Chapter 2

Atomic Structure
Dr. Zhe Cheng

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 Atomic Structure
Atom
Protons (+)
Nucleus
Neutrons (neutral)
Electrons (-)
Atomic number (Z) = # of protons in nucleus of atom
= # of electrons for a neutral atom
Isotope: same Z, different number of neutrons: 10B and 11B
Atomic mass unit (amu): 1/12 of the mass for 12C atom
Atomic mass (or weight) A = averaged mass with respect to natural isotopes for an element
Unit of atomic mass: g/mol (preferred) or amu/atom
1 mole of atoms: Avogadro number NA = 6.022 x 1023 of atoms
For hydrogen or H, atomic mass A = 1.008 g/mol →
mass for 1 mol or 6.022x1023 number of natural occurring H atoms would be 1.008 g
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Element name
Class Exercise: Review of Basics for Atom
Atomic number (Z) # of electron in each shell (Averaged) Atomic mass (A)
& symbol

▪ Element name? Carbon ▪Atomic number (Z)? Z = 6

▪ # of electrons in a neutral atom? Z = 6 ▪(Averaged) Atomic mass A = 12.011 g/mol
▪ # protons in such an atom? = Z = 6 (A) and Unit? 3
 Class Exercise – Periodic Table
Given information on right from periodic table for aluminum,
➢What is the atomic number Z
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➢What is the number of proton in Al nucleus
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➢What is the atomic weight A and the unit for atomic weight A
26.98 g/mol
➢On average, one gram of Al will contain how many Al atoms? (NA=6.02x1023 mol-1)
1𝑔
× 6.02 × 1023 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 2.23 × 1022
26.98𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
➢What is the averaged (over naturally occurring isotope) mass for one Al atom?
26.98𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 −23 𝑔
= 4.48 × 10
6.02 × 1023 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
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 Electronic Structure for Atoms
➢ Electrons are in a series of orbitals with different, discrete energy states following certain rules
➢ Electrons occupy lower energy states (orbitals) then higher:
– Shell (n) K, L, M, N, O (or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)…, from low to high energy
– Subshell (l): s, p, d, f, within a shell … from low to high energy
– Orientations (orbits, ml) 1, 3, 5, 7…
– Spin state (ms) ½, -½ (or spin up & spin down) for each substate

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 Valence Electrons
➢Valence electrons – those electrons occupy outmost shell(s) (and, for transition
metals, a few of the inner shell electrons in the d-orbits)

➢Most available for bonding

Example: Neutral Cl atom - atomic number Z = 17,
Electron configuration: [ 1s2 2s2 2p6 ] 3s2 3p5

➢Valence electrons determine the following properties:

▪ Chemical
▪ Electrical
▪ Thermal
▪ Optical
➢Atoms/ions with filled outmost shell will be stable:
▪ Most atoms Outmost shell with eight (8) e- would be stable
▪ H, Li, Be, B, C Gain/lose e- so that two e- for 1s as the outmost shell to be stable
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 Periodic Table & Electronegativity
Periodic Table
Columns: Similar valence electron structure – Group
Row: Same number of electron shells (not subshells) – Period

Electronegativity
➢A number representing the tendency for an atom to acquire/lose electrons
➢From 0.7 to 4.0:
▪ Higher the number, greater tendency to gain electrons
▪ Lower the number, greater tendency to lose electrons

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Periodic Table & Electronegativity HIGHER electronegativity
(except inert elements)

LOWER electronegativity 8
 Primary Bond (1) - Ionic Bond
➢Between positive (+) and negative (-) ions
➢Requires electron transfer between atoms
➢Mostly between atoms with large difference in electronegativity (often at left &
right ends of the periodic table)
➢Example: NaCl

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 Primary Bond (2) - Covalent Bond
➢Between non-metals with same or similar electronegativity → share electrons
CH4 Example
H2 Example C has 4 valence e-, needs 4 more
Each H has 1 valence e-, needs 1 more Each H has 1 valence e-, needs 1 more
Same electronegativity Electronegativity difference = 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4

