ dx = 4t3 dt if t = 4 x.
1+ 4x 1+t
t5 1
R R  
4 3 2
=4 dt = 4 t t +t t+1 dt
1+t t+1
t5 t4 t3 t2
" #
=4 + + t ln |t + 1| + C
5 4 3 2

x5/4 x x3/4 x1/2

" #
1/4 1/4
=4 + +x ln |x + 1| + C
5 4 3 2

E20) i) We have

dx dx
R R
p = r 
3x2 + 4x + 1

3 x2 + 34 x + 13
1 dx
R
=√
3
r 2
x + 23 4
9 + 31
1 dx
R
=√
3
r 2
x + 23 1
9
 2 r 2
x+ 2 + x + 23 1
1 3 9
= √ ln +C
3 1/3

1 √ p
= √ ln 3x + 2 + 3 3x2 + 4x + 1 + C.
3

ii) We have

dx 1 dx
R R
=√
3
p r 2
3x2 4x + 3 x 2 4 +1
92 3 9
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

1 dx
R
=√
3
r 2
x 2 + 59
3
  r 2
x 2 + x 2 + 59
1 3 3
= √ ln √ +C
3 5/3
√ √
1 3x 2+ 3 3x2 4x + 3
= √ ln √ +C
3 5

iii) We have

x2 = 5 (2x + x2 ) = 5 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2

n o
5 2x 1 =6

therefore
dx dx x+1
R R  
1
= = sin √ +C
6
p r 
5 2x x2 √ 2
6 (x + 1)2

E21) i) We have dx d (3x2 + 4x + 1) = 6x + 4. We have 3x + 1 = A(6x + 4) + B.

So, A = 12 . From 4A + B = 1, B = 1.

3x + 1 1 6x + 4 dx
R R R
∴ dx = dx .
2
p p p
3x2 + 4x + 1 3x2 + 4x + 1 3x2 + 4x + 1
6x + 4 R f0 (x)
R
dx is of the form √ dx where f(x) = 3x2 + 4x + 1.
f(x)
p
2
3x + 4x + 1
6x + 4
R p
∴ p dx = 2 3x2 + 4x + 1 + C1 .
3x2 + 4x + 1
From E) 20) i) We know the
R dx 1 √ p
= √ ln 3x + 2 + 3 3x2 + 4x + 1 + C2 .
3
p
3x2 + 4x + 1
R 3x + 1 p 1 √ p
∴ dx = 3x2 + 4x + 1 √ ln 3x + 2 + 3 3x2 + 4x + 1 +C
3x2 + 4x + 1 3
ii) We have dxd (3x2 4x + 3) = 6x 4. We write 2x 3 = A(6x 4) + B.

Comparing coef cients of x both sides, we get A = 13 . Comparing

constant terms both sides, we get B 4A = 3 or B = 35 .

2x 3 1 6x 4 5 dx
R R R
∴ dx = .
3 3
p p p
3x2 4x + 3 3x2 4x + 3 3x2 4x + 3
From 20) ii) we know that

dx du √
R R q
dx = √ = 2 u + C = 2 3x2 4x + 3 + c.
u
p
3x2 4x + 3
Therefore
2x 3 2
R q
dx = 3x2 4x + 3
3
p
3x2 4x + 3
√ √
5 3x 2+ 3 3x2 4x + 3
√ ln √ +C
3 3 5 93
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

iii) d (5
We have dx 2x x2 ) = 2(x + 1). Also x + 2 = 12 ( 2(x + 1)) + 1.

x+2 1 2(x + 1) dx
R R R
dx = dx + .
2
p p p
5 2x x2 5 2x x2 5 2x x2
As before
2(x + 1)
R p
p dx = 2 5 2x x2 + C1 .
5 2x x2
From 21) iii) we have

dx x+1
R  
1
= sin √ + C2 .
6
p
5 2x x2
Therefore
(x + 2) x+1
R  
1
p
dx = 5 2x x2 + sin √ +C
6
p
5 2x x2
E22) i) We have
Rp
3x2 + 4x + 1dx
s 
4 1
R 
= 3 x2 + x + dx
3 3
s
√ 2 2 1
R  
= 3 x+ dx
3 9
√
r
1 2
R  
= 3 u2 du on substituting u = x +
9 3
 q q
u u2 19 1 u + u2 19

√
= 3 9 ln +C
2 2 1
3
  r  2
x + 32 x + 23 1
9
=
2 s
1 2 √ 2 2 1
   
√ ln 3 x + + 3 3 x+ +C
6 3 3 3 3
√
(3x + 2) 3x2 + 4x + 1
=
6
1 √ p
√ ln 3x + 2 + 3 3x2 + 4x + 1 + C
6 3

ii) We have

Rp √ R s 4 2 2

3x2 4x + 3 dx = 3 x + 1 dx
9 3
√ !2
v
u 2
√ R
u 2 5
= 3 t x + dx
3 3
  r 2

x 2 x 2 5
√

 3 3 9
= 3

 2
94

Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

  r 2 
x 2 + x 2 + 5 
1/9

3 3 9 
+ ln √ +C
2 5 /3 


√ (3x 2) p 2

= 3 3x 4x + 1
6
√ √ )
5 3x 2 + 3 3x2 4x + 1
+ √ ln √ +C
6 3 5

iii) We have
Rp R r√ 2
5 2x x2 dx = 6 (x + 1)2 dx
R r√ 2
= 6 u2 du (On substitutingu = x + 1)
r 
√ 2
u 6 u2 6 u
 
