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Basic Macroscopic Principles of
Applied Superconductivity

V.R. Romanovskii
National Research Center Kurchatov Institute,
Moscow, Russia

p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
Cover illustration provided by the author, V.R. Romanovskii

First edition published 2021

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

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© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Romanovskii, V. R., 1952- author.

Title: Basic macroscopic principles of applied superconductivity /
V. R. Romanovskii.
Description: First. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020024230 | ISBN 9781138541832 (hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Superconductivity. | Electrodynamics. | Superconductors.
Classification: LCC QC611.92 .R66 2020 | DDC 537.6/23--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020024230

ISBN: 978-1-138-54183-2 (hbk)

Typeset in Times
by TVH Scan
 Preface

Superconductivity of certain materials (pure metals, metal-alloys, compounds, ceramics and

others) losing resistance at extremely low temperatures is an important research field, both in
experimental and theoretical physics, with many engineering applications. Since its discovery, there
are a big number of laboratories and research groups all over the world performing research on
superconductivity. Superconductivity permits one to get high magnetic fields, which are of the basic
tools that allow one to investigate new properties of materials. Indeed, conventional electromagnets
can supply DC magnetic fields up to about 2 T only in small volumes. To produce higher fields, it
is possible to use the water-cooled high-power solenoids or the cryoresistive windings. At the same
time, superconducting magnets allow higher fields to be produced with lower power utilization.
It is because superconducting materials have a very high critical current densities than the
operational current densities of the conventional normal metals of the same size. This means that
the superconducting magnets consume no power working at high current density without iron core.
Because of these features, superconducting magnets offer lower power costs, higher magnetic fields
and higher gradients in the large operating volumes.
The macroscopic behavior of superconductors, which plays a key role in the stable performances
of superconducting magnets, is studied by means of various theoretical models. In general, this
book outlines the basic principles of applied superconductivity underlying the design and operation
of the superconducting magnets for large-scale applications. It provides detailed coverage of the
major investigation results of the macroscopic states of superconducting materials used in high-field
applications. The relevant topics discussed are helpful for all researchers interesting in basic aspects
of applied superconductivity. They may also allow one to do new researches of the macroscopic
phenomena in superconducting materials to develop their novel potential applications.
The outline of the book is as follows: Preface, Introduction and eight chapters in total.
They generalize studies about macroscopic thermo-electrodynamic phenomena in technical
superconductors.
Chapter 1 presents a brief overview of the main results of the fundamental and applied
superconductivity and highlights those problems, which arise in the development of superconducting
magnets. The importance of the stability analysis of the superconducting state is underlined.
Chapter 2 is devoted to the main problems arising in the macroscopic electrodynamic of nonideal
type-II superconductors. The laws of the stable penetration of magnetic flux into superconductors,
which are in a changing external magnetic field or when a transport current is charged into
them, are discussed. Stable modes of the superconducting state formation are considered in the
framework of the Bean model, viscous flux-flow model and models based on the real voltage-current
characteristic of superconductor. The analysis of the sweep-rate and relaxation modes is performed
in the scaling approximation. The corresponding results of the numerical simulations performed in
a more general setting prove the scaling solutions. As a result, the characteristic physical features
of the electrodynamic phenomena in low-temperature and high-temperature superconductors are
formulated.
iv Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

In Chapter 3, the self-field losses are analyzed taking into account the nonlinear nature of the
voltage-current characteristic of the technical superconductors. It is shown that the model of the
critical state not only underestimates the heat losses from the transport current but also does not
allow one to calculate correctly the energy losses in superconductors with the real V-I characteristics
in the currents range from the full penetration current to the critical current. The error depends on
the smoothness parameters of the V-I characteristic, the current charging rate and the transverse
size of the superconductor. The models, which allow one to estimate the self-field losses with
satisfactory accuracy in the closed-form approximation both at the partial and full penetration
modes, are proposed.
Chapter 4 is a discussion of the basic physical regularities of the formation of thermal and
electrodynamic states of low- and high-temperature superconductors when changing the external
magnetic field. Considering them, the conditions of the magnetic instability onset are formulated
in the nonisothermal approximation. Thermal features of their development are investigated. It
establishes a nontrivial connection between the conditions of the magnetic instability onset, the
permissible heat generation and overheating of the superconductor before the instability onset. It
leads to the general concept of superconductivity destruction under the action of the disturbances
of different nature. The causes of the oscillations of temperature and electromagnetic field in
superconductors are formulated. The significant influence of the thermal state of the superconductor
on the conditions of their occurrence is shown. As a consequence, there exists the effect of the
thermal self-suppression of oscillations, when they are absent if there is an intense stable increase
in the temperature of the superconductor. As a result, the oscillations disappear at intensive heat
dissipation. Namely, they are absent in the thermally insulated superconductors and at high rising
rates of the external magnetic field. They can be also absent at the intensive heat removal of the
thermal losses.
In Chapter 5, the basic physical regularities governing the formation of the thermal and
electrodynamic states of composite superconductors based on low-temperature superconductors at
variation in the external magnetic field are discussed. Considering them, the conditions for the
occurrence of the magnetic instabilities are written in a nonisothermal approximation. Thermal
peculiarities of their development are discussed.
Chapter 6 investigates the physical features of the formation and destruction of stable
superconducting states in composites on the basis of low-temperature and high-temperature
superconductors at current charging. The influence of the stable overheating of superconducting
composites on their current-carrying capacity is studied. Using zero-dimensional and the one-
dimensional models, the stability conditions of the current modes of superconducting composites
and tapes, depending on their thermal properties, transverse dimensions, cooling conditions and
current charging rate are formulated. They allow one to determine the limiting currents, which
can stably flow in composites with voltage-current characteristics described by the exponential
or power equations with different temperature dependencies of the critical current density. It
follows from them that the current charged into the superconducting magnetic system can be both
subcritical and supercritical. The existence of the characteristic values of electric field, which
determines the thermal role of the matrix and coolant in the character of the current state formation
of superconducting composites, is shown.
Chapter 7 discusses the destruction features of the superconducting states of composite
superconductors carrying a constant transport current by external thermal perturbations. In
the framework of the model of anisotropic superconducting composites with an ideal voltage-
current characteristic, the conditions of the full and partial thermal stabilization of composite
superconductors are formulated in one-dimensional and two-dimensional approximation. Their
dependence on the length and duration of the thermal disturbance is shown. The characteristic
regularities of the transient phenomena occurring both in single composites and in superconducting
multicomponent current-carrying elements during irreversible propagation of a region with normal
conductivity are discussed. Special attention is paid to the analysis of the thermal mechanisms
Preface v

underlying the spatial formation of the region with normal conductivity in the longitudinal and
transverse directions of superconducting current-carrying elements.
In Chapter 8, the influence of the voltage-current characteristic of a superconductor on the
conditions of the occurrence and development of thermal instabilities in technical superconductors
is studied. The obtained results are compared with the conclusions of the thermal stabilization
theory based on the model with the ideal voltage-current characteristic. It is shown that it leads
to overestimated values of the Joule heat release in a wide range of the temperature changes of
composite. Moreover, it appears that when used in the thermal stabilization theory, the concepts of
the critical current, defining the maximum value of a transport current and the temperature of the
resistive transition beyond which the transport current starts to share between the superconducting
core and matrix have no physical meaning for technical superconductors. As a result, the stable
states are possible at currents that are higher than the conditionally set value of the critical current
of the composite with the ideal voltage-current characteristic. The analysis of the dissipative
phenomena occurring in the technical superconductors with continuously increasing voltage-
current characteristics due to the redistribution of current across the cross-section of the composite
in response to any external thermal disturbance is performed.
The analysis of dissipative processes is carried out that occurs in superconducting composites as
a result of the redistribution of the current across the composite section, which occurs as a response
to the action of an external disturbance, taking into account the emergence of a stable value of
the electric field due to the existence of voltage-current characteristic. It is shown that regardless
of the nature of disturbances initiating current diffusion, the induced additional heat dissipation
can significantly exceed the Joule losses determined in the approximation based on the constant
current distribution over the entire cross-section of the composite. As a consequence, dissipative
phenomena occurring in superconducting composites in response to external disturbances can lead
to a significant reduction in the boundary of stable states.
The main part of the results presented is based on the investigations carried out at the
Kurchatov Institute in the period from 1980 to the present time. Since 1994, our researches on
applied superconductivity were supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research of the
Russian Academy of Sciences. This support allowed to formulate the most important principles of
macroscopic electrodynamics of superconductors in a non-isothermal approximation developing
the necessary methods for modeling interrelated thermal and electrodynamic phenomena in
superconductors and composites based on them. Besides, it should be pointed out that the results
presented in Chapter 6 were obtained in the High Field Laboratory for Superconducting Materials,
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan with the active participation of
professors Kazuo Watanabe and Satoshi Awaji. It was a pleasure working with them. Their various
suggestions and important critical comments have been extremely useful. I would like to express my
deepest thanks for their contributions and valuable discussions.
In concluding note that it is difficult to avoid some omissions and errors when writing such a
manuscript. Therefore, I will be happy to listen to the criticisms made after its publication.

V.R. Romanovskii,
Moscow,
August 2020
 Introduction

Superconductivity opens new fields in science and engineering, especially in the material processing
technologies responsible for changing the properties of materials in high magnetic fields. One
of the first ideas proposed by H.K. Oness, who discovered superconductivity, was to wind the
superconducting magnet free from dissipation to generate a magnetic field of about 10 T using lead.
During the hundred years after this experiment, thousands of superconducting materials have been
found, namely, pure elements, metal-alloys, intermetallic compounds, ceramics, inorganic polymers,
pnictides, heavy fermion compounds and many others. The discoveries, crucial to the practical use of
superconductivity, were made after 1960s. Superconductivity was found in such materials as metal-
alloys Nb-Zr, Nb-Ti and in intermetallic compounds as Nb3Sn, Nb3Ge, Nb3Al, V3Ga and others.
They have high values of the critical currents and magnetic fields. Superconductivity of many oxide
cuprates was discovered after an unexpected finding of the superconducting properties in ceramic
La1.85Ba0.15CuO4 that was discovered by J.C. Bednorz and K.A. Müller in 1986. The superconducting
ceramics have many important characteristics. First of all, their critical temperature and critical
magnetic field are very high. Today, metallic elements and alloys, which exhibit superconducting
properties below 30 K, are usually named as low-temperature superconductors (LTS) in contrast to
cuprates with the critical temperature exceeding 30 K named as high-temperature superconductors
(HTS).
Modern superconducting current-carrying elements are the conductors of a composite structure.
There is a wide range of superconducting wires from which superconducting devices for various
purposes can be made.
Wires based on LTS can contain up to tens of thousands of filaments of micron diameter and
consist of superconducting and nonsuperconducting components with different physical properties.
Superconductors inside the LTS composites are arranged in a strict order in a matrix. Usually,
copper or its alloys are used as a matrix. In addition, diffusion barriers protecting the purity of the
copper stabilizing shell or resistive barriers can be introduced into the cross-section of the wires to
increase the resistance of the wire, reducing the possibility of current flowing between the filaments.
Their industrial production began in the mid-1970s and is now generally developed. Wires based on
Nb-Ti are widely used in magnet systems that induce fields up to 10 T at operating temperatures of
1.8-4.2 K. The intermetallic compound Nb3Sn is used to create magnets with induction up to 20 T.
The first generation (1G) of HTS wires were made of bismuth-based materials, namely,
Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x (Bi2212) and Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10+x (Bi2223) by the powder-in-tube method. This
superconducting material is embedded in a nonsuperconducting matrix (typically silver). After
packing the precursor powders into a tube, the composite is drawn into a wire with a hexagonal
cross-sectional shape. Then the wire is cut and plased into another silver tube to be drawn and flat-
rolled. The flattened composites are subsequently heat-treated at high temperatures to form Bi2212
or Bi2223 phases. However, there are major drawbacks of 1G HTS which seriously confine its
application and development. First, the labor-intensive processing and a large amount of expensive
metals used for the matrix make 1G conductors expensive. Second, the irreversibility field of
viii Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

bismuth-based HTS materials (BSCCO), at which the critical current density drops to very low
values, is very low at higher temperatures. It makes 1G HTS highly sensitive to magnetic fields.
Third, their superconducting properties are very low at 77 K and have very low applied fields, which
are problematic to the construction of superconducting magnets and other high field applications.
Accordingly, 1G wires are cooled, as a rule, to temperatures in the neighborhood of 4.2-30 K for
high-field applications.
To overcome the huge variation of the critical current occurring in the presence of external fields,
ReBCO compounds are used instead of bismuth-based materials. Here, ‘Re’ refers to rare earth
elements such as yttrium, lanthanum, dysprosium, samarium and gadolinium. The most common
ReBCO compound is made of yttrium, namely, YBa2Cu3O7–x (YBCO). It has a better intrinsic flux
pinning and irreversibility field than BSCCO. In addition, YBCO is able to carry high currents in
strong magnetic fields while being cooled by liquid nitrogen. However, YBCO is brittle and highly
anisotropic, which implies that electric current does not flow well from grain to grain if they are not
perfectly aligned. Such a compound is produced by a coating of YBCO on a metallic substrate. This
has led to the emergence of the second generation (2G) HTS conductors, which are also named as
coated conductors.
It is also worth spending some words on the discovered superconducting material MgB2 at the
beginning of 2001 having a critical temperature at zero magnetic fields of about 39 K. Research
on MgB2 has attracted much of the interest of the scientific community. On the one side, this
material shows interesting properties from the point of view of basic solid-state physics since it has
a completely different structure with respect to the cuprates, but it has a critical temperature above
the critical temperature of LTS. On the other side, it seems promising for applications due to its
easiness of fabrication and to the satisfactory properties that have already been achieved.
The LTS and HTS have led to many research and development efforts in practical applications
of superconducting magnet system (SMS) and devices. It may be expected that new phenomena will
be discovered by the extreme conditions combined with high pressure and ultra-low temperature in
high fields. However, some problems encountered in applications of HTS remain unsettled. The key
issue to overcome their practical use is the broad transition from the superconducting to the normal
state, manufacturing problems of HTS wires which significantly delay the development of the HTS
industry.
Thereby, a high field technique is progressing rapidly and now static fields over 20 T are
available for many types of research using low-temperature and high-temperature superconductors,
mentioned above, that may be called as technical superconductors. The investigations can be made
by conduction-cooled superconducting magnets, which allow one to make long-term experiments
without any labor for charging liquid helium. However, technical superconductors usually exhibit
a finite resistance at intensive operating modes. The nature of this resistive state attracts much
attention since it allows one to understand the fundamental phenomena occurring in technical
superconductors, such as the mechanisms of superconductivity, thermal fluctuations, macroscopic
electrodynamics, etc. Therefore, thermal and electrodynamics investigations of technical
superconductors, taking into account of the resistive state, is important for the advancement of
fundamental science and the development of applications. Such investigations play a key role in
applied superconductivity, and they are studied by means of various theoretical models. Their basics
are presented below.
For the obvious reasons, the book cannot claim to be a complete description of all the problems
arising in applied superconductivity. To fill the inevitable gap in the material presented in this
publication, the author recommends readers to use additional literature, among which they should
pay attention to the monographs (Brechna 1973, Carr, 1983; Buckel and Kleiner 2004, Narlikar
2014, Poole C.P. et al. 1995, Wesche 1998b). The author tried not to repeat the discussion of the
results given in these monographs as much as possible.
 Resume

The investigation of macroscopic phenomena in superconductors and composite conductors or tapes

based on them is one of the most important topics in applied superconductivity. Its basic principles
were discussed in detail in the presented chapters. They are not only important for understanding
the essence of electrodynamic and thermal processes in technical superconductors but also allow
to determine the limits of the workability of superconducting magnets. In particular, the conditions
underlying the preservation of superconductivity under the influence of magnetic, current and
thermal (in general, thermo-electromagnetic) disturbances were discussed. In general, the solution
methods proposed allow one to study the problems arising in the analysis of nonlinear phenomena in
a metastable multiphase dissipative medium with unknown moving boundaries between the phases.
The complete description of the qualitative and quantitative features of the development of
nonlinear modes happening in low-temperature and especially in high-temperature superconductors
must be based on the analysis of the dynamics of superconducting state, taking into account
the collective variation of the temperature and electromagnetic field in the superconductors or
superconducting composites/tapes during the diffusion of the magnetic flux induced by any
perturbations. The main specificity of these phenomena is that they have the character of a chain
reaction of an explosive nature.
The main purpose of the chapters examined is the discussion of the formation mechanisms
of stable electrodynamic states in low- and high-temperature superconductors under consideration
of their thermal history. The proposed general models and numerical-analytical methods for the
analysis of essentially nonlinear thermo-electrodynamic phenomena occurring in superconducting
materials with different V-I characteristics allow one to describe the bifurcation formation of
stable and unstable states in current-carrying elements of superconducting magnets. They may
occur during the change of the external magnetic field, transport current, the action of the heat
disturbances of any power, length and duration, as well as at any combination thereof.
To determine the instability conditions of the superconducting state, the unified method based
on the finite perturbation of the initial equilibrium state is proposed. It allows one to correctly
determine the stability boundary of the collective evolution of thermal and electrodynamic states
both in the superconductors and in the superconducting composites or tapes with various types of
V-I characteristics under different operating modes and action of arbitrary external perturbations.
The characteristic physical features of the change of stable overheating of the superconductor,
preceding the destruction of the superconducting state, which affects the conditions of its stability,
are formulated. They show the non-trivial relationship between the permissible increase in the
superconductor temperature, conditions of the superconducting state stability, and heat losses
released stably in the superconductors before the magnetic or current instabilities onset.
The results of such an analysis essentially extend the physical understanding of the development
of macroscopic phenomena in low- and high-temperature superconductors. In general, the results
obtained allow one to combine the independently developing theories of losses, magnetic and
current instabilities and the theory of thermal stabilization. In this case, the stability conditions
x Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

may be formed on the basis of a single theoretical concept that assumes the existence of any critical
disturbance. It is independent neither of the nonlinearity type of V-I characteristics nor of the
perturbation nature but abide by the limiting transfers to known stability criteria. Accordingly,
as discussed in the corresponding chapters, the phenomena in technical superconductors are
characterized by the following basic macroscopic electrodynamic and thermal laws.
In the creep of the magnetic flux, the differential resistivity of the superconductor in the
magnetization region decreases monotonously in the direction to its moving boundary and takes
zero value on it. Therefore, the electromagnetic field generated by the continuously increasing
external magnetic field or by the charged current as well as during the relaxation states penetrates
the superconductor at a non-uniform velocity, which determines the formation features of the stable
states of superconductors and superconducting composites.
There are the electrodynamic states of superconductors with strong and weak creep, which differ
in the effect of the creep on the distribution of the electromagnetic field within the magnetization
region. If the V-I characteristics are described by the power or exponential equations, the difference
between their corresponding states increases with the decrease of the growth parameters of V-I
characteristics. The most noticeable difference between them will be observed in superconductors
with strong creep (n < 10, Jd /Jc > 0.1).
The Bean model of the critical state is a zero approximation, which describes the spatial
distribution of the electric field in the superconductor even with an arbitrary equation of its V-I
characteristic. However, to adequately describe the formation of electrodynamic states, equation
of the moving magnetization boundary and the distributions of the current and magnetic field
in the superconductor must be written taking into account the corresponding V-I characteristic.
This simplified approach allows the losses in the superconductors to be calculated with sufficient
accuracy.
The consideration of the permissible change in the temperature of the hard superconductors
during stable formation of its critical state shows that:
- the destruction conditions of the critical state of cooled superconductor depend on the sweep
rate of the external magnetic field due to the corresponding stable change in the superconductor
temperature before the instability onset (in the adiabatic mode this dependence does not
exist);
- there are characteristic temperatures that determine the thermal structure of the magnetic
instability conditions of the critical state when, in particular, instability may not occur under
the action of intensive external thermal perturbations (effect of the thermal stabilization);
- the consequence of the thermal stabilization effect is the stabilization of the critical state when
the critical state of the hard superconductor is stable with respect to arbitrary temperature
perturbations whose amplitude changes in the range from the coolant temperature to the
critical temperature of the superconductor at the conventional condition of the adiabatic
stability;
- taking into account the matrix and real shape of the voltage-current characteristic of
superconductor lead to a smoother mode of the transition of superconducting composite from
the superconducting state to the normal one as well as a ‘softer’ oscillation evolution in them.
The presence of the matrix extends the magnetic stability boundaries.
The explanation for the physical causes of the oscillations onset in superconducting materials
may be given only taking into account the interrelated evolution of the thermo-electrodynamic states
in superconductors. Accordingly, they are based on the difference in the rates of the conductive-
convective removal of heat releases from the bulk of the superconductor to the coolant, compared
to the increase rate of the Joule losses induced by the varying external magnetic field. In turn, this
leads to the existence of the characteristic stages of the oscillation onset, which determine the
interrelated changes in space and time of the electric field, the superconductor temperature, and the
density of the screening current.
Resume xi

There is an influence of the temperature of superconductor on the conditions of oscillation onset.

As a result, there exists an effect of thermal self-suppression of oscillations. Namely, they will not
occur if the permissible overheating of the superconductor is high. Accordingly, the probability of
the oscillation occurrence decreases when the cooling conditions deteriorate, in particular, they are
completely absent under the adiabatic conditions or at a high sweep rate.
During the current charging, instability (quench) may occur both at the partial and full penetration
modes of a transport current. The evolution of their stable and unstable states also has a bifurcation
nature. In the full penetration mode, instability conditions do not depend on the current charging
rate but depend on the temperature margin and the features of the current sharing between the
superconducting core and matrix. During the partially penetrated current instabilities, quenching
currents decrease monotonically with increasing current charging rate. If it is high, the instability
conditions are close to adiabatic ones leading to a high stable temperature rise. Overall, both during
the partial and full penetrated current instabilities, the operating states of superconducting composites
or tapes depend on the stable increase in the temperature of them. The critical current density of a
superconductor at coolant temperature, the cooling conditions, the current charging rate, the filling
coefficient, the composite cross-section or the smoothness character of the V-I characteristics affect
the modes when the electrodynamic states of a composite become non-isothermal.
In general, during current charging, the operating states of superconducting composites or tapes
are characterized by the existence of the following features:
- there are characteristic values of the electric field, which determine the mechanisms in the
formation of stable electrodynamic states during current charging, including the role of the
convective-conductive heat transfer conditions;
- in the continuous current charging, the dependence of the heat capacity on the temperatures of
the superconductor and matrix appreciably influences on the shape of the V-I characteristic;
- the permissible maximum values of the electric field and charged current can be both
subcritical and supercritical in relation to the conventionally set critical parameters, that is a
priory set critical quantities have no physical meaning;
- regardless of the shape of the V-I characteristics, the quenching current is determined by the
heat balance between the Joule heat release and heat flux to the coolant;
- there is a direct correlation between the current depth penetration, heat losses and the
permissible overheating before quench;
- the existence of the permissible overheating leads to the effect of the thermal degradation
of current-carrying capacity of a superconducting composite, and as a consequence, its
quenching currents do not increase proportionally to the increase in its critical current;
- there is a non-trivial relationship between the properties of superconductor and liquid coolant,
resulting in different mechanisms for the onset of the current instability.
The quenching currents of superconducting composites having power and exponential V-I
characteristics may not be equivalent. The noticeable difference will be seen in the strong creep
due to the corresponding difference in the stable increase in temperature of a superconductor. The
quenching currents of HTS composites depend not only on negative value of dJc/dT but also on its
variation in the intermediate temperature range, which is not close to the critical temperature of a
superconductor. By that, the quenching currents may be absent in HTS composite superconductors
at intermediate operating temperatures.
In the subcritical states, the stable temperature rise of the superconducting composite is mainly
determined by the permissible overheating of the superconductor. In the supercritical current range,
the stable overheating is also influenced by the matrix properties. As a result, the stable overheating
of HTS composites changes in a wide range. The subcritical electric fields (stable electric fields that
do not exceed a priori set critical quantity) are more probable in the high magnetic fields or when
a composite with the high-resistivity matrix has a relatively high value of the filling coefficient. In
these modes, the stable value of the current flowing in a composite may be lower or higher than
those defined by a priori set critical voltage criterion.
xii Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

The static V-I characteristics of HTS composites may have multistable sections due to small
but finite values dJc/dT in the range of the intermediate temperatures. They can be observed in
the composites with a low filling coefficient as well as at high values of the external magnetic
field, at relatively high temperatures of the coolant. As a result, the current instabilities of the HTS
composites may be completely absent in the intermediate range of coolant temperatures, when the
temperature of the composite may change stably up to its critical temperature in the static modes.
There are characteristic current instability mechanisms of AC regimes. Their stable formation
has the stages, which are defined by the characteristic time windows. They exist due to the dynamic
thermal equilibrium between the average values of the heat generation and the average values of heat
removal to a coolant despite the high stable overheating of a superconductor and the induced electric
field. Therefore, the HTS may save the superconducting state during the AC overloaded modes. This
feature defines the existence of the maximum value of the peak current of stable AC overloaded
regimes at the given frequency and cooling conditions. In all cases, this value is higher not only
the critical current of a superconductor but also the corresponding quenching current defining the
current stability boundary in the DC regimes. Besides, stable peak values of the electric field and
temperature are also higher than the corresponding DC quenching values.
Under the action of thermal perturbations of an arbitrary length and duration, there is a
boundary value of the energy of thermal perturbation, below which the occurring normal zone
does not destroy the superconducting properties of composites. If it is exceeded, the normal zone
spontaneously propagates throughout the composite. This leads to the concept of the critical energy
of thermal perturbation, which is more general than the concepts of the minimum quench energy.
The critical energy is finite even under the action of infinitely extended perturbations, that is, when
the perturbation is distributed over the entire volume of the composite. Physically, this is due to the
removal of the Joule heat into the refrigerant. Under adiabatic conditions, overheating to the critical
temperature of the superconductor corresponding to a given magnetic field is permissible.
The development of thermal processes in composites at thermal impulses with an energy close
to the critical one is characterized by the tendency of the normal zone to the region of an unstable
equilibrium state after the termination of the perturbation. It has a characteristic spatial size (the
length in the 1D approximation) that determines the specificity of the kinetics of the subcritical and
supercritical propagation of normal zones initiated by perturbations of any length. For its correct
definition, it is necessary to consider the current sharing mechanism.
Under the action of supercritical perturbations, the irreversible transition of the composite
from the superconducting state to the normal state is a self-sustaining process. These modes are
characterized by the occurrence of a thermal autowave propagating at a constant velocity in an
extended superconducting composite, which does not depend on the nature of the initial thermal
disturbances.
In the approximation that assumes a jump-like transition from a superconducting state to a
normal one (a composite with an ideal V-I characteristic), the critical energies take on an infinitely
large value at the full stabilization current, which follows from the equal area theorem in the quasi-
linear approximation, and are zero at the critical current. The critical energies decrease with the
increase in the thermal stabilization parameter a (the Stekly parameter). In the limiting case a = 1,
known as the Stekly cryostabilization condition, the superconducting properties of composites will
always be preserved up to the critical current under the action of external thermal perturbations with
arbitrary energy.
Critical energies are minimal under the action of instantaneous point-like perturbations, which
are, therefore, the most dangerous. They increase with the length and duration of the disturbance. In
particular, under the action of extended instantaneous perturbations, the critical energies approach
their asymptotic values, which are described by an infinitely long temperature perturbation in
the approximation of instantaneous heating. In general, the critical energies depend on the type
of disturbance, but they are finite regardless of its nature over the entire range of currents from
the full stabilization current to the critical one. At the same time, the widely used MPZ-concept
Resume xiii

cannot give an answer about the influence of the length and duration of the thermal disturbance on
the thermal stabilization conditions. Moreover, for their correct quantitative analysis, the current
sharing between the superconducting core and the matrix must be taken into account, considering
the kinetics of the occurring normal zones.
For a wide range of practical applications, taking into account the heat capacity of the insulation
will have little effect on the final results when calculating thermal stabilization conditions. However,
even a small thickness of insulation can significantly modify the conditions for the thermal
stabilization of intensely cooled current-carrying elements. In other words, the conditions for the
occurrence of thermal instabilities depend primarily on the value of the thermal resistance of the
insulation over the entire range of changes in the transport current. Therefore, to determine them
for a superconducting multicomponent region with good accuracy, one can use a simplified model,
in which the thermal interaction between superconducting turns is described by a model based on
the concept of the thermal resistance of the contact layer.
The irreversible propagation of the normal zone inside a multiwire superconducting composition
has a number of features that are not described by the expanding ellipsoid model. They are based
on the following features:
1. The zone with normal conductivity formed as a result of the irreversible transition to the
normal state of superconducting elements of a composition made up of composite supercon-
ductors separated by a finite thermal resistance has the shape of a truncated oval.
2. The propagation velocity of the normal zone in the longitudinal direction of a multiwire
composition is lower than the corresponding value of the propagation velocity of the normal
zone in a single composite. The latter is the asymptotic limit for all values of the velocities
at which the normal zones will propagate in each element of the composition. This limiting
case is reached only after the transition of all elements of the composition to the normal state
when the moving front separating the superconducting region from the non-superconducting
one acquires a flat shape.
3. In the range of currents close to the full stabilization current of a single composite (the current
following from the equal area theorem), states are possible in which the superconducting
properties are not destroyed for all elements of the composition. As a result, a limited number
of sub-domains with normal conductivity can stably exist in a superconducting medium with
a discrete structure, in which the normal zone propagates at a constant velocity.
4. The propagation velocity of the normal zone in the cross-section of a multicomponent
superconducting medium is practically not dependent on the longitudinal thermal conductivity
of its elements. First of all, it is determined by the thermal conductivity and thickness of the
contact layer.
These regularities lead to physical features of the formation of the boundary of the region with
normal conductivity in spatially limited superconducting composition. Their characteristic feature
is the obligatory flattening of the boundary of the resistive region after it reaches one of the outer
boundaries of the composition and begins to propagate in a direction free from restrictions. In
this case, the flattening of the boundary occurs the faster, the better the conditions of heat transfer
(less thermal resistance) between the elements of the composition. Obviously, if the increase in the
size of the resistive region is limited in all directions, the increase in the size of the region with
normal conductivity will be completed after reaching their boundaries, and all superconducting
composition will pass in the normal state. The regularities noted should be taken into account when
describing transients in superconducting magnets, since the model of an expanding ellipsoid is not
correct for spatially limited superconducting composition with a discrete structure.
When developing large SMS with massive current-carrying elements, the corresponding analysis
of their thermal stability should be carried out under consideration of the multi-dimensional nature
of the heat flux propagation. In one-dimensional approximation, the thermal stability conditions of
the superconducting state primarily depend on the Stekly parameter. When analyzing the thermal
xiv Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

stability conditions taking into account the inhomogeneous temperature distribution over the cross-
section of the composite, the thermal stabilization of the composite superconductor depends on
the dimensionless parameter that is equal to the ratio of the conductive heat flux in the transverse
direction to the heat flux into the refrigerant.
For massive composite superconductors, one-dimensional theory gives a significantly
overestimated estimate of the boundary of their full stabilization (the Maddock condition in 1D
approximation). For them, this condition depends on the thermal state of the surface of the current-
carrying element. Moreover, the true value of the full stabilization current is always smaller than
the corresponding value calculated under the assumption of uniform temperature distribution over
the cross-section. The difference between them increases not only with an increase in the transverse
dimensions of the current-carrying elements but also with an improvement in the conditions of their
heat exchange with the refrigerant. This feature should be taken into account when designing large
magnetic systems that use massive current-carrying elements. If, in this case, the conditions for the
complete preservation of superconducting properties by the winding are calculated on the basis
of one-dimensional theory, then, in reality, the irreversible propagation of thermal instability in a
magnetic system with parameters set in this way can lead to irreversible destruction of the entire
SMS.
Under the action of point-like thermal perturbations, the stability of the superconducting
state of composites with a small transverse size depends on the mechanism of the longitudinal
thermal conductivity of the composite. But this mechanism is less significant in the destruction of
superconductivity in massive composites. In this case, the transverse thermal conductivity of the
composite plays the main stabilizing role.
For cooled massive current-carrying elements, there is a significant discrepancy between one-
dimensional and two-dimensional calculations of the thermal autowave velocity. This difference
can be not only quantitative but also qualitative due to a significant increase in the calculated values
of the normal zone velocity in two-dimensional approximation. Therefore, if transients in a massive
composite were studied on the basis of one-dimensional models, in particular, the currents, at which
its superconducting states are stable to arbitrary perturbations, were determined, then, for these
parameters, it may be in an unstable state in real operating conditions.
The existence of the size effect in the thermal stabilization conditions of the superconducting
state of cooled composites is explained by an inevitable increase in the average temperature of
massive current-carrying elements.
The analysis of the thermal stabilization conditions of composite superconductors with a real
V-I characteristic shows that they not only differ quantitatively from the corresponding conditions
obtained in the approximation of an ideal V-I characteristic but are also characterized by
qualitative differences. First of all, the critical current of the composite, introduced on the basis
of a jump-like approximation of its transition from a superconducting state to a normal one, does
not lead to a zero value of the critical energy. The actual value of the instability current can be
either greater or less than this fictitious value. It is equal to the quenching current calculated for a
superconducting composite with a real V-I characteristic. Along with this, the temperature of the
resistive transition, after which the transport current begins to share between the superconductor
and the matrix in the model with an ideal V-I characteristic, also has no physical meaning. This is
because within the model with an ideal V-I characteristic, the current sharing mechanism between
the superconductor and the matrix depends only on the decrease with the temperature of the critical
current of the superconductor. In superconductors with a real V-I characteristic, the current sharing
mechanism depends on the character of the increase in temperature of the V-I characteristic of the
superconductor and the resistance of the matrix. As a result, in the temperature range up to the
critical value, the current in its superconducting part not only is not equal to the critical current, as
is assumed in the theory based on the ideal V-I characteristic but also exceeds this value. That is
why the Joule losses calculated in the framework of the model with a continuously increasing V-I
characteristic are always smaller than the corresponding values determined according to the model
Resume xv

with an ideal V-I characteristic. As a result, there are more optimistic conditions for the stability
of the superconducting state with respect to external thermal disturbances. However, the calculated
values of the velocities of irreversible propagation of the thermal instability along the composite,
which are determined taking into account the continuous increase in the V-I characteristic, are
lower than the corresponding values calculated in the framework of the ideal V-I characteristic.
Moreover, the thermal instability propagates along the composite in the form of a thermo-electric
autowave at both subcritical and supercritical currents.
The condition of full thermal stabilization of composite superconductors (an analog of the Stekly
cryostabilization condition), which takes into account the essentially nonlinear and continuous
increase in the character of their V-I characteristic, significantly expands the range of currents
that are stable against the external thermal disturbances during intensive cooling. As a result, the
Stekly condition, according to which a superconducting composite is completely stable to thermal
disturbances with arbitrary energy, does not allow one to correctly determine the parameters of a
composite with a real V-I characteristic that ensure its full thermal stabilization.
Intensely cooled current-carrying elements may lack the minimum currents of existence and
propagation of the normal zone, which determine the range of currents in which the superconducting
state is stable to arbitrary thermal disturbances. This feature of the stability conditions will be
observed due to an intense increase of the specific electrical resistance of the stabilizing matrix with
temperature when the increase in the Joule heat release exceeds the increase in the heat flux into the
refrigerant at temperatures above the critical temperature of the superconductor. As a result, under
these modes, the autowave propagation velocities of thermal instabilities do not take negative values
over the entire range of current changes.
The analysis of the interrelated increase in the Joule heat release and heat flux into the refrigerant
with temperature shows that after the onset of instability, the change in the thermal state of technical
superconductors intensively cooled by liquid refrigerants can occur under conditions close to
adiabatic in their most heated part. It is this feature that leads to the possible burnout of technical
superconductors. The probability of burnout increases with an increase in the current density in
the superconductor and with a faster increase in the matrix resistivity with temperature. In such
operating modes of technical superconductors, the formation of a thermoelectric autowave may not
occur during the development of thermal instability.
In superconducting composites/tapes, in which the additional transport current diffusion is
initiated by thermal disturbances during current charging, there may be intense heat losses. They
can occur already at the stage of stable states. The heat release generated in these modes may differ
by several orders of magnitude from the amount of heat determined in the framework of the theory
of thermal stabilization based on the ideal V-I characteristic, leading to a noticeable increase in the
temperature of the composite. Therefore, the expression commonly used in the theory of thermal
stabilization for determining the Joule heat releases leads to their significantly underestimated
values ​​over the entire range of temperature variation of the superconducting composite at high
rates of current charging. The consequence of these dissipative phenomena will be a corresponding
decrease in the current of the instability onset. In particular, under the action of external thermal
perturbations that do not transfer the superconductor to the normal state, a premature violation of
the stable current charging is possible, as a result of which the currents of instability onset become
the smaller, the higher the subcritical energy of the external thermal perturbation.

Instead of Conclusion
The macroscopic theory of applied superconductivity is one of the most interesting areas of
modern applied science. Because of the limited space, only the basic formation laws of the thermo-
electrodynamic states in superconducting elements of SMS were discussed. All of them form
the foundation of the fundamental and applied superconductivity investigations in macroscopic
approximation. Therefore, the models proposed may be successfully applied in the simulation
xvi Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

of the operating modes of current-carrying elements of modern superconducting magnets and in

the analysis of their stable operability. They will allow one to keep superconductivity in a wide
range of operating temperature changes under intensive external disturbances of different nature.
In general, when calculating the conditions for thermo-electromagnetic stabilization of a real
SMS, it is necessary to take into account the nonlinear nature of the change in the properties of
the superconductor, the stabilizing matrix, and the coolant with temperature. However, for their
qualitative assessment, the quasi-linear approximation can be used (the exception is the description
of burnout phenomena). Both of these methods were widely used in this publication and may be
used in the new investigations.
 List of Principal Symbols

a – half-thickness of a superconducting slab or radius of a cylindrical conductor

as – characteristic thickness of a superconductor
b – half-width of a superconducting slab
B – magnetic field
Ba – external magnetic field
Bc – critical magnetic field of a superconductor of a type-I
Bc1 and Bc2 – first (lower) and second (upper) critical fields of a type-II superconductor
Bi – initial distribution of a magnetic field
Bm – magnetic field of a first magnetic-flux jump
Bp – magnetic field of a full penetration
B = dBa /dt – sweep rate of an external magnetic field
a
Cs, Cm and Ck – volumetric heat capacities of a superconductor, matrix and composite, respectively
dI/dt – current charging rate
E – electric field in a superconductor
e – dimensionless value of an electric field
Ea – electric field on the surface of a superconductor
Ec – critical electric field of a superconductor
Ex – characteristic value of an electric field
G – heat generation function
Gp – hysteresis losses simulated in a framework of scaling approximation for a superconductor with
an actual voltage-current characteristic
Gc – hysteresis losses calculated in a framework of the critical state model
Gf – hysteresis losses calculated using a full current penetration model
Gm – heat release before flux jump
H – intensity of an external magnet field
Hs, Hk – dimensionless coefficients of heat transfer from a surface of a superconductor and composite,
respectively
h – heat transfer coefficient
I – transport current in a superconductor
xviii Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

Ic – critical current of superconductor or composite

Ic0 – critical current at a temperature of refrigerant
If – value of an applied current when it completely penetrates into a superconductor
Im – limiting value of a current in a composite when it is charged at a finite rate
Iq – limiting value of a current in a composite when it is charged at an infinitesimal rate
i – normalized current in a superconducting composite (transport current divided by Ic0)
J – current density in a superconductor
Jc – critical current density of a superconductor
Jc0 – critical density of a superconductor at a refrigerant temperature
Js – current density in a superconductor
Jm – current density in a matrix
l – half-length of a composite
L x – characteristic value of a penetration depth of magnetic flux inside a superconductor
Lz – characteristic thermal length of a composite
M – magnetic moment
Mc – magnetic moment of a slab at an incomplete penetration of a magnetic flux calculated in the
Bean approximation
n – exponent of the increase in a voltage-current characteristic of a superconductor described by a
power equation
p – cooling perimeter
rp – moving boundary of a superconductor’s magnetization region with actual voltage-current
characteristic in a cylindrical coordinate system
Rk , Qk – eigenfunctions
S – cross-sectional area
t – time
T – temperature
Ta – temperature on a surface of superconductor or composite
TcB – critical temperature of a superconductor at a given magnetic field
Tcs – current sharing temperature of a superconducting composite
Ti – superconductor temperature after terminating increase of an external magnetic field
Ti¢ and Ti≤ – characteristic superconductor’s temperatures that determine the development of
magnetic instability
Tk – final temperature of a superconducting composite after development of magnetic instability
Tm – temperature of a superconductor before the flux jump
T0 – the temperature of the refrigerant
tf – full penetration time of a magnetic flux into a superconductor
th – characteristic cooling time
tm – characteristic time of a magnetic flux diffusion in a viscous flux-flow model
ts – time of increasing an external magnetic field
List of Principal Symbols xix

tx – characteristic time of a magnetic flux penetration into a superconductor

t l – characteristic time of heat flow diffusion.
V(Z) – sought function of the self-similar solution
Vc – penetration velocity of a magnetic flux into a superconductor calculated in a framework of the
critical state model
Vf – penetration velocity of a magnetic flux into a superconductor calculated in a framework of the
viscous flux-flow model
Vn – penetration velocity of a magnetic flux into a superconductor with an actual voltage-current
characteristic
xc – coordinate of a penetration boundary of external magnetic field calculated in a framework of
the critical state model in a rectangular coordinate system
X0 – dimensionless penetration depth of an external magnetic field in a rectangular coordinate
system
x0 – penetration depth of an external magnetic field in a rectangular coordinate system
xf – moving boundary of a magnetization region in a framework of the viscous flux-flow model in a
rectangular coordinate system
xp – moving boundary of a magnetization region with an actual voltage-current characteristic in a
rectangular coordinate system
z – longitudinal variable
Z – self-similar variable
Z 0 – moving boundary of a magnetization region in a self-similar approximation
a – Stekly parameter
a eff – parameter of a current instability
b – magnetic instability parameter of a superconductor
b c – critical value of a magnetic instability parameter
b k – magnetic instability parameter of a superconducting composite
d – dimensionless rise parameter of a voltage-current characteristic of a superconductor described
by an exponential equation
F0 – elementary magnetic flux in a vortex
h – filling factor of superconductor in a composite
L – dimensionless parameter equal to a ratio of a characteristic diffusion time of a magnetic flux in
a superconductor to the characteristic diffusion time of a heat flux
Lk – dimensionless parameter equal to a ratio of a characteristic diffusion time of a magnetic flux in
a superconducting composite to a characteristic diffusion time of a heat flux
lL – London penetration depth
l s, l m and l k – thermal conductivity coefficients of a superconductor, matrix, and composite,
respectively
m – relative magnetic permeability
m0 – magnetic permeability of vacuum
mk, u k – eigenvalues
xx Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

q – dimensionless temperature
rd = ∂E / ∂J – differential resistivity of a superconductor
rf – electrical resistivity of a superconductor in the viscous flux-flow mode
r k – electrical resistivity of a composite
r m – electrical resistivity of a matrix
rx – characteristic value of an electrical resistivity of a superconductor
t – dimensionless time
x – coherence length
ϰ – Ginzburg-Landau parameter

List of Abbreviations
V-I characteristic – voltage-current characteristic
HTS – high-temperature superconductor
CSM – critical state model
LTS – low-temperature superconductor
SMS – superconducting magnet system
 Contents

Preface iii
Introduction vii
Resume ix
List of Principal Symbols xvii

Chapter 1: Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and

Applied Superconductivity 1
1.1 Superconductivity 1
1.2 Ideal and NonIdeal Type-II Superconductors Resistive States of Technical
Superconductors and their Voltage-Current Characteristics 3
1.3 Thermo-Electrodynamic Features of Macroscopic Phenomena in Technical
Superconductors 10
1.4 Instabilities of the Superconducting States 12
1.5 Conclusions 19

Chapter 2: Macroscopic Electrodynamics of NonIdeal Type-II Superconductors:

Isothermal Models 20
2.1 Bean Approximation of the Magnetic Flux Diffusion in Superconductors (rf Æ •) 20
2.2 The Sweep-Rate Problem for Superconductors with Different Types of
NonIdeal Voltage-Current Characteristics. The Spatial-Temporal
Characteristics of the Partially Penetrated Modes 24
2.3 Scaling Dynamics of the Electromagnetic Field During Viscous
Flux-Flow Mode (rf = const) 26
2.4 Diffusion Features of the Screening Currents at the Flux-Creep and Local
Change of the Differential Resistivity of Superconductors with the
Power or Exponential Voltage-Current Characteristics 28
2.5 Partially Penetrated Sweep-Rate States of Superconductors with
Arbitrary Voltage-Current Characteristics 37
2.6 Features of Transport Current Penetration in Composite Superconductors
During Flux-Creep 39
2.7 Influence of Voltage-Current Characteristic Nonlinearity on the Electrodynamic
States of NonIdeal Type-II Superconductors 44
xxii Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

2.8 Magnetic Relaxation of the Partially Penetrated Screening Current in Superconductors 52

2.9 Conclusions 59

Chapter 3: Physical Features of the Dissipative Phenomena in Superconductors

in the Self-Field Modes 60
3.1 Dissipative Phenomena During Current Charging with a Constant Rate 60
3.2 Self-Field Losses in the Serrated (Triangular-Wave) Current Charging Mode 70
3.3 Conclusions 77

Chapter 4: Thermo-Magnetic Phenomena in Low-Tc and High-Tc Superconductors 78

4.1 Evolution of Interrelated Thermal and Electrodynamic States of
Superconductors in the Viscous Flux-Flow Modes 78
4.2 Mechanisms of the Magnetic Instability Onset and Development in
Low-Tc Superconductors 83
4.3 Adiabatic Criteria of the Critical State Stability During Partial
Penetration of the Screening Currents. Relationship of the Stable
Overheating with Heat Losses 88
4.4 Nonisothermal Adiabatic Criteria of the Critical State Stabilization During
Full Penetration of the Screening Currents: The Bean Approximation 92
4.5 Mechanisms of the Occurrence and Suppression of the Critical
State Oscillations 101
4.6 Features of Thermo-Magnetic Phenomena in High-Tc Superconductors 110
4.7 Oscillating Magnetic Instabilities in HTS 133
4.8 Conclusions 145

Chapter 5: Thermo-Magnetic Phenomena in Composites Based on LTS and

their Magnetic Instabilities 146
5.1 Formation Features of the Critical State of Composite Superconductors:
The Model of an Anisotropic Continuum 146
5.2 Dynamic Criteria of the Critical State Stability of Composite Superconductors at
Full Penetration of the Magnetic Flux 155
5.3 Adiabatic Stability of the Critical State of Composite Superconductors at Full
Penetration of the Magnetic Flux: Multilayer Model ‘Superconductor + Normal
Metal’ 158
5.4 Thermal Features of the Screening Currents Diffusion in LTS Composites with an
Exponential V-I Characteristic 160
5.5 Dynamic Stability Criteria for Superconducting Composites with an
Exponential V-I Characteristic 168
5.6 Comparison of Theoretical Results with Experiments 170
5.7 Conclusions 173

Chapter 6: Current-Carrying Capacity of Superconducting Composites and Tapes:

Formation and Destruction of Stable Current Modes 175
6.1 Features of the Transport Current Diffusion into a Composite Superconductors 175
6.2 Nonisothermal V-I Characteristics and Limiting Quenching Currents of
Superconducting Composites 186
Contents xxiii

6.3 Multistable Static Current States of Superconducting Composites Based on

HTS and Current Instabilities at Various Operating Temperatures 198
6.4 Mechanisms of the Current Instabilities in HTS Composites Cooled by a
Liquid Coolant 206
6.5 Maximum Allowable Currents in Multilayer Superconducting Tapes
Based on YBa2Cu3O7 212
6.6 The Heat Capacity Effect on the Nonstationary Formation of the Current
Modes of Superconducting Composites 222
6.7 Size Effects During Formation of the V-I Characteristic of Superconducting
Composites and the Mechanisms of the Current Instabilities 227
6.8 Formation Features of the Thermo-Electrodynamic States During an Alternating
Current Charging into Superconducting Composites Based on HTS 243
6.9 Comparison of Theoretical Results with Experiments 250
6.10 Conclusions 253

Chapter 7: Thermal Phenomena in Composite Superconductors with an

Ideal Voltage-Current Characteristic and their Thermal
Stabilization Conditions 255
7.1 Onset Causes of Normal Zones. Types of Thermal Perturbations. Description
Features of the Thermal Phenomena in Composite Superconductors with an
Ideal Voltage-Current Characteristic 255
7.2 Thermal Phenomena in Thermally Thin Composite Superconductors:
Quasi-Linear Approximation 260
7.3 Thermal Stability Conditions of Superconducting Composites 269
7.4 Autowave Propagation of the Thermal Perturbations 280
7.5 Irreversible Propagation of the Thermal Instability in the Cross-section of a Multilayer
Superconducting Composition ‘Composite Superconductor + Insulation’ 288
7.6 Quasi-Two-Dimensional Kinetics of the Irreversible Transition to the
Normal State of a Multiconductor Superconducting Composition 295
7.7 Thermal Stabilization of Superconducting Composites Taking into
Account the Size Effect 305
7.8 Thermal Stabilization of the Technical Superconductors Under Adiabatic Conditions 315
7.9 Characteristic Regularities of a Resistive Region Formation in Spatially Limited
Multiconductor Superconducting Compositions 324
7.10 Conclusions 326

Chapter 8: Electrophysical Features of Thermal Instabilities Occurrence in

Technical Superconductors with Various Nonlinearity Types of
V-I Characteristics 329
8.1 Resistive States of Composite Superconductors: Quasi-Linear Approximation 329
8.2 Stability Conditions and Features of Resistive States Destruction of
Composite Superconductors 337
8.3 Joule Dissipation in Composite Superconductors: Nonlinear Approximation 347
8.4 Nonlinear Effects of the Thermal Mechanisms of Superconductivity Destruction 359
8.5 Joule Heat Release in Superconducting Composites Based on Low-Tc Superconductors
Initiated by the Diffusion of the Transport Current 370
xxiv Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

8.6 Thermal Degradation of the Current-Carrying Capacity of Superconducting Composites

Under the Action of Thermal Perturbations 375
8.7 Conclusions 379

References 381
Index 387
 1
Concepts and Principal Provisions
of Fundamental and Applied
Superconductivity

1.1 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911 (Onnes, 1911a, 1911b,
1911c) at the University of Leiden, The Netherlands. He found that the resistance of mercury
sharply disappeared below a certain temperature, which he called the critical temperature (Tc).
As it was determined later, superconductivity is a new physical phase at T < Tc. This state is called
the superconducting state and such materials are called superconductors. Today, the main part
of pure elements having superconducting properties is known as type-I superconductors or soft
superconductors. Note that the superconductors have an electrical resistivity r above Tc higher than
a resistivity of the good-conductivity metal, such as copper or silver in the temperature range above
Tc. The superconducting state is a stable thermodynamic phase, and it is a quantum mechanical
phenomenon on a macroscopic scale when the motion of all superconducting electrons is correlated
with lattice vibrations. As a result, the superconducting electrons bump into nothing and create
no friction. Thereby, they can transmit current with no loss of energy since the superconducting
electrons pass through the complex lattice despite the fact that there are impurities and lattice
inside a superconductor. Several experiments have proved the existence of permanent currents over
years so that the resistance of superconducting pure metals seems practically zero, more exactly,
r < 10 –25 Wm.
Soon after the discovery of superconductivity, it was found that superconductivity may be
destroyed, that is, superconductors can become normal again not only by its heating but also by
the magnetic field, which calls the critical magnetic field (Bc). As a result, the field-temperature
phase diagram characterizes superconductors. Onnes (Tuyn and Onnes 1926, Sizoo et al. 1926)
investigated such diagrams of pure metals. According to his experiments, the following relation
Bc = Bc0[1 – (T/Tc)2] was formulated, where Bc0 is the approximation of the critical magnetic field at
zero temperature. Superconductivity of pure metals exists below the dependence of Bc(T).
The superconducting state differs qualitatively from the normal (nonsuperconducting) state.
Namely, besides zero electrical resistivity, the magnetic field does not penetrate a superconductor
(perfect diamagnetic properties). The exclusion of magnetic fields from the bulk of a superconductor
is known as the Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect (Meissner and Ochsenfeld 1933), and it is the feature
of superconductors that distinguishes superconductivity from ideal conductivity. The nature of
this effect cannot be explained using the macroscopic Maxwell equations because it is a quantum
phenomenon. The phenomenological theory facilitates understanding of the Meissner-Ochsenfeld
effect. This theory was developed by F. London and H. London (London F. and London H. 1935).
They proposed the system of equations describing the microscopic electric and magnetic fields in
superconductors (the so-called London’s electrodynamics). The first equation describes the perfect
2 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

electrical conductivity. The second equation leads to the solution according to which a magnetic
field has an exponentially decaying form, in particular, in the 1 D approximation B = Ba  exp (–x/ lL),
that is, the external magnetic field Ba is screened from the interior of a superconductor within a
distance lL , known as the London penetration depth, which has the values 10 –6 – 10 –5 cm.
In 1950, Ginzburg and Landau (Ginzburg and Landau 1950) proposed the theory using
thermodynamic concepts. It is based on Landau’s theory of the phase transitions of the second-
order to predict the superconducting electron density ns. The Ginzburg-Landau equations lead to
the characteristic parameter k = lL/x, which is equal to the ratio of the penetration depth lL and the
coherence length x. The latter quantity may be defined as the length scale over which Ginzburg-
Landau’s order factor varies. The coherence length is also a measure of the length scale over
which the gradual change from normal to superconducting state occurs at the external boundary
of a superconductor. Therefore, it can be considered as the scale over which the superconducting
electron of the density ns goes from zero at the external boundary to a constant value inside the
superconductor. The Ginzburg-Landau theory is an alternative to London’s theory. However, the
Ginzburg-Landau theory does not explain the microscopic mechanisms of superconductivity. It
examines the macroscopic properties of the superconductor with the aid of general thermodynamic
equations. This theory is the phenomenological theory in the sense of its assumptions for describing
the state transition. It is based on quantum mechanics instead of the macroscopic electromagnetic
phenomena.
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer advanced the understanding of superconductivity through the
microscopic theory of superconductivity (Bardeen et al. 1957). It explains superconductivity at
temperatures close to absolute zero. Their theory offered that atomic lattice vibrations affect the
entire current in the superconductor. They force the electrons to pair up into teams that could pass
all the obstacles, which cause the resistance of a normal conductor.
Abrikosov used the Ginzburg-Landau theory and investigated the properties of superconductors
with k >> 1 (Abrikosov 1957). Earlier such superconducting alloys were experimentally observed
by De Haas and Voogd (De Haas and Voogd 1929) and Shubnikov and his colleagues (Rjabinin and
Schubnikow 1935). Abrikosov theoretically justified the existence of these materials. They were
called the type-II superconductor. Later, the type-II superconductors, which may be used in practical
applications, came to be called nonideal type-II superconductors or hard superconductors. Type-II
superconductors are characterized by two critical fields: the first or lower (Bc1) and second or upper
(Bc2) critical fields. They depend on temperature. The value of Bc2 is zero at the critical temperature
of the superconductor. Type-II superconductors are in the Meissner state and exclude the external
magnetic field from the bulk of the superconductor below the value of Bc1. Magnetic fields between
Bc1 and Bc2 penetrate the superconductor in the form of vortexes containing the single elementary
quantum (F0 = 2.0678 · 10 –15 Wb). The magnetic field is surrounded by a vortex supercurrent. The
Cooper pair density is equal to zero at the center of the vortex meaning that the core of a vortex is a
normal state. Abrikosov had shown that the normal regions organize a triangular lattice of vortexes.
Such a state is called a mixed state. These states were experimentally observed in LTS and HTS
(Essmann and Träuble 1966, Hess et al. 1991, Hug et al. 1994, Eskildsen et al. 2002). The triangular
lattice is the close-packed configuration. There are large numbers of type-II superconductors. In
particular, LTS and HTS are the type-II superconductors.
Since the discovery of superconductivity, many efforts were made to find superconducting
materials with critical temperatures as high as possible to solve cryogenic problems. In 1973, the
record value of the critical temperature reached for Nb3Ge film with a value of 23.2 K. Remarkable
discovery was achieved by G. Bednorz and A. Müller (Bednorz and Müller 1986). It was shown that
a copper oxide compound with the stoichiometry La2–xBa xCuO4 had the superconducting properties
at about 29 K which is strongly dependent on x. The superconductor with the stoichiometry
YBa2Cu3O7–x was found later. Its critical temperature is about 90 K that is higher than the boiling
temperature of liquid nitrogen. Ceramics Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x (Bi2212) and Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10+x (Bi2223),
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 3

Tl2Ba2Ca2CuO8+x and HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+x raised the upper limit of the critical temperature. The
critical current of about 164 K was measured in HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+x under the pressure of 31 GPa.
The HTS cuprates have a significant interest in applied superconductivity. However, they are
highly anisotropic granular materials. Herewith, they are characterized by a weak-link effect
between their grain boundaries which decreases allowable current density. They are also brittle.
These features cause difficulties for applications. In spite of these handicaps, the technology of HTS
fabrication makes progress. As a result, the critical currents of HTS have increased to be useful for
applications. Many pilots HTS devices were manufactured: electric power cables, rotating electrical
machines, generators and others. Today, HTS is used in large-scale LTS magnets as high-field
inserts to produce a magnetic field higher than 22 T and are used more in the future at liquid helium
temperature level, like effective current leads, as fault current limiters for electrical engineering.
Thus summarizing, it is important to note that the search for new high-temperature superconductors
will undoubtedly lead to new and unexpected discoveries. Today, the scientific and technical
programs of developed countries provide a lot of activities, including fundamental and applied
researches aimed at solving the problems of practical superconductivity applications in energy and
electrical engineering, medicine, electronics and others. Thus, applied superconductivity becomes a
large branch of the modern industry which allows for the emerging energy needs of society.

1.2 IDEAL AND NONIDEAL TYPE-II SUPERCONDUCTORS

RESISTIVE STATES OF TECHNICAL SUPERCONDUCTORS
AND THEIR VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS
As discussed above, there exist two types of superconductors: type-I (k << 1) and type-II (k >> 1).
Type-I superconductors have the critical field that is related thermodynamically to the free-energy
difference between the normal and superconducting states (Buckel and Kleiner, 2004). The critical
magnetic field Bc for these superconductors is very low. Magnetic fields, weaker than the critical
field Bc, are completely pushed out from the bulk of the superconductor by screening current flowing
in a very thin layer at the surface. The superconductors used for applications are of type-II. For
applications, they are operated in a mixed state. Their critical parameters Tc, Bc1 and Bc2 are intrinsic
material properties. Bulk superconductivity is lost at the upper critical magnetic field Bc2. This value
is essentially higher than the thermodynamic critical magnetic field Bc of type-I superconductors.
Another important characteristic of a superconductor is the critical current density (Jc). For pure
metallic elements, it is the maximum current density which can flow in a superconductor without
dissipation. Their critical current density depends on the magnetic field and temperature of the
element.
The temperature dependence for the critical current density of pure metallic elements (type-I
superconductors) was defined by Onnes (Onnes, 1913d) as follows: Jc = J0 (1 – T/Tc). Here, J0 is
the critical current density approximation at zero temperature. He also observed the influence of a
magnetic field on Jc. The theoretical formulation of this dependence was made by Silsbee (Silsbee
1916) who analyzed details of Onnes’ published results. It was affirmed that the critical current
density of pure metallic elements has the value at which the magnetic field stated by current itself
equals the critical magnetic field. Therefore, all the critical parameters of the type-I superconductors
are interrelated.
As above-mentioned, the linear dependence Jc (T) can be also used to describe the critical current
density of type-II superconductors. However, the value of Jc is not correlated with Tc, Bc1 and Bc2 in
contrast to type-I superconductors. It depends on the material properties.
If a current is passed through the type-II superconductor in the mixed state, then it will interact
with the vortices causing their movement in the perpendicular direction to the current and magnetic
field due to the Lorentz force. The Lorentz force density between the current J and the flux is given
by FL = J ¥ B = J ¥ nF0, where n is the total number of vortices. This is a viscous motion that leads
4 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

to heat generation. Under features of a flow flux, there exist ideal (without structure defects) and
nonideal (with structure defects) type-II superconductors.
A current, which flows through the ideal type-II superconductor, generates constant heat because
the vortices continuously move due to the Lorentz force. In other words, the superconductor has a
resistance because there exists the moving electric field, which is equal to E = v × B and parallel
to J. Here, v is the velocity of the vortices. As a result, the critical current density of ideal type-II
superconductors is equal to zero.
In nonideal type-II superconductors, the vortexes are pinned by the impurities or defects under the
so-called pinning force Fp. The sites, in which the vortices stay at a fixed position, are called pinning
centers. There are various types of pinning centers (both naturals and artificially created): zero-
dimensional pinning centers like a crystal lattice point defects, the one-dimensional pinning centers
like displacement lines, the two-dimensional pinning centers like grain and domain boundaries or
surface defects and the three-dimensional pinning centers like artificially created precipitations
and columnar defect channels. For the specific current, the Lorentz force overcomes the pinning
force and the vortexes start the movement. As a result, a dissipation phenomenon occurs. They will
continually move through the superconductor until the vortexes are pinned by other pinning centers.
The higher the pinning forces Fp, the higher the current density, which can be passed through the
superconductor before the transition to a normal state. In other words, the flux pinning phenomenon
determines the critical current of nonideal type-II superconductors. Therefore, the critical current
density of nonideal type-II superconductors corresponds to the current when the Lorentz force
equals the average pinning force, that is, it is equal to |Jc| = |Fp|/|B|. Besides, the pinning force, the
pinning center density also influences the critical current.
These features show that there exists the characteristic state of nonideal type-II superconductors.
It is called the critical state. The latter indicates that the distributions of the magnetic field and the
current (transport or screening) lead to the balance between the Lorentz and flux pinning forces.
That is why ideal type-II superconductors without defects have zero critical currents.
Not only the magnetic mechanism influences the movement of the vortexes, they can hop out of
the pinning centers by the thermal activation mechanism due to which the movement of the vortexes
occurs even without a magnetic field or a transport current (Kim et al. 1963). For evaluating a similar
effect, the depth of the potential well U0 of the pinning centers has to be compared with the thermal
energy kT of the vortices (k is the Boltzmann constant). For LTS, the ratio U0 /kT is quite large, so
that the vortices are confined in the pinning centers up to temperatures close to Tc. For HTS, the
operating temperature is higher so that the ratio U0 /kT is smaller for the same pinning energy U0.
As a result, if the current becomes locally larger than Jc in this site, then the excessive current will
be redistributed into the regions where the current density J is still below Jc. That is why many
experiments have shown that there exists the so-called flux-creep state (the thermally activated flux
flow) in LTS and HTS. The redistribution is determined by many reasons: a thermal activation of
magnetic flux, pinning heterogeneity, vortex structure defects, etc. They lead to a random local drift
of the magnetic flux under the action of the Lorentz force which is accompanied by corresponding
energy dissipation. As a result, the electric field is continually increased inside the nonideal type-II
superconductor due to the random nature of the vortices’ movements. Because of this, its resistance
has a finite value even at currents smaller than Jc. Consequently, the corresponding dependence
of E(J) (commonly known as the voltage-current characteristic or V-I characteristic) is measured
in experiments for a wide range of electric fields, even for their very small values. Thereby, the
macroscopic electromagnetic properties of LTS and HTS may become sensitive to the subcritical
electric field region.
Thus, the theoretical models described the electrodynamics states of nonideal type-II
superconductors should be based on the investigation of the microscopic dynamics of the vortexes
(Blatter et al. 1994, Yeshurun et al. 1996). However, the proposed approaches lead to significant
difficulties. At the same time, if the density of vortices is large on the spatial scales exceeding the
London penetration depth, then the evolution of the magnetic flux is a result of its macroscopic
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 5

diffusion occurring in the superconductors in response to any perturbation. Therefore, the

electrodynamic states of these superconductors can be investigated using macroscopic models.
Then the Maxwell equations, supplemented by the corresponding V-I characteristic, facilitate
analyzing evolution of electrodynamic states using the phenomenological models. In this case, the
V-I characteristic, which, first of all, exist due to the fluctuating nature of the vortices penetration
in the superconductor that takes into account integrally the features of the vortex lattice formation
as the whole. Let us define the superconductors and composites based on them having the real V-I
characteristic as the technical superconductors.
In this regard, the innovative investigations of Bean should be noted. To explain the hysteresis
phenomena observed in the technical superconductors, Bean proposed the so-called critical state
model (Bean 1962a, 1964b). This concept was the result of many experimental measurements of
the voltage-current characteristics of low-Tc superconductors when their change in the vicinity
of a certain current has a sharply increasing character. The critical state model made it possible
to understand in a simple and clear form many features of the development of electrodynamics
phenomena in technical superconductors like to estimate losses (Carr 1983) and formulate the
stability criteria of the superconducting state (Wilson 1983, Gurevich et al. 1997c). Note that the
critical current density of the superconductor in the Bean model is independent of the magnetic
field. This dependence is taken into account in the Anderson-Kim model (Anderson et al. 1964).
This model describes more accurately the electrodynamic states of superconductors.
Using the concept of the critical state, the real V-I characteristic is described by an ideal
dependence written in the form
ÏÔ0, J £ J c (T , B)
E=Ì (1.1)
ÓÔ J c , J > J c (T , B)
It describes an abrupt transition from the superconducting state to the normal one with infinitely
large differential resistivity (a jump-like transition). In other words, the critical state model indicates
that the distributions of the magnetic field and the current density (transport or induced current)
are based on the balance of the Lorentz forces (or flux driving force) and their pinning forces. In
the framework of this approximation, any change of the magnetic flux in a superconductor leads to
the appearance of the screening currents with the current density which is equal to the critical one.
These are macroscopic currents flowing in superconductors.
Modification of this model is given by the relations

ÏÔ0, J £ J c
E=Ì (1.2)
ÔÓ J ÈÎ r f ( J - J c )˘˚ / J , J > Jc

which is known as the viscous flux-flow model. Under this approximation, the superconductor is in
a dissipative regime termed as viscous flux-flow. This model is characterized by a linear rise of V-I
characteristic at |J| > Jc because it assumes that the electrical field is proportional to the number of
the vortices in the superconductor up to the normal state. As a result, a new physical quantity called
the flux-flow resistivity rf ,—which is associated with normal resistivity of the superconductor r n by
the relation rf = r nB/Bc2—is introduced.
Idealized models (1.1) and (1.2) are intensively used to get analytical and numerical solutions
for many practical cases. They show that the vortices do not move as long as current density is
less than the critical current density and thus it completely neglects the energy dissipation in the
subcritical region J < Jc. To describe the flux-creep electrodynamics of the technical superconductors
more exactly, one may investigate the macroscopic evolution of the electromagnetic field in
the superconductor taking into account the real form of the V-I characteristics. Various models
considering the microscopic quantities of a superconductor are used for explanations of these
dependencies caused by specific mechanisms of the flux-creep. Among them, the model of a
6 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

thermally activated uncorrelated hopping of point-like vortex bundles (Anderson 1962, Anderson
and Kim 1964), the model of the creep activation barrier when the vortex motion is controlled by
many spatial intrinsic defects (Zeldov et al. 1989, Fisher 1989, Blatter et al. 1994), the vortex glass
and the collective creep models (Zeldov et al. 1990, Nattermann 1990, Fisher D. S. et al. 1991,
Feigel’men et al. 1991) are most successfully and widely used.
These are simplest models taking into account the resistivity of superconductors, when
the drift of vortices determines the existing electric field. Unfortunately, a complete theory
describing the nonlinear part of the real V-I characteristics is not developed yet. Therefore, the
various phenomenological relations describe the electric field in superconductors measured in an
experiment. In particular, the power and exponential equations are often used. In the simplest cases,
it can be written as follows
E = Ec ( J / J c ) n (1.3)
E = Ec exp[( J - J c ) /Jd ] (1.4)
Here, Ec is a priori defined electric field criterion which states the critical current density Jc, namely,
E(Jc) = Ec, n is the exponent of the power V-I characteristic (n-value) and Jd is the creep current
density (rise parameter) determining the slope of the exponential V-I characteristic.
The power equation (1.3) corresponds to a logarithmic current dependence of the potential
barrier U = nT ln (Jc /J) in the Arrhenius law written as follows: E = Ec exp[ -U ( J , T , B) / T ]. This
dependence is measured in many experiments that deal with both LTS and HTS. In LTS, the values
of n are typically above 50, and the critical current weakly depends on the definition criteria Ec.
The HTS has noticeable smaller values of n. Therefore, their critical current is ill-defined. As a
result, the influence of the n-value cannot be ignored, and it is an important factor in addition to the
critical parameters of HTS. The n-value is defined by fitting of the voltage-current characteristic,
namely, n = d (ln E ) /d (ln J ) = ( J /E ) dE /dJ . The n-value may be determined also by fitting of the V-I
characteristic described it in logarithmic coordinates. Then, n = ln( E / Ec ) / ln( J / J c ) .
The Anderson–Kim model with the linear current dependence of the potential barrier
(U = U0[1 – J/ Jc]) lies at the basis of the exponential relation (1.4). This state is also observed for
both LTS and HTS. Usually, the inequality Jd << Jc is valid for all of practically interest cases. The
exponential V-I characteristic will be sufficiently steep if the condition Jd /Jc << 0.1 occurs.
The written relations (1.3) and (1.4) facilitate in describing the experimental data with sufficient
accuracy. Quantities n and Jd define the steepness of the transition from the superconducting to the
normal state: the higher the n-value (the lower the Jd value), the better the superconductor because
of a steep transition. It can carry a current very close to Jc generating a very low voltage. In general,
Jc and n-value are the functions of the magnetic field and temperature. The dependence of n(T)
may be essentially nonlinear near liquid nitrogen operating temperature. The n and Jd values are
isotropic in LTS and anisotropic in HTS. Equations (1.3) and (1.4) are also convenient because they
can interpolate the limiting transitions to the critical state model at n Æ • or Jd Æ 0. Expanding the
dependence (1.4) in series by taking into account that d = Jd /Jc (T0, Ba) << 1 and keeping the first two
terms, one can find that n µ 1/d with the accuracy of d 2 << 1.
As a rule, the critical current is experimentally measured by the conventional four-probe
technique and determined by two equivalent criteria. They are the electric field criterion, which is
equal to Ec = 1 μV/cm, or with the resistivity rc = 10 −11 W · cm. Given the value of rc is much smaller
than the resistivity of copper at 4.2 K. That is why this resistivity criterion may be adopted as almost
zero resistance for measurements.
Although the critical current and n-value are easily obtained by the four-probe technique for
short HTS samples, it is difficult or almost impossible to measure both parameters in each section
of long HTS tapes by this method. In this case, to measure the critical current and n-value of
HTS tapes, the contact-free methods or the statistical analysis methods taking into account the
inhomogeneity of the critical current and n-value used in long HTS tapes.
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 7

It should be noted that the relations (1.1)–(1.4) do not exhaust all the possible types of the V-I
characteristic. At the same time, they permit the experimental data to be described with sufficient
accuracy. Therefore, they are widely used in theoretical analyses.
Thus, the transition of nonideal type-II superconductors (hence, the technical superconductors)
from the normal state to the superconducting one depends on three critical parameters: the
current density, the external magnetic field and the temperature. They lead to the critical surface
of the superconductor. As a rule, the critical surface of technical superconductors is depicted as
a dependence of their critical current density Jc (B, T) on the magnetic field induction and the
temperature. According to the experimental studies of the critical parameters of LTS and HTS,
various analytical expressions are also offered to calculate them. Here are some of them.
In the uncomplicated cases, the critical current density of superconductors may be described by
linear approximation as follows
J c (T , B) = J cB ( B)[1 - T / TcB ( B)] (1.5)
offered by Onnes (1913d) or in the form

J c (T , B) = J c 0 ( B)(TcB - T ) / (TcB - T0 ), J c 0 ( B) = J cB ( B)[1 - T0 / TcB ( B)] (1.6)

Here, the current density JcB and the temperature TcB are the fitting critical parameters at a given
value of the applied magnetic field, T0 is the operating temperature.
Different equations are used to describe JcB. In the framework of the Bean model, it is stated
as a constant. At the same time, other critical state models were formulated. First of all, it should
mention the Anderson-Kim model. According to this model, the dependence of the critical current
density on the magnetic field is described as follows

J cB = a /( B + B0 ) (1.7)
where a and B 0 are the fitting parameters for each superconductor.
According to Onnes (Tuyn and Onnes 1926, Sizoo and Onnes 1926), the magnetic field
dependence on the critical temperature may be described as follows

TcB = Tc 0 1 - B /Bc 2 (0)

or it may be found by the linear fitting of the corresponding experimental data in which the
dependence Jc (T, B) is measured. Here, Bc2(0) is the approximation of the upper critical magnetic
field at zero temperature and Tc0 is the critical temperature at zero magnetic field. Then, the
temperature dependence of the second critical field is expressed as:
Bc 2 (T ) = Bc 2 (0)[1 - (T / Tc 0 )2 ] .

It should be noted that the expressions (1.5)-(1.7) do not allow approximating the experimental
Curves Jc (B, T) in the entire variation range of the values T and B. Therefore, the models that are
considered more general are used.
According to Lubell (Lubell 1983), the temperature dependence of the second critical field, the
field dependencies of the critical temperature and the critical current density of the Nb-Ti alloy can
be described by the expressions
Bc 2 (T ) = Bc 2 (0)[1 - (T / Tc 0 )n ], TcB = Tc 0 (1 - B /Bc 2 (0))1/ n ,
J c (T , B) = J cB ( B)[1 - (T / TcB )]n

at n = 1.7, Bc2(0) = 14.5 T, Tc0 = 9.2 K.

In the Bottura approximation (Bottura 1999a), the critical current density of Nb-Ti can be
calculated by the formula
8 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

g
C È B ˘ È
a
B ˘
b È Ê T ˆn˘
J c (T , B) = 0 Í ˙ Í1 - ˙ Í1 - Á ˙ .
B B
Î c2 (T ) ˚ Î Bc 2 (T ) ˚ Í Ë Tc 0 ˜¯ ˙
Î ˚
Here, the parameters n, Bc2 (0), JcB, Tc0, C0, a, b and g are chosen based on the experimental data as
they depend on the structure of the superconductor.
For Nb3Sn superconductors, it is possible to use the Summers formulae (Summers et al. 1991),
which take into account the influence of voltages acting on the brittle Nb3Sn. According to them, the
temperature dependence of the second critical field can be calculated as follows
È Ê T ˆ 2 ˘ ÏÔ Ê T ˆ È
2
Ê T ˆ ˘ ¸Ô
Bc 2 (T , e) = Bc 2 (0, e) Í1 - Á ˜
˙ Ì1 - 0.31
Á ˜ Í1 - 1.77 ln Á ˙˝ .
Í Ë Tc 0 (e) ¯ ˙ Ô Ë Tc 0 (e) ¯ ÍÎ Ë Tc 0 (e) ˜¯ ˙˚ Ô
Î ˚Ó ˛
Here, the second critical magnetic field at zero temperature and the critical temperature at zero
magnetic fields are described by formulae,
1.7 ˘1/ 3
Bc 2 (0, e) = Bc 2 (0, 0) È1 - a e
1.7 ˘
, Tc 0 (e) = Tc 0 (0) È1 - a e
Î ˚ Î ˚
respectively, in which a = 900 at compression deformation and a = 1.25 at tensile deformation. For
binary compounds Bc2 (0, 0) = 24 T and Tc0 (0) = 16 K and for triple compounds Bc2 (0, 0) = 28 T and
Tc0 (0) = 18 K.
The formula for calculating the critical current density is
2
˘ È Ê T ˆ ˘
2 2
C (e) È B 1/ 2
J c ( B, T , e) = Í1 - ˙ Í1 - ˙ , C (e) = C (0) È1 - a e 1.7 ˘
B Î Á ˜
Bc 2 (T , e) ˚ Í Ë Tc 0 (e) ¯ ˙ Î ˚
Î ˚
where C(0) is a scale parameter.
To calculate the critical parameters of HTS, there are also corresponding approximate formulae.
Let us write the most common of them.
Bottura (Bottura 2002b), summarizing the results presented in (van der Laan et al. 2001, Wesche
1995) introduced the expression describing the critical current density of Bi-based superconductors
as a function of magnetic field and temperature as follows:
g
Ê T ˆ È B0 Ê bB ˆ˘
J c (T , B) = J 0 Á 1 - Í(1 - c) + c exp Á - ˙ (1.8)
Ë ˜
Tc 0 ¯ ÍÎ B0 + B Ë Bc 0 exp(-aT / Tc 0 ) ˜¯ ˙˚

Here, a, b, g, c and B0 are fitting constants, Tc0 is the critical temperature of superconductor in
zero magnetic fields, J0 and Bc0 are the approximation of the critical current density and the critical
magnetic field at zero temperature, respectively.
This formula considers the huge flux-creep states of Bi-based superconductors in high magnetic
fields which lead to the strong temperature degradation of the critical current. The Formula (1.8) may
be also used to calculate the effective values of Jc0 and TcB by the linear fitting to the corresponding
nonlinear Curves Jc (T, B). As for illustrations, Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 show the corresponding
comparisons between experimental data and calculations which were made for Ag/Bi2212 tape
discussed in (Romanovskii et al. 2006). The next constants,
Tc0 = 87.1 K, a = 10.3, b = 3.3, g = 1.73, c = 0.27, Bc0 = 465 T,
B 0 = 75 ¥ 10 –3 T, J0 = 1.1 ¥ 1010 A/m2 (1.9)
were used.
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 9

FIGURE 1.1 Critical currents Ic of the Ag-sheathed Bi 2Sr2CaCu 2O8 superconductor versus applied
magnetic field B at various operating temperatures T0: (¥) - experiment, (–––––) - fit calculations, 1 - T0 = 4.2 K,
2 - T0 = 10 K, 3 - T0 = 15 K, 4 - T0 = 20 K, 5 - T0 = 25 K, 6 - T0 = 30 K.

FIGURE 1.2 Temperature dependence of the critical current of Ag-sheathed Bi 2Sr2CaCu 2O8 at B = 10 T:
(¥) - experiment, (–––––) - fit calculation, (- - - -) - linear approximation.
10 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

In order to calculate the critical current density of YBCO in a wide range of temperature and
magnetic field variations, different models may be used. In particular, the Jc (T, B) dependence and the
corresponding parameters are given in (Kiss T. et al. 2003, Wesche 2011). In these approximations,
it has the following scaling form
p q
A r Ê B ˆ Ê B ˆ
J c (T , B) = Birr (T ) Á ˜ Á 1- (1.10)
B Ë Birr ¯ Ë Birr ˜¯
a
Here, Birr = Birr (0)(1 - T / Tc ) according to Wesche, Tc is the critical temperature and Birr (0), A, p,
r, q, b are the fitting parameters.
Another variant of such approximation was proposed by Awaji et al. (1996). Accordingly,
a q
Ê Tˆ Ê B ˆ
J c (T , B) = J 0 Á 1 - ˜ B p Á 1 - (1.11)
Ë Tc ¯ Ë Birr ˜¯
where Birr = Birr (0) exp( -bT ) with fitting parameters Birr (0), J0, p, q, a, b.

1.3 THERMO-ELECTRODYNAMIC FEATURES OF MACROSCOPIC

PHENOMENA IN TECHNICAL SUPERCONDUCTORS
As discussed above, the dynamics of the magnetic flux and electric field generated by the vortices
motion at B >> Bc1 can be studied in the macroscopic approximation using the Maxwell equations
rot E= –∂B/∂t, rot B = m0J (1.12)
In this case, the voltage-current characteristics (1.1)–(1.4) are the material equations of technical
superconductors, taking into account of the formation features of their resistive states in the
averaged form. Since energy losses occur during the vortices motion, the analysis of their diffusion
should allow for the change in the initial thermal state of the superconductor, taking into account
its possible transition to a normal state, even in any of its local area. The description of dissipative
phenomena in the superconductors is based on the solution of the quasilinear heat equation, which
generally has the form
∂T
C = div [ l grad T ] + G + P (1.13)
∂t
Here, C and l are the volumetric heat capacity and the thermal conductivity coefficient of the
superconducting material, respectively, depending on the spatial coordinates and temperature;
G = JE is the density of the Joule heat dissipation; P is the volumetric density of external heat
sources. The remaining parameters were defined above.
The system of equations (1.12) and (1.33) supplemented by the corresponding initial and boundary
conditions as well as the V-I characteristic facilitate the studying of the macroscopic phenomena in
low- and high-temperature superconducting materials. Moreover, their solutions also allow one to
perform the analysis of operating modes of superconducting magnets in the appropriate setting. The
problems that arise in this case but in more simplified formulations making it possible to understand
their physical features are discussed below in detail.
The system of equations (1.12) and (1.13) may be written in a scalar form as follows
∂J
m0 = DE, (1.14)
∂t
∂T
C (T ) = —[ l (T )—T ] + EJ + P (1.15)
∂t
for most practically important cases. Here, D is the Laplace operator and — is the nabla operator.
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 11

Let us assume that the V-I characteristic of a technical superconductor can be represented as
J (T , B) = J c (T , B) f ( E / Ec ) , where f is a certain dimensionless function, describing the features of
the increase of V-I characteristic of a superconductor. For example, for the V-I characteristic of
power and exponential types, it is described by the relations f ( E / Ec ) = ( E / Ec )1/ n and
f ( E / Ec ) = 1 + d ln( E / Ec ) , respectively. Since
∂J ∂J ∂E ∂J ∂T ∂J ∂B
= + + ,
∂t ∂E ∂t ∂T ∂t ∂B ∂t
equation (1.14) is transformed as follows
∂E Ê ∂J ∂T ∂J ∂B ˆ Ê ∂J c ∂T ∂J c ∂B ˆ Ê E ˆ
m 0s = DE - m0 Á + ˜¯ = DE + m0 Á + f .
∂t Ë ∂T ∂t ∂B ∂t Ë ∂T ∂t ∂B ∂t ˜¯ ÁË Ec ˜¯
Here, it was taken into account that s = ∂J/∂E is the differential conductivity of the superconductor,
and Jc is the monotonically falling function of the magnetic field and temperature. Considering the
equation of thermal conductivity (1.15), the above-equation is reduced to the form
∂E
m 0s = DE + g E + Q (1.16)
∂t
where
m0 J c (T , B) ∂J c 2 È 1 ∂J c ∂J ∂B ˘
g = f , Q = m0 f Í (—l—T + P ) f + c ˙
C (T ) ∂T Î C (T ) ∂T ∂B ∂t ˚
Equations of such types describe diffusion processes in so-called bulk multiplication media
(Murray 2009). Typical such phenomenon is a chain reaction of neutron fission in the active
medium with a multiplication factor g and an additional volume density of their source Q. First,
at g > 0 and Q = 0, the bulk self-generation of neutrons prevails over their absorption and an
uncontrolled chain reaction occurs at a certain g value. According to this analogy, a spontaneous
avalanche-like increase in the electric field (hence, the magnetic field and temperature) is
possible in superconductors leading to the destruction of the initial superconducting state even at
Q = 0. Such processes are called instabilities. They occur because the critical current density of
technical superconductors decreases with temperature and magnetic induction. In addition, Q > 0
even at a uniform temperature distribution in the superconductor, if the critical current density
of superconductor has the magnetic induction dependence or the superconductor is affected by
external sources of heat (P > 0). These two factors increase the probability of spontaneous transition
of the superconductor to the normal state. As will be shown below there is a critical heat release at
P > 0, after exceeding which the superconductivity is destroyed. Consequently, the stability of the
superconducting state and superconducting magnets can be destroyed even when their operating
parameters are in the subcritical region. Note that if in equation (1.16) the second and third terms
on its right part are small and may be neglected, then it describes stable processes occurring in
technical superconductors in the isothermal approximation. As a rule, the electrodynamics of
technical superconductors is investigated under the isothermal approximation.
Let us discuss other causes of the superconducting state instabilities. First, it is necessary to note
the role of the thermal state in the stability of superconducting states. As the temperature increases,
the critical current density Jc (T, B) decreases and the heat capacity C(T) increases. This leads to
a corresponding decrease in g and Q, which means more stable superconducting states, and even
to the possible emergence of new stable states at high temperatures. The temperature effect on the
electrodynamic states of superconducting materials is discussed in detail in Chapters 4-6. As a
result, instabilities may not be catastrophically avalanche-like. On the other hand, the conditions
for instabilities depend on the temperature and the magnetic field. Therefore, in superconducting
materials with high values of the critical current density, the onset of unstable states in them is
12 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

most likely and their development will have a rapidly increasing character at all other parameters
being equal. In addition, the nature of the formation of stable superconducting states and the onset
of instabilities depend on the temperature distribution in the superconductor, as it follows from
equation (1.26), and also depend on the magnitude and sign of the term div l (T) grad T. The latter
can be either positive or negative. The sign depends on the cooling conditions, the transverse size
of the superconducting filaments and the composite as the whole and their thermal conductivity
coefficients which in turn affect the stability conditions of the superconducting states.
It should be noted the influence of the intensity of the V-I characteristic increases on the conditions
of occurrence and development of instabilities. This depends on the type of function f (E/Ec) and the
changing character of s. In particular, as will be shown in Chapter 4 for power V-I characteristic,
the values of g and Q are proportional to the change of multiplier (E/Ec)1/n. Therefore, if the n-value
increases or d decreases, then the V-I characteristic is steeper. As a result, it is more likely to cause
instability and its rapid development. Thereby, the instabilities in the LTS will occur almost at
zero background electric field, and their development will have sharply increasing character. At
the same time, the development of the electrodynamic states will be smoother and occur against
the background of high electric fields in the HTS. (In Chapters 4-8, the chain formation of thermo-
electrodynamic states in superconductors with exponential and power V-I characteristic is discussed
in more detail).
The occurrence of instabilities in superconductors is associated with the falling dependence of
the critical current density of a superconductor on the temperature and magnetic field. According
to equation (1.16), this leads to additional heat. Indeed, an increase in the temperature or the
magnetic field inside composite will lead to a decrease in its critical current density. At a certain
size of the heat release or heat transfer conditions, this process becomes avalanche-like and the
superconducting state loses stability.
Thus, the macroscopic states of technical superconductors are metastable, and their irreversible
destruction can be avalanche-like due to the development of instabilities of different nature.
Collective thermal and electrodynamic processes that are weakly dependent on the microscopic
properties of a superconductor play a key role in their occurrence. As a result, the stability criteria of
the superconducting state can be formulated in the framework of macroscopic models. At the same
time, the consideration of temperature changes in technical superconductors before instability onset
is important for the correct description of the processes occurring in them due to the dependence of
C, Jc and ∂Jc/∂T on the temperature. The temperature of superconductors also depends on cooling
conditions, transverse dimensions of both superconducting filaments and composite as the whole.
These features are taken into account in the chapters discussed below.

1.4 INSTABILITIES OF THE SUPERCONDUCTING STATES

In spite of the success of the technology development of superconductors, their application in the
form of monofilament wires or massive tapes is unsuccessful. Superconducting magnets based on
such current-carrying elements may have the transition into the normal state at currents smaller than
the critical current of a superconductor. Let us discuss the main reasons for such superconducting
state instabilities.
During the manufacture of the first superconducting magnets, the problem of degradation of the
current-carrying capacity of superconductors, used in their winding, appeared almost immediately
(Wolgast et al. 1963). It was found that the values of the critical currents obtained on short samples
were not reproduced on solenoids made on their basis. Consequently, the fracture currents of their
superconducting state were unpredictably smaller than the corresponding critical currents obtained
by measurements on short samples. Moreover, the degree of degradation could increase with the
increase in the size of the transverse dimensions of the superconducting wire or solenoid. As a result,
a premature transition of the superconducting winding to the normal state may occur at currents
lower than the critical current of the superconducting wire. This is the uncontrolled transition of a
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 13

superconducting current-carrying element to the non-superconducting state, named as quenching

phenomenon. It may lead to its burnout or electrical breakdown with subsequent evaporation of
helium and an increase in pressure in the cryostat up to the explosion.
Later it turned out that the degradation phenomenon is associated with another effect, which
was called training effect. It is characterized by a gradual increase in the currents of the premature
transition of the superconducting winding as a result of its successive transitions to the normal state.
Thus, premature destruction of superconductivity may be observed even when the superconductor
is in the subcritical state (operating values of current, temperature and magnetic field do not exceed
the corresponding critical values) because the superconducting state is metastable according to
equation (1.16). Therefore, under specified conditions, it can be destroyed as a result of any external
disturbance. They can lead to an irreversible transition of the entire superconducting magnetic
system to the normal state.
As it was apparent, the superconducting magnets are subject to many external disturbances,
which can initiate local destruction of a superconducting state of filaments or their current-carrying
elements. Indeed, varying external magnetic field or transport current lead to a temperature increase
of superconductor. Correspondingly, the critical current density of superconductor decreases
because its Jc(T) dependence, as a rule, has a negative slope. As a result, the magnetization of a
superconductor also decreases leading to further penetration of the external magnetic field into a
superconductor. At specific conditions, the energy loss caused by the decrease of the magnetization
of superconductor can be sufficient to initiate its transition into a resistive state or even to a normal
state. From the thermodynamics viewpoint, this process is due to the metastable nature of the vortex
penetration. It leads to the so-called electrodynamic instabilities (magnetic or current) which are
the reasons why the superconducting magnets may not be workable. They exist in LTS and HTS.
Therefore, the instability problems of the superconducting state are one of the key problems arising
at the designing of the superconducting magnet. Their studies are of interest not only in light of
potential applications of superconductors but from a basic physical viewpoint. As a result, they
are one of the peculiar phenomena of research interest in both LTS and HTS as their investigation
allows one to understand the complexity of the vortex matter formation in the mixed-phase of these
superconductors.
Magnetic instability is the first instability that was observed experimentally (Evetts et al. 1964,
Hancox 1965, Wipf 1965). This phenomenon is also known as a flux jump which was the reason
why the first superconducting magnets lost their superconducting state. It leads to avalanche
flux redistribution toward a new equilibrium state, which is characterized by the corresponding
penetration of magnetic flux into the superconductor. As a result, the corresponding sharp increase
in its temperature happens. So, the screening currents may decrease to zero during flux jump.
Since the flux jump is a diffusion process of the redistribution of the magnetic field and heat flux
in the superconductor, then it depends on the relation between magnetic (Dm = rf /m0) and thermal
(Dt = l s/Cs) diffusivity coefficients. Here, Cs is the volumetric heat capacity of a superconductor, l s
is the coefficient of its heat conductivity, rf is the superconductor resistivity and m0 is the magnetic
permeability of a vacuum. Quantitative analysis of the flux jump involves two approximations. First
(so-called adiabatic approximation), the flux penetration is accompanied by practically adiabatic
heating of the superconductor at L = Dt / Dm = m0 ls (T0 ) /Cs (T0 ) r f << 1 since its thermal diffusivity
is much lower than the magnetic diffusivity. Second, it is the so-called dynamic approximation when
the spatial redistribution of flux remains practically fixed during the sharp heating at L >> 1. These
approximations are due to the difference between relatively high resistivity of the superconductor
in the normal state and low resistivity of the nonsuperconducting materials such as copper or silver
used as stabilizers.
Two different types of flux jumps can be observed, namely, global and partial. A global flux
jump involves vortices into motion in the entire volume of the superconductor. A partial flux jump
occurs in a small volume of the superconductor. The first turns the superconductor to the normal
state. The second self-terminates when the temperature is still less than the critical temperature of
the superconductor.
14 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

Usually, magnetic instabilities of nonideal type-II superconductors are investigated in the

framework of the critical state model (Evetts et al. 1964, Hancox 1965, Wipf and Lubell 1965,
Kremlev 1974, Duchateau and Turk 1975, Mints and Rakhmanov 1975 Mints and Rakhmanov
1982, Akachi et al. 1981, Gerber et al. 1993, Legrand et al. 1993, Muller and Andrikidis 1994,
Milner 2001, Fisher et al. 2001, Chabanenko et al. 2002). In the framework of the developed theory,
it is assumed that the flux jump is initiated by a small fluctuation of the temperature or external
magnetic field. Then a stable magnetic field distribution in the superconducting slab exists, if the
so-called adiabatic condition
b = m0 a 2 J c2 (T0 , Ba ) /[Cs (T0 )(TcB - T0 )] < 3 (1.17)
takes place (Evetts et al. 1964, Hancox 1965, Wipf and Lubell 1965). It was obtained under the
assumption that L Æ 0 while supposing that the temperature of the superconductor is equal to coolant
temperature before instability onset. Here, a is the half-thickness of the slab. The corresponding
instability field for the first flux jumps after cooling of the superconductor in a zero magnetic field
is equal to
B f = 3m0Cs (T0 )(TcB - T0 ) (1.18)
According to Wilson (1983), the allowance for the finite value of L leads to the corresponding
correction in the right side of the criterion (1.17). Namely, it can be written as
b < p 2 (1 + 2 L ) / 4 (1.19)
There should be a special emphasis on the fact that the isothermal approximation was used to
formulate the magnetic instability conditions (1.17)-(1.19). Indeed, the critical current density, the
heat capacity and the heat conductivity coefficient are determined at coolant temperature T0. In
other words, these criteria describe the stability conditions of the thermally isolated superconductor
whose temperature is equal to the coolant temperature upon adiabatic penetration of magnetic flux
in it.
Analysis of the magnetic instability conditions in the nonideal type-II superconductors taking
into account of the flux-creep states described by the exponential equation of the V-I characteristic,
written in the form
E = Ec exp[ J / Jd + (T - TcB )/ Td ] (1.20)
has been performed in (Klimenko and Martovetsky 1992; Zhou and Yang 2006) both for the LTS
and HTS. In particular, it was proposed as the model in whose framework the instability criterion
is written as follows
1 hp Jd
S ÚS
Eds > Em = (1.21)
S J c ∂J c / ∂T

Here, h is the heat transfer coefficient, p is the cooled perimeter of the conductor, S is its cross-
sectional area and Td and Jd are the temperature and current creep parameters of the V-I characteristic
(1.20). Accordingly, the temperature of superconductor Ti before instability is small and equals
Ti = T0 + Jd ∂J c / ∂T (1.22)
where the current density J is constant over the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
The physical sense of condition (1.21) is obvious. The superconducting state is stable when the
average value of the electric field over its cross-sectional area is lower than the characteristic value
Em. However, it is easy to find that criterion (1.21), which determines the first flux jump field in
superconductors during flux-creep, do not satisfy the limiting transition to criterion (1.17) at h Æ 0
or Td and Jd Æ 0 because the flux jump field will be equal to zero in these transitions. In other words,
the limiting transition to the critical state model (Jd Æ 0 or Td Æ 0) is not possible in the framework
of such approximations.
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 15

Criteria (1.17)-(1.19) show parameters which affect the magnetic stability of the critical state.
These are the superconductor thickness, its heat capacity, the critical current density and the
so-called temperature margin that is equal to TcB -T0. It is seen that the flux jumps can be avoided by
reducing the thickness of a superconductor. According to these criteria, the typical half-thickness
of the superconductor is of the order of 10-100 mm at 4.2 K. Therefore, superconducting wires must
be multifilament wires with filaments each of which do not lead to the flux jump. Accordingly,
technical superconductors are produced as conductors in which superconducting core are located
in a normal conducting matrix or coated by a normal metal. It is the so-called intrinsic method of
stabilization of the superconducting state.
At the same time, the probability of the magnetic instability occurrence decreases with increasing
temperature margin but it increases with increasing the critical current density. Besides, the higher
the heat capacity, lesser is the instability probability. As a rule, magnetic instability of LTS and HTS
is most probably in smaller magnetic fields and at operating temperatures close to liquid helium. In
general, HTS is more stable to flux jumps than LTS due to the high-temperature margin.
In addition, there is a magnetic bond between the superconducting filaments located in the electro-
conductive matrix. It negates the advantages of multifilament technics. As a result, multifilament
technical superconductors may be subject to flux jumps as well as the monolithic superconductor.
The magnetic bond between the filaments is avoided by twisting them so that they form screw
trajectories along the longitudinal axis of the composite.
The simple stability criteria, described above, allow one to explain the influence of the properties
of the superconductor on the magnetic instability onset. However, in general cases, it is not possible
to write down the stability criteria in the analytical form even when the solution for the problem
of magnetic instabilities in a cooled superconductor is reduced to the study of only the initial state
development under the action of infinitely small perturbations. Activities undertaken in this analysis
is based on the numerical analysis of the spectrum of the eigenvalues to determine such boundary
parameter b c when infinitely small perturbations are damped at b < b c and when the distribution of
the shielding currents is already unstable to infinitely small perturbations at b > b c as formulated in
(Wilson 1983, Gurevich et al. 1997c). This concept allowed one to formulate a general theoretical
approach to the definition of the stability criteria of the critical state with respect to infinitely small
perturbations. It is widely used in the study of flux jumps in both LTS (Wipf and Lubell 1965, Wipf
1967, Wilson et al. 1970, Kremlev 1974, Duchateau and Turk 1975, Mints and Rakhmanov 1975a,
Akachi T. et al. 1981) and HTS (Legrand et al. 1993, Muller and Andrikidis 1994, Legrand et al.
1996, Khene and Barbara 1999, Milner 2001) and also allows one to explain the instabilities which
are characteristic only for HTS (Fisher et al. 2001). (The features of the onset and development of
magnetic instabilities are discussed in more details in Chapters 4 and 5).
The instability of the superconducting state may be initiated by changing transport current in
superconductor or superconducting composite which is being supplied by the external power supply.
This phenomenon is known as the current instability.
In this case, the problem of determining the conditions for the absence of unstable states includes
the analysis of interrelated thermal and electrodynamics phenomena occurring in superconducting
composites, as a result of which the maximum permissible values of currents and the corresponding
values of the electric field and the temperature preceding the onset of current instability are
determined. For the first time, the current instability conditions were formulated (Polak et al. 1973)
under the assumption of an infinitely slow current charging into the Nb-Ti composite. It was found
that the maximum current flowing steadily in a superconductor depends on the nonlinear part of
the V-I characteristic of superconductor. In subsequent works, the corresponding estimates of the
maximum permissible currents depending on external conditions were written out. For example, in
Andrianov et al. (1983) equation for determining the current carrying capacity of a superconducting
composite under different current charging conditions is obtained. In particular, the stable value of
the current Im charging at a constant rate dI/dt follows from the solution of the equation
16 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

Im Ê Im ˆ 1 m hJ (T , B )S dI dJ c
+ ln Á 1 - + = 0, aeff = 0 c 0 a (1.23)
I c (T0 , Ba ) Ë I c (T0 , Ba ) ˜¯ aeff 4phpJ d dt dT T0 , Ba

for a round wire with the exponential equation of the voltage-current characteristic (1.4) placed
in a constant external magnetic field. Here, h is the volume fraction of the superconductor in the
composite. The physical meaning of the other parameters was determined earlier. The calculation
was made under the assumption that the increase in the temperature of the wire relative to the
temperature of the coolant before the current instability onset was negligible, and their own
magnetic field is much smaller than the external field. It leads to a falling dependence of Im (dI/dt)
which is observed in experiments.
The main reason for the current instability is the thermal imbalance between the heat release
induced by transport current and heat removal to the coolant. It may occur in the partially or fully
penetrated currents. In the first case, the current-carrying capacity of superconducting wires may be
essentially smaller than their critical current. The characteristic quantities of the current instability
phenomenon as a function of operating parameters are discussed in Chapter 6.
The effects of degradation and training can be also caused by high mechanical forces arising
in the winding that carry a high-density current and induce a high magnetic field. Under their
action, in the winding can be the movement of turns, their friction with each other, cracking of the
compound and the slip of the winding relative to the frame. In addition, high mechanical stresses
may be accompanied by corresponding plastic deformations of the wire which are intermittent at
low temperatures. All of these occurrences lead to additional heat generation in the volume of the
magnet that can be captured by any perturbation.
Due to these pulsed heat releases, local destruction of the superconducting properties of the wire
is possible which leads to the so-called thermal instability. The analysis of their permissible level
led to the concept of the so-called critical energy of thermal perturbation or the minimum quench
energy (Wipf 1978). If the energy of heat release is larger than the critical energy, then it causes a
thermal runaway (quench) while the energy of heat release that is smaller than the critical energy
leads to a recovery of superconducting properties of the composite. In general, to find the critical
energy, it is required to have a numerical solution of the thermal diffusion equation with highly
nonlinear thermo-electric properties and temperature-dependent heat generation term (Chen and
Purcell 1978, Schmidt 1978, Nick et al. 1979, Ishibashi et al. 1979, Anashkin et al. 1979, Keilin and
Romanovsky 1982). They show that for a composite superconductor with DC current, the critical
energy depends primarily on the cooling conditions and the length and duration of the thermal
disturbance. It was obtained that the critical energy, as a role, increases with increasing values of the
length and duration of the thermal disturbance (Keilin and Romanovsky 1982). It was shown that
the most dangerous aspect is the short local heat release. At the same time, unlike the magnetic or
current disturbances, for which measures to prevent them are clear, the unpredictable onset of thermal
instabilities is possible in superconducting magnets. They arise due to the inevitable technological
imperfection of the process of the superconducting magnet manufacturing, for example, when it is
wound that may lead to its degradation or/and training. It follows from the above that measures to
combat degradation and training should consist of reducing the energy of numerous mechanical
disturbances. To do this, the winding should be as rigid as possible while securely fastening the
entire winding volume during the winding process.
In order to avoid degradation, Stekly proposed a method of cryogenic stabilization (Kantrowitz
and Stekly 1965, Stekly and Zar 1965). It stated that even when a current, which is equal to
the critical current, flows through the cooled superconducting composite, its heating would
not exceed the critical temperature of the superconductor. This state of stability is achieved by
selecting the appropriate amount of stabilizing matrix and intensive cooling conditions. Then the
nonsuperconducting area (the so-called normal zone) arising because of any perturbation will not
propagate throughout the magnet since the presence of an appropriate amount of the stabilizing
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 17

matrix and effective heat transfer can contribute to the subsequent return of the current-carrying
element to the superconducting state. To estimate the degree of stabilization of a thin composite
superconducting composite, a dimensionless parameter
I c2 (T0 , Ba )rm
a= (1.24)
hp [TcB ( Ba ) - T0 ]S (1 - h)

maybe used according to Stekly’s idea. It is equal to the ratio of the Joule heat dissipation in the
matrix at the critical current flowing through it and the heat flow to the coolant from the surface
of the composite when its temperature is equal to the critical temperature of the superconductor.
Here, r m is the electrical resistivity of the matrix. If a £ 1, then the superconducting composite is
cryogenically stabilized since at any current less than the critical one all Joule heat release in the
composite is discharged into the coolant.
The method of cryogenic stabilization led to a significant increase in the reliability of
superconducting magnets. However, in this case, the superconductor is a small percentage of the
cross-sectional area of the current-carrying element (typically 5 to 15% depending on the size of
the magnet). Nevertheless, the operating modes of large superconducting systems are still being
designed based on the conditions of cryogenic stabilization. For the first time, the method of
cryogenic stabilization was used by Morpurgo to create superconducting magnets of the bubble
chamber in CERN.
The cryogenic stabilization was generalized by Maddock and his co-authors (Maddock et al.
1969). They took into account of the effect of the thermal conductivity l k (T) of a thin wire with a
current I smaller than the critical Ic —on the equilibrium condition in it of the heat release G (T) and
the heat transfer to the coolant W (T)—when l k, G and W are the functions of temperature T. It was
shown that under the condition
T2

Ú lk (T )(W - G) dT = 0 (1.25)
T1

when one end of the superconducting composite is at a temperature T1 and the other end is at a
temperature T2, the equilibrium temperature distribution will be established inside the conductor
regardless of the nature of the thermal disturbance. In the approximation, when the thermal
conductivity does not depend on the temperature, this condition leads to the so-called theorem of
equal areas. This name is due to the fact that in the temperature range from T1 to T2, the equilibrium
state in the composite superconductor occurs if the areas described by the temperature-dependent
Curves G(T) and W(T) are equal to each other. This theorem allows one to formulate the condition
of the full thermal stabilization of a composite superconductor. In particular, in the quasilinear
approximation (when the thermo-electric properties of the composite and the heat transfer coefficient
do not depend on the temperature), it can be written in the form
ai 2 - 2i + 1 = 0 (1.26)
If i = I/Ic (T0) = 1, then Maddock’s condition (1.26) passes into the Stekly condition. From the
existence of the critical energies, the conditions (1.25) and (1.26) describe operating modes that are
stabilized to arbitrary thermal disturbances. This conclusion is proved in Chapter 7.
Thus, thermal modes of the superconducting composites are characterized by stable and unstable
regimes. They follow from the existence of the avalanche-like solution of equation (1.16). There
exist different models allowing one to describe them. In this connection, it should be mentioned
the so-called concept of the minimum propagating zone (the MPZ concept) which was suggested
by Martinelli and Wipf (Martinelli and Wipf 1972) and later generalized by Wilson and Iwasa
(Wilson and Iwasa 1978). It was one of the first thermal stability theories that used to explain the
thermal instability of superconducting devices and to estimate their energy margin against short
instantaneous thermal perturbations.
18 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

The MPZ concept is based on the existence of the steady nonuniform temperature distribution
TMPZ (x) along with the superconducting composite with maximum temperature Tmax in a central
point of composite determined by the equality
Tmax

Ú l k (T )(W - G )dT = 0
T0

which is similar to the equal-area condition (1.35) and obeys the boundary conditions T xƱ• = T0 .
According to the MPZ concept, such temperature profile shows that any normal zone with an initial
temperature distribution below the MPZ profile obtained for a given heat generation G and cooling
heat flux W, that is at T ( x, t ) t = 0 < TMPZ ( x ) will not collapse since the cooling exceeds the heat
generation. As a result, the superconductivity will be maintained. When an initial temperature
profile is above that MPZ temperature distribution, that is if T ( x, t ) t = 0 > TMPZ ( x ) , then the normal
zone will grow in time and lead to the quenching. In other words, it is asserted that if a normal
zone during thermal perturbation has an initial length smaller than the so-called MPZ length, then
the temperature profile evolves quickly toward the steady profile. At the same time, the resistive
area greater at initial time than the MPZ length will grow without limit and lead to the quench
of a magnet. Thus, it was postulated that the energy margin can be estimated as the energy
necessary to instantaneously create the MPZ temperature distribution. Its value for an infinitely
long superconducting composite having temperature-dependent volumetric heat capacity C(T) is
determined as follows
+• Tmax
EMPZ = S Ú dx Ú C (T ) dT
-• T0

(Wipf 1978, Elrod et al. 1981). In the framework of the MPZ concept, this energy instantaneously
deposited at a point which is regarded as the minimum energy and is necessary in all conditions to
quench the composite superconductor. Thereby, this concept was called the Minimum Propagating
Zone. The legality of such approximation is discussed in Chapter 7.
If the magnetic system is partially stabilized, that is, a > 1 and therefore does not satisfy the
cryostabilization condition then despite the taken measures of the thermal stabilization, its emergency
transition to a normal state is possible when the energy of thermal perturbation exceeds the critical
value. In this case, the nonsuperconducting area (normal zone) propagates inside the magnet in
both longitudinal and transverse directions while increasing its temperature. Its maximum value
depends on the stored energy, the material of the superconductor, the rate of the current attenuation
in the magnet-power supply circuit and the time of its disconnection. If the released energy exceeds
hundreds of kilojoules, then the central part of the nonsuperconducting area can be heated to high
temperatures or high electrical voltage can occur (Smith 1963). As a result, the superconducting
magnet can irreversibly collapse. To avoid these phenomena, special protection measures have been
developed. Conventionally, they can be divided into two methods. First, it is necessary to create
conditions under which the stored energy is evenly distributed throughout the entire volume of the
magnet. In this case, measures should increase the propagation velocity of a normal zone to the
released stored energy that does not lead to a localized burn. However, it is necessary to ensure
that liquid helium is removed from the magnet to avoid the explosion of the cryostat. Second, it
is necessary to ensure that the operating current is removed from the magnetic system as soon as
possible. One of the effective methods of such protection is shunting the parts of the winding by
external resistances. In the case of an irreversible transition of the magnet to the normal state, a part
of the stored energy is dissipated on them. Both methods of protection must take into account the
propagation velocity of the normal zone inside the winding. In any case, however, it is necessary to
disconnect the power supply as soon as possible.
Concepts and Principal Provisions of Fundamental and Applied Superconductivity 19

To summarize, the instability of the superconducting state shows that superconducting current-
carrying elements of the magnet system are subjected to many disturbances of different nature.
They depend on their size, shape and operating modes. Therefore, these peculiarities must be taken
into account during the development of large-scale superconducting magnet systems, primarily
with poorly cooled, massive current-carrying elements immersed in rapidly varying magnetic fields
or carrying AC transport current. The corresponding stability conditions are discussed in detail in
Chapters 4-8.

1.5 CONCLUSIONS
In this Chapter, the main results of the theories of fundamental and applied superconductivity were
briefly discussed. The basic electrodynamic and thermal stability criteria of the superconducting
state are written down. They permit to estimate the boundary of the stable operability of
superconducting devices subjected to many external perturbations. However, they are formulated
within the framework of the models that a priori set the temperature of the superconductor before
the instability onset. At the same time, according to equation (1.16), the investigation of the
electrodynamics states formation of low- and high-temperature superconductors must take into
account their thermal prehistory. It is this general approximation that will allow to describe correctly
essentially nonlinear phenomena in superconductors, in particular, to explain the main reasons of
the onset and an avalanche-like development of the instabilities of different nature. The results
of such analysis extend understanding of the character of macroscopic phenomena developing in
the low- and high-temperature superconductors. Therefore, in Chapters 4-6 and sections 8.5 and
8.6, the formation mechanisms of the stable and unstable electrodynamics states of low- and high-
temperature superconductors are discussed considering their thermal prehistory.
Since superconductors are subjected to instabilities, the superconducting magnet operating
regimes can be destroyed if it is not correctly designed. Due to the large cost of the full-scale
prototypes and test equipment, a possible strategy is to develop the theoretical models to understand
the behavior of small-scale samples. It will allow not only the understanding of the stability
mechanisms of superconducting state but enhance its stable operating conditions for superconducting
devices. Therefore, the results presented below are focused on the simulation of the macroscopic
electromagnetic and thermal phenomena in LTS and HTS. They may be used in developing the
superconducting magnets and during analysis of conditions saving the superconductivity within a
wide range of the change in their operating parameters at external perturbations different nature.
 2
Macroscopic Electrodynamics of
NonIdeal Type-II Superconductors:
Isothermal Models

To optimize the design of superconducting magnet systems, it is necessary to predict the

electromagnetic behavior of their superconducting current-carrying elements to analyze the field
and current distributions and to calulate the electromagnetic losses and forces. Using various
types of V-I characteristics, the superconducting state forming can be investigated in terms of the
macroscopic models obtained by averaging the microscopic currents over Abrikosov’s vortices as
mentioned above. For this aim, it is convenient to present the Maxwell equations as equations for
the local electric field E = v ¥ B, which is caused by the motion of vortices with velocity v. Here, B
is the average magnetic induction (flux density) in a volume element. This approximation is valid
at B >> Bc1. Let us consider the possible models, which can be used to describe the macroscopic
electrodynamic states of nonideal type-II superconductors.

2.1 BEAN APPROXIMATION OF THE MAGNETIC FLUX

DIFFUSION IN SUPERCONDUCTORS (rf Æ •)
As above-mentioned, Bean made the application of the macroscopic theory to explain the hysteresis
phenomenon observed in hard superconductors. It is a quasi-static field theory based on the
solution of equations (1.12) with an ideal V-I characteristic (1.1). According to Bean’s assumption,
a superconductor is considered as an isothermal isotropic slab and the screening current density is
either zero or equal to the critical current density Jc0 = const at operating temperature T0 and external
magnetic field Ba. Their orientations follow from the right-hand law. Magnetic flux penetrates the
superconductor while changing consequently the magnetic field in it. The Meissner phase and the
dependence of the critical current density on the magnetic induction are not considered. In this case,
it is said that the superconductor is in the critical state since the current with the critical density
flows in a superconductor. Correspondingly, the model is called the critical state model (CSM).
To understand the features of the magnetic field and current distributions in a superconductor
defined by the Bean approximation, let us consider an initially nonmagnetized superconducting slab
without transport current having thickness 2a in the x-axis (Figure 2.1a). Assume that it is placed
in a uniform external magnetic field Ba that is increasing with a constant sweep rate B a = dBa / dt
from zero. Suppose that the y-z plane extends infinitely and the external magnetic field is along the
z-axis. Therefore, the induced magnetic field in the superconductor is also along the z-axis, and its
distribution is symmetrical. However, induced currents and electric fields are bipolar (Figure 2.1b).
Then the system of equation (1.12) converts into the following system
∂B ∂E ∂B
= ± m0 J c 0 , = - , ( - a < x < a, - • < y < •, - • < z < •) (2.1)
∂x ∂x ∂t
Macroscopic Electrodynamics of NonIdeal Type-II Superconductors: Isothermal Models 21

B B B
Ba>Bp
4
3

Ba Ba 5
Ba=Bp
2
Ba<Bp
Ba 1 x
x –a a –a a
–a –xc 0 xc a 0 0

J 4 J Jc0 J 5
Jc0
y Jc0
x 1 2, 3
2a 0 x 0 x 0 x
z –a a –a a –a a

–Jc0
–Jc0

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 2.1 Distributions of a magnetic field and screening current in a slab (a) according to the Bean
model during increasing (b) and decreasing (c) external magnetic field.

One-dimensional (1D) isothermal isotropic models like (2.1) are often used to describe
the macroscopic electrodynamic properties of nonideal type-II superconductors. Such simple
approximation is used to investigate the dynamics of vortices in superconductors (for example,
van der Beek et al. 1991, Gilchrist and van der Beek 1994, Gurevich 1995a, Gurevich and Brandt
1997b, Rhyner 1993, Vinokur et al. 1991) for the magnetization studying of superconductors
(Ding et al. 2000, Gurevich 1995a, Gurevich and Brandt 1997b, Yamafuji and Mawatari 1992)
and during analysis of their magnetic susceptibility (Gurevich and Brandt 1997b, Qin and Yao
1996). To study the electromagnetic properties of superconductors of arbitrary shape, the general
simulation algorithms were proposed by Brandt (1996) and Labusch and Doyle (1997). The
magnetic properties of superconductors for various geometries (for instance, strips, discs or rings)
and field orientation (parallel or perpendicular) may be computed by these methods. Moreover, to
investigate the magnetization of superconductors in 2D or 3D approximations, the finite difference,
finite element and boundary element methods including commercial software may be used (see
examples, Amemiya et al. 1998, Lahtinen et al. 1996, Vinot et al. 2000, Wakuda et al. 1997,
Wetzko et al. 1995). However, in many practical cases, one-dimensional models may be used. As a
result, 1D consideration allows one to understand the basic physical features of the electrodynamic
phenomena solving simplified equations without a large volume of computations. From this point
of view, the possible 1D solution in the closed-form is convenient to evaluate the experiments even
for the realistic geometry of superconductors. Therefore, the flux-creep features of the nonlinear
diffusion of the electromagnetic field are discussed below for the parallel geometries by taking
different models of V-I characteristics into consideration.
The isothermal approximations are also usually used in the study of the energy losses in
superconductors (for example, Carr 1983, Amemiya et al. 1998, Nibbio et al. 2001, Paasi and
Lahtinen 1998, Rhyner 1993, Stavrev et al. 2001, Stavrev et al. 2003). Note that during similar
simulations it is assumed that the permissible level of the heat release, at which superconductivity
is maintained, should not lead to the heating of the superconductor to a temperature exceeding its
critical value, regardless of the nature of the change in the external magnetic field and/or transport
current. The isothermal approximation is true at intense heat transfer conditions, relatively low rates
of the change of external magnetic field or charging current and small transverse dimensions of a
superconductor. However, its use should be strictly justified, that is it is necessary to give a correct
answer about the range of the stable temperature increase of the superconductor.
22 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

According to equations (2.1) and the boundary condition B(a ) = Ba (t ) = B a t , the distributions of
the magnetic and electric fields in the interior of the slab are given by
Ï Ba (t ) - m0 J c 0 (a - x ), 0 < xc ( t ) < x < a
Ô
B( x, t ) = Ì0, - xc (t ) < x < xc (t )
Ô B (t ) - m J (a + x ), - a < x < - x (t ) < 0
Ó a 0 c0 c
(2.2)
Ï B a (t )( xc (t ) - x ), 0 < xc ( t ) < x < a
Ô
E ( x, t ) = Ì0, x £ xc (t )
Ô 
Ó - Ba (t )( x + xc (t )), - a < x < - xc (t ) < 0
during partially penetrated states (lines 1). Here, the penetration coordinates of the external magnetic
field xc are defined as follows xc (t ) = a - Ba (t ) /( m0 J c 0 ). It may be also rewritten in the form xc (t) =
a – x0 (t), where x0 (t) = Ba(t)/(m0 Jc0) is the penetration depth of an external magnetic field.
As shown in (2.2), there are two regions (− a < x < − xc and xc < x < a) in which the magnetic
field and current exist in the partially penetrated modes. Accordingly, the magnetic field and the
screening current are zero in the region − xc(t) < x < xc(t).
At a certain moment, the induced magnetic field reaches the center of a slab (lines 2 in
Figure 2.1b). This magnetic field is called the fully penetrated magnetic field Bp, and it is equal to
Bp = m0 Jc0 a according to the solution (2.2). The magnetic field occupies the whole volume of the
slab, and the current density inside the slab is equal to the critical current density J = ± Jc0 (lines 2
in Figure 2.1b).
If the external magnetic field Ba increases further, then the magnetic field in the slab linearly
increases at each point (lines 3 in Figure 2.1b). At the same time, the screening current density in
the slab is constant according to the Bean model and it equals ± Jc0.
Thereby, the evolution of the magnetic moment of the slab during sweep-rate mode is described
as follows

1 È1 a ˘
M c (t ) =
m0
Í Ú
ÍÎ 2 a - a
B( x, t )dx - Ba (t )˙ =
˙˚
Ï1 È Ê x ˆ Bp Ê xc2 ˆ ˘ B Ba2 (2.3)
ÔÔ Í( Ba - B p ) Á 1 - c ˜ + Á 1 - 2˜
- Ba ˙ = a
- , Ba (t ) £ B p
- Ì m0 ÍÎ Ë a¯ 2 Ë a ¯ ˙˚ m0 2 m0 B p
Ô
ÔÓ J c 0 a /2, Bp < Ba < Bc 2
The presented solution allows one to find important characteristics of the stable superconducting
states taking place during the magnetic field penetration in the nonideal type-II superconductors,
t a
namely, the velocity of the flux penetration Vc = dxc/dt and hysteresis losses Gc = Ú Ú EJ c 0 dx dt .
Using (2.2), it is easy to find the following relationships 0 xc

Ï Ba3
Ô , Ba £ Bp = m0 J c 0 a
B a Ô 6 m0 B p
Vc = , Gc = Ì (2.4)
m0 J c 0 Ô Bp Ê 2 ˆ
Ô 2 m ÁË Ba - 3 Bp ˜¯ , Ba > B p
Ó 0
If an external magnetic field starts to decrease, then new bipolar currents of opposite polarity
are induced. Such states are described first by lines 4 and then by lines 5 in Figure 2.1c. Here,
the state described by the Curves 5 appears according to the hysteresis phenomenon in nonideal
Macroscopic Electrodynamics of NonIdeal Type-II Superconductors: Isothermal Models 23

type-II superconductors when a nonzero magnetic field exists in a superconductor at a zero external
magnetic field.
The written expressions describe modes of the superconductor in the simplest cases of the
monotonic increase/decrease regimes of the external magnetic field. Using the CSM, it is easy to
find energy losses for other modes. For example, if Ba increases with a constant sweep rate from
zero to Bk that is less than the full penetration field Bp and then decreases to zero. For this mode, the
energy losses are described by the formulae

Ï Bk3
Ô , B a > 0
Ô 6 m0 B p
Gc = Ì
3
Ô Bk 
Ô 24 m B , Ba < 0
Ó 0 p

If the external magnetic field changes periodically from Ba = B 0 – Bk to Ba = B 0 + Bk, the volume
density of losses for the period of this cycle is determined by the relations

Ï 2 Bk3
Ô , Bk £ Bp
Ô 3m0 B p
Gc = Ì
Ô 2 Bp Ê 2 ˆ
Ô m ÁË Bk - 3 Bp ˜¯ , Bk > Bp
Ó 0

These formulae show that the losses arising in superconductors placed in variable external
magnetic fields are hysteresis that is they depend on an initial distribution of the magnetic fields in
a superconductor.
The Bean approximation also allows one to describe many other practically important
electrodynamic states of nonideal type-II superconductors. For example, let us discuss the states
when the slab is charged by transport current I(t) without an external magnetic field (Ba = 0) which
called the self-field mode. Let us assume that current flows along the z-axis (Figure 2.2a). In this
case, the system (1.12) also leads to 1D differential equations, like (2.1) which can be easily solved.
Figure 2.2 demonstrates the corresponding distribution of the magnetic field and the transport
current.
During these operating modes, the transport current begins to penetrate first from the slab surface
(partially penetrated mode) with increasing value. The induced magnetic field correspondingly
increases. As shown in Figure 2.2b, the current in the slab distributes symmetrically in the cross-
sectional of a superconductor (lines 1). However, the induced magnetic field distribution inside the
slab is antisymmetric. Correspondingly, positive and negative values correspond to the magnetic
field distributions at the right and left-hand sides of the slab, respectively. The penetrated current
density is equal to its critical value Jc0 in each region of −a < x < − xc(t) and xc(t) < x < a through
which the magnetic field penetrates, respectively. The transport current and magnetic field are
zero in the region − xc < x < xc. The transport current and magnetic field may increase to a certain
value which was defined above as a fully penetrated state. This limiting state is shown by lines 2
in Figure 2.2b at which the current and magnetic field reaches simultaneously to the slab center
from both left and right sides. At this moment, the transport current is equal to its critical current
Ic = 2Jc0 a. Correspondingly, the magnetic field Bp = m0 Jc0 a produced by this current is the fully
penetrated field. It should be underlined that the critical current Ic and the fully penetrated field Bp
are the maximum allowed values, which characterize such limiting electrodynamic states of the
nonideal type-II superconductor in the framework of the CSM.
24 Basic Macroscopic Principles of Applied Superconductivity

By

B=Bp

2
B<Bp
1
–xc x
–a 0 xc a
I

y By
Jc0 J
x Jc0
1 x
2a
z –a 0 a

Jc0 J Jc0
2 x
(a) (b) –a 0 a

FIGURE 2.2 Distributions of transport current and self-magnetic field according to the Bean model.

Thus, the distributions of the current and magnetic field in the nonideal type-II superconductor
can be simply described by the Bean model. As a result, it significantly simplifies the mathematical
simulations, and it is often used to study the electromagnetic properties of nonideal type-II
superconductors. At the same time, the critical current density depends on the magnetic field in
practical cases. Therefore, other critical state models are used. As above-mentioned, one of them
is the Anderson-Kim model. Although there are some discrepancies between experimental results
and predictions leading from the Bean and Anderson-Kim models, they are still most widely used
because of their simplicity and intuitiveness allowing easy understanding of the basic physical
features of the electromagnetic phenomena in the nonideal type-II superconductors.

2.2 THE SWEEP-RATE PROBLEM FOR SUPERCONDUCTORS

WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF NONIDEAL VOLTAGE-
CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS. THE SPATIAL-TEMPORAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTIALLY PENETRATED MODES
In the previous paragraph, the forming dynamics of the stable superconducting states in the case
of the ideal V-I characteristic was considered, which is based on a jump change in the differential
resistivity of the superconductor from zero to infinitely large after reaching the critical current. Let
us discuss the physical features of the magnetic flux diffusion in nonideal type-II superconductors
during partially penetration mode when their differential resistivity depends on the type of the
nonlinearity of V-I characteristics.
Consider an ideally cooled half-infinite superconductor (0 < x < •, –• < y < •, –• < z < •)
placed in the external magnetic field Ba (Ba >> Bc1) which is parallel to its surface in the z-direction.
Formally, this mode corresponds to the case when the center of the coordinate system is located
on the left side of the slab as shown in Figure 2.1a with infinitely large geometric dimensions
in y and z directions and half-infinite in x direction. As above-mentioned, let us assume that the
external magnetic field on the surface is zero at the initial time and then it increases with a constant
sweep rate B a. Let us suppose for simplicity that the critical current density does not depend on the
Macroscopic Electrodynamics of NonIdeal Type-II Superconductors: Isothermal Models 25

magnetic induction. In this case, the Maxwell equations (2.1) are easily reduced to the following
equation
m 0 ∂E / ∂t = r d ∂ 2 E / ∂x 2 (2.5)
that describes the one-dimensional evolution of the induced electric field E = Ey (x, t). Here, rd is the
differential resistivity of the superconductor which is equal to
Ïr f
ÔÔ
rd = Ìn( Ec / E )1/ n E / J c 0 (2.6)
ÔE /J
ÔÓ d

for the flux-flow and flux-creep states described by the power and exponential equations, respectively.
Taking into account of the character of the magnetic field variation, the necessary boundary and
initial conditions describing the sweep-rate modes are written as follows
∂E / ∂x(0, t ) = - B , E (•, t ) = 0, E ( x, 0) = 0 .
a (2.7)
The first boundary condition takes into account of the rise of the external magnetic field growing
at a constant rate, and the second one is the apparent condition of the limited solution for a medium
with unlimited geometric dimensions.
For the correct analysis the extra condition
•
m0 Ú J ( x, t ) dx = Ba (t ) , (2.8)
0

which follows from Ampere’s law is also needed. It is written for the total volume of the
superconductor in the x-direction (0 < x < •). Here, the quantity of the current density J(x, t) in the
superconductor comes from the corresponding equations of the V-I characteristics.
Note that the conditions (2.7) and (2.8) are initially written under the assumption that the screening
current flows through the entire volume of the superconductor. From the formal viewpoint, this
assumption is justified since the finite electric field in the creep arises in the superconductor long
before the critical current is reached and leads to the appearance of the resistance in it. Therefore,
it is assumed that the stable electric field arising in the superconductor leads to an instantaneous
penetration of the external electromagnetic field into it.
The phenomena described by equation (2.5) with conditions (2.6)-(2.8) are characterized by the
space-temporal scales of their development like all typical diffusion phenomena. Besides, the shape
of the V-I characteristic also affects the features of the macroscopic magnetic flux dynamics. The
corresponding features are discussed below in detail. However, some qualitative aspects of this
phenomenon may be understood using simple dimensional analysis. Let us discuss them for the
problem under consideration.
As it is known, the change of the electromagnetic field in the conductor is characterized by the
diffusion time of the magnetic flux which determines the boundary between the transient and quasi-
steady states of the diffusion phenomenon considered. This quantity is defined as t x = m0 L2x / r x ,
where L x and rx are the characteristic values of the length and resistivity of the conductor. Their
choice depends on the features of the phenomenon under consideration. It is convenient to choose
the following L x value
L x = E x / B a (2.9)
in the case of diffusion of magnetic flux in a semi-infinite superconductor, which is placed in a
constantly increasing external magnetic field, that is during its partially penetrated state. It follows
from the first boundary condition (2.7). Here, Ex is the characteristic value of the electric field. Then,
the corresponding characteristic time is equal to
Exploring the Variety of Random
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"Be calm, Hermosa," said he, interrupting her, with a smile. "I have
drawn no conclusion derogatory to you from our conversation. I
understand that you have avowed an immense amount of gratitude
to the man who saved your life. I see it would make you happy to
know that this man is not unworthy of the feelings he has inspired. I
draw no other conclusion."
"It is exactly what I feel, Estevan; and I think the wish natural, and
one to which no blame can be attached."
"Certainly, my dear child. I do not blame the feeling in the least;
only, as I am a man, and can do many things interdicted to a
woman, I will try if I can lift the mysterious, veil which conceals the
life of your liberator, so as to tell you positively whether he is or is
not worthy of the interest you take in him."
"Do that, Estevan, and I will thank you from the bottom of my
heart."
The young man only replied by a smile to this passionate outbreak:
he saluted Hermosa, and retired.
As soon as he was gone, she hid her face in her hands and burst
into tears. Did she regret the confidence into which she had been
led, or was she afraid of herself? Only women can decide the
question, and only Spanish-American women, who are so
impressionable, and through whose veins rushes the lava of their
native volcanoes.
Don Fernando Carril, as we have already related, after his
conversation with the vaqueros, had taken, at a gallop the route to
the pueblo; but when he was within a hundred yards of the first
houses, he slackened his pace to a walk, and cast glances right and
left, as if in the expectation of meeting some person he wished to
see. But if such were his thoughts, it seemed as if he were doomed
to disappointment; for the road was completely deserted in all
directions as far as his eye could reach.
 CHAPTER X.

EL AS DE COPAS (THE ACE OF HEARTS).

Don Fernando checked his steed, and remained motionless as an

equestrian statue on a marble pedestal.
"He will not come," he muttered, after a while.
"Can he have deceived me?—It is impossible."
Casting, as a last hope, one more look around him, he dropped the
reins, but seized them again an instant later with a suddenness
which made his horse perform a curvette and wince with pain. Don
Fernando had just seen two cavaliers advancing towards him—one
approaching from the pueblo, the other riding down the road he had
himself taken.
"Come, come, it is all right," he said to himself; "This one is Don
Torribio Quiroga. But who is this other cavalier?" he added, turning
to the man who had just left the pueblo.
He frowned, seemed to hesitate for an instant, but soon formed his
decision, smiled ironically, and saying half-aloud, "It is better as it
is," made his horse execute a traverse, and placed himself exactly
across the middle of the road, so as to bar the passage completely.
The two arrivals, who greedily watched all his motions, took good
note of the hostile appearance of Don Fernando's position: neither
seemed to feel alarm, and both advanced at the same speed as
before. The cavalier coming from the pueblo was much nearer Don
Fernando than Don Torribio was, and was soon close to him.
Mexicans, of all ranks and however little education, have an
instinctive knowledge of social decorum, which never deceives them,
and a refined politeness which would astonish the inhabitants of the
Old World.
As soon as Don Fernando found the stranger within reach of his
voice, he slightly altered the position of his horse, doffed his hat,
and said, with a low bow:
"Señor caballero, permit me to ask you a question."
"Caballero," replied the stranger, with no less politeness, "it will be
an honour to me."
"My name is Don Fernando Carril."
"And mine, Don Estevan Diaz."
"Señor Don Estevan, I am happy to make your acquaintance. Would
you throw away ten minutes in my company?"
"Señor Don Fernando, however pressed for time I might be, I would
stop to enjoy your society."
"You are excessively kind; accept my thanks. I will explain in half a
dozen words. The caballero who is approaching is Señor—"
"Don Torribio Quiroga," interposed Don Estevan; "I know him."
"So much the better; the matter is simplified. That honourable
personage, as I found out by a strange chance is my bitter enemy."
"That is a pity."
"It is; but what shall I say? He is so thoroughly my enemy, that he
has tried four times to have me assassinated; has made me serve as
a target to banditti."
"It is grievous. He plays an evil game with you, Don Fernando."
"The very reflection I made myself; so, as I wish to have done with
him, I have resolved to offer him the means of getting out of the
scrape."
"It is the act of a true caballero."
"¡Caray! I can fancy how furious he will be. I am charmed at your
consenting to be witness of the transaction."
"With pleasure, caballero."
"A thousand thanks; I will gladly return the compliment. But here is
our man."
Don Torribio had continued to advance during this short
conversation, and was now only a short distance from the speakers.
"¡Válgame Dios!" he cried gaily; "If I do not mistake, it is my
admirable friend, Don Fernando Carril, whom I have the good
fortune to meet."
"Himself, my dear friend; and as happy as you can be at the chance
which has thrown us together."
"¡Vive Dios! Since I have got you, I will not let you go; we will ride
together as far as the pueblo."
"I should like it, Don Torribio; but first of all, with your permission, I
have a few words to say which may upset that plan."
"Speak then, señor; you can only utter words I shall be happy to
hear in Don Estevan's presence."
"In fact, Don Fernando has requested me to be present at the
conversation," said the latter.
"Nothing could be better! Let us hear, señor."
"Suppose we dismount," said Don Estevan; "the conversation may
be a long one."
"Well observed, caballero," replied Don Fernando; "I know a grotto
where we shall be quite at our ease. It is close at hand."
"Let us go there at once," said Don Torribio.
The three cavaliers left the beaten track, took a turn to the right,
and directed their steps towards a little wood of plane trees and
mahoganies, which stood at a short distance.
Anyone who had seen them thus, riding side by side, chatting and
smiling to each other, would have incontestably believed them to be
intimate friends, delighted at having met. However it was, nothing of
the kind, as our readers will soon see.
Exactly as Don Fernando had predicted, they soon gained the wood,
and found the natural grotto of which he had spoken.
The grotto was in the side of a hill of no great elevation, and its
proportions were scanty enough. Carpeted with verdure inside and
out, it was a charming place of repose for passing away the stifling
heat of the sun at midday.
The cavaliers dismounted, took the bridle from their horses, leaving
them to graze at will. They entered the grotto, and inhaled with
ineffable delight the freshness caused by a slender stream of water
which ran between its banks with a melancholy murmur, forming a
pleasant contrast with the burning atmosphere to which they were
recently exposed. They threw their zarapés on the ground, stretched
themselves out comfortably, and lit their maize pajillos (cigarettes).
"I am greatly obliged to you, Don Fernando, for thinking of this
delicious retreat," said Don Torribio; "now, if it is your pleasure to
speak, it will be an honour to me to listen."
"Señor Don Torribio, you really overwhelm me by so much courtesy.
Heaven bear witness, that if I were not your most implacable enemy,
I could be your dearest friend."
"Alas!" said Don Torribio, "Heaven has disposed otherwise."
"I know it, my good señor, and regret it with all my soul."
"Not more than I do, I swear."
"Well, as that is the case, we must act accordingly,"
"Alas! That is just what I mean to do."
"I thought so. Then, in your interest and mine, I have resolved to
make an end of it."
"I do not exactly see how we can get at that result, unless one of us
consents to kill the other."
"I presume this hatred of yours has cost you a round sum of
money?"
"Four hundred piastres, which the rascals have stolen from me, as
you are still alive; to say nothing of two hundred others I propose to
present to a pícaro who has sworn to kill you tonight."
"It is perfectly distressing! If this goes on, you will ruin yourself."
Don Torribio sighed, but made no reply.
Don Fernando resumed, while he threw away his cigarette and
occupied himself in rolling another:
"For my part, señor, I confess that, in spite of the lamentable
clumsiness of the people you employ, I begin to be tired of serving
as a target at moments when I least expect it."
"I can understand that; it must be very disagreeable."
"It is. Well, then, wishing to reconcile our mutual interests, and to
put an end to it, once for all, I have racked my brains until I think I
have hit on a method of arranging these matters to our mutual
satisfaction."
"Well, let us hear this method; I know you to be a man of
imagination, Don Fernando. It is doubtless ingenious."
"Oh, no; on the contrary, it is quite simple. Do you ever play?"
"So seldom, that it is hardly worth mentioning."
"Precisely the case with me. This is the proposal I have to make: it is
evident you will not succeed in assassinating me."
"Do you think so, señor?" said Don Torribio, still smiling.
"I am sure of it, else you would have succeeded already."
"I will admit it: what, then, do you propose?"
"This: we will have a game at cards—the first to whom el as de
copas (the ace of hearts) falls shall win, and be master over the life
of his opponent, who shall be bound to blow out his brains as he sits
there."
"Not so bad; the idea is ingenious."
"And why not señor?—It is just like a common game, only the loser
cannot have his revenge. Now, where are the cards?"
It was then discovered that these three gallant caballeros, who
never played, had each a pack of cards in his pocket. They produced
them with such spontaneousness, that all three could not help
bursting into Homeric laughter.
We have already said, somewhere, that in Mexico the passion for
gambling is carried beyond the verge of madness; so that the facility
with which Don Torribio accepted the game proposed by his foe has
nothing in it to astonish those who know the character of those
strange Mexicans, who carry everything to extremes, and for whom
anything unexpected and extraordinary has always an irresistible
attraction.
"One moment, señores," said Don Estevan, who had hitherto
listened without joining in the conversation; "perhaps there might
still be another way."
"What other?" exclaimed Don Fernando and Don Torribio, turning
briskly to him.
"Is your mutual hatred so great, that in reality it can only be
satisfied by the death of one or the other?"
"It is," said Don Torribio hoarsely.
Don Fernando merely replied by a nod.
"In that case," continued Don Estevan, "instead of having recourse
to blind chance, why cannot you fight it out with each other?"
Both men made a gesture of disdain.
"What!" exclaimed Don Torribio, "Fight like wretched leperos, at the
risk of disfiguring or crippling ourselves, which would be worse than
death! No! I will never consent to that."
"Nor I; it is better that chance shall decide."
"As you please, caballeros; do as you like."
"But," said Don Torribio, "who is to deal?"
"The devil!" said Don Fernando; "that is a good remark: I never
thought of that."
"I will, if you have no objection," said Don Estevan; "and so much
the more readily, as my friendship for both of you señores, makes
me perfectly disinterested."
"It will do," said Don Torribio; "only, to avoid all cause for dispute,
you must choose at hap-hazard the pack you are to use."
"Very well: place the three packs under a hat; I will take the first I
touch."
"That will do. What a pity you did not think of this game sooner, Don
Fernando!"
"What could I do, señor?—I have only just hit upon the idea."
Don Estevan rose and left the grotto, to afford the two foes every
facility for arranging the three packs under the hat. He was very
soon recalled.
"So," said he, "you are determined to play out this game?"
"We are, they replied."
"You swear, by all the world holds most holy, and whichever of you it
may be whom fortune favours, to submit yourselves to the fiat of
fate in all its entirety?"
"We swear, Don Estevan, by the word of caballeros."
"Enough, señores," he replied, passing his Hand under the hat and
drawing out a pack of cards. "And now recommend your souls to
God; for a few minutes hence, one of you will be in his presence."
The two men crossed themselves devoutly, and fixed their eyes
anxiously on the pack of cards.
Don Estevan shuffled the cards with the greatest care, and then
made each of the adversaries cut them in turn.
"Attention, señores," said he; "I am going to begin."
The two, negligently leaning on their elbows, smoked their pajillos
with a perfect assumption of indifference, which was only belied by
the flashing of their eyes.
Meanwhile the cards continued to fall on the zarapé: Don Estevan
held only about a dozen more in his hand, when he paused.
"Caballeros," said he, "for the last time—reflect."
"Go on, go on!" cried Don Torribio excitedly; "the first card belongs
to me."
"Look at it," said Don Estevan, turning it up.
"Oh," said Don Fernando, throwing away his cigarette, "el as de
copas. Look, Don Torribio; it is curious. ¡Vive Dios! you can reproach
no one; you are the author of your own death."
Don Torribio made a violent gesture, which he repressed
immediately, and resumed the tone of affected civility which had
characterised the conversation.
"Upon my honour, it is true," said he. "I must confess, Don
Fernando, I have no chance with you in anything."
"I am quite in despair, dear Don Torribio."
"Never mind; it was a capital game; I never felt so interested."
"Nor I either. Unfortunately, I cannot give you your revenge."
"Right! And now I must pay my debt."
Don Fernando bowed without answering.
"Be quite easy, dear señor; I will only keep you waiting such time as
is absolutely necessary. If I could have foreseen this, I would have
brought my pistols."
"I have brought mine; they are perfectly at your service."
"Then pray be kind enough to lend me one."
Don Fernando rose, took a pistol from his holsters, and offered them
to Don Torribio.
"It is primed and loaded; the trigger is a little stiff."
"What a capital man of business you are, Don Fernando! You provide
for everything; no detail escapes you."
"My traveller's habits, Don Torribio,—nothing more."
Don Torribio took the pistol and