H H

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 Primary Bond (3) - Metallic Bond
➢Bonds between metal cations and delocalized electron cloud

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 Mixed Bond
➢Ceramics with electronegativity difference not large (as in ionic bonding) but also
not small (as in covalent bonding) can be viewed as to have mixed ionic-covalent
bonding
➢Example: SiO2

Electronegativity difference
= 3.5 (for O) – 2.1 (for Si) = 1.7

Some would say:

~half covalent + ~half ionic

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 Secondary Bond
➢“Bond” arising from interactions between dipoles in molecules
Case 1: Between fluctuating (induced) dipoles (e.g., for H2, Cl2)
H2 Secondary H2
Liquid H2 example bond
Tm = -253oC H H H H
+ – + –
Fluctuating dipoles
Case 2: Between permanent dipoles (e.g., for HCl or H2O)
Liquid HCl example Tm = -85oC Polymer example
Secondary
bond
H Cl H Cl
Secondary
+ – + – bond
Permanent dipoles 13
 Hydrogen Bond - A Special Secondary Bond
➢A special permanent dipole induced bonding:
Between individual molecules in which H is covalently bonded to F (e.g.,
HF), O (e.g., H2O), or N (e.g., NH3)
H F H F
Tm = ~20oC >> Tm for HCl or HBr
➢Much stronger than all other secondary bonds
➢Still much weaker than primary bonds

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Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) & Bond Type
Material Room T CTE (10-6/C)
Polymers
PP ~110 Polymers have much higher CTE
PS ~65 than metals and ceramics due to
PTFE ~130 weak secondary bonds

Metals
Al 23
Au 14
W 4.5

Ceramics
MgO 13.5
Al2O3 7.6
SiC 2.8

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 Class Exercise
Given the following electronegativity χ for different elements:
χ (Na)=0.9
χ (F)=4.0
χ (Si)=1.8
χ (C)=2.5
χ (Mg)=1.2
Determine the predominant primary bond type in the follow materials
▪ Sodium fluoride (NaF) Ionic bond

▪ Silicon carbide (SiC) Covalent bond

▪ Pure magnesium (Mg) Metallic bond

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 Class Exercise – Bonds (2)
➢What is the bond type between oxygen and oxygen atoms WITHIN a single O2
molecule?
Covalent bond
➢Is the bond between different O2 molecules in liquid oxygen primary bond or
secondary bond?
Secondary bond
➢What is the bond type between Hydrogen (H) and oxygen WITHIN a single water
H2O molecule?
Covalent bond
➢What is the bond type BETWEEN different H2O molecules in ice?
Secondary bond (Hydrogen bond, in particular)

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 Allotropes – Different Configurations of the Same Element
Graphite Diamond Fullerene Carbon nanotube (CNT)

(Very) soft Hardest

Electrically conductive Electrically insulating Graphene Many more!
Black Transparent

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 Homework 2.0
Carefully review chapter 2 lecture slides and, if time allows, read textbook sections
(Askeland chapter 2) and give an honor statement confirming the reading

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 Homework 2.1
What type(s) of bonding would be expected for each of the following materials:
1) Bronze (a copper-tin or Cu-Sn alloy); 2) Rubber; 3) Barium oxide (BaO); 4) Nylon;
5) Gallium arsenide (GaAs). You may refer to the electronegativity table below.

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 Homework 2.2
Given information on right from the periodic table for magnesium
(Mg),
▪ What is the atomic number Z ?
▪ What is the number of proton in Mg nucleus ?
▪ What is the atomic weight A and the unit for atomic weight A ?
▪ On average, one gram of Mg will contain how many Mg atoms?
▪ What is the average (over naturally occurring isotope) mass for
one magnesium atom?
▪ Knowing F has electron configuration of 1s22s22p5 and atomic
weight of 19.0, give the chemical formula for the stable
compounds between Mg and F and calculate the mass for one
mole of that compound.
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