= + sin 1 √ +C
2 2 6
√
(x + 1) 5 2x x2 1 x√ +1
 
= + 3 sin + C.
2 6

E23) i) Let

h(x) = 8 + 2x x2 = A + B(x 2) + C(x 2)2

We have 8 = h(2) = A. Since h0 (x) = 2 2x, 2 = h0 (2) = B. Also,

h00 (x) = 2, so 2 = h00 (2) = 2C and C = 1. Putting x 2 = 1y , the
integral becomes
1
y2 dy
R R
r dy = q
1 8y2 2y 1 8y2 2y 1
y y2
1 dy
R
= √
2 2
q
y 1
y2 4 8
1 dy
R
= √
2 2
r 2
y 1 1 1
8 64 8
dx 1 dy
R R
∴ p = √
2 2
r 2
(x 2) 8 + 2x x2 y 1 9
8 64
1 dy
R
= √
2 2
r 2  2
y 1 3
8 8

Substituting u = y 1, we get
8

dx
R
p
(x 2) 8 + 2x x2
r  2
u+ u2 3
1 du 1 8
R
= √  2 = 2√2 ln 3/8
+C
2 2
r
u2 3
8 95
Block 5 Integration
..........................................................................................................

  r 2  2
y 1 + y 1 3
1 8 8 8
= √ ln 3/8
+C
2 2
√ p
1 8y 1 + 2 2 8y2 2y 1
= √ ln +C
2 2 3
8
√ q 8 2
1 x 2 1 + 2 2 (x 2) 1
(x 2)2
= √ ln +C
2 2 3
√ p
1 10 x + 2 2 8 2(x 2) (x 2)2
= √ ln +C
2 2 3(x 2)
√ √
1 10 x + 2 2 8 + 2x x2
= √ ln +C
2 2 3(x 2)

ii) 1 , the
We have x2 + 6x + 10 = (x + 2)2 + 2(x + 2) + 2. Putting y = x+2
integral becomes
1
y2
R
r dy
1 2y2 +2y+1
y y2
dy 1 dy
R R
= = √
2y2 + 2y + 1
p
2
q
y2 + y + 12
1 dy 1 dy
R R
= √ = √
2
q
2
q
(y + 12 )2 1 + 1
4 2 (y + 12 )2 + 14
  r 2
1 y + 21 + y + 21 + 14
= √ ln +C
2 1/2
v (
√
u 2 )
1 2y + 1 1 1
 u  
= √ ln 2 + 2t2 y+ + +C
2 2 2 4

1 √ q
= √ ln (2y + 1) + 2 2y2 + 2y + 1 + C
2
s
1 2 √ 2 2
= √ ln +1+ 2 2
+ +1 +C
2 x+2 (x + 2) x + 2
√ √
1 x + 4 + 2 x2 + 6x + 10
= √ ln +C
2 x+2
E24) i) Let f(x) = 3x2 + 4x + 1 Then f0 (x) = 6x + 4. Writing
2x 1 = A(6x + 4) + B and comparing the coef cients of x both sides,
6A = 2 or A = 13 . Comparing the constant terms both sides, we get
1 = 4A + B or B = 4A 1 = 37 . We can write the integral as
1 7 p 2
R p R
(6x + 4) 3x2 + 4x + 1 dx 3x + 4x + 1 dx.
3 3
√
The (6x + 4) 3x2 + 4x + 1 dx is of the form f0 (x) f(x) dx. Putting
R R p

u = f(x), the integral becomes

R√ 3 3 / 2
u2 2 2
udu = 3 + C = 3x + 4x + 1 + C1
3
96 2
Unit 18 Methods of Integration
..........................................................................................................

From Exercise 22) i), we have

√
(3x + 2) 3x2 + 4x + 1
Rp
3x2 + 4x + 1 dx =
6
1 √ p
√ ln 3x + 2 + 3 3x2 + 4x + 1 + C1
6 3

R p
∴ (2x 1) 3x2 + 4x + 1 dx
√
2 2  3 (21x + 14) 3x2 + 4x + 1
2
= 3x + 4x + 1
9 18
7 √ p
+ √ ln 3x + 2 + 3 3x2 + 4x + 1 + +C
18 3

ii) Taking f(x) = 5 2x x2 we have f0 (x) = 2 2x. Writing

x 3 = A( 2 2x) + B and comparing the coef cients of x both sides
we get 2A = 1 or A = 12 . Comparing the constant terms, we get
2A + B = 3 or B = 3 + 2a = 3 1 = 4. Therefore we can write the
integral as

1
R p Rp
( 2 2x) 5 2x x2 dx 4 5 2x x2 dx
2
R p R
x2 dx is of the form f0 (x) f(x) dx.
p
The integral ( 2x 2) 5 2x

R 2 3
x2
2
p
∴ ( 2 2x) 5 2x x2 dx = 5 2x + C1 .
3
√
(x + 1) 5 2x x2 x+1
Rp  
1
5 2x x2 dx = + 3 sin √ + C2
2 6

1
R
x2 ) 2(x + 1) 5
p p
∴ (x 3) 5 2x x2 dx = (5 2x 2x x2
3
1 x√ +1
 
12 sin +C
6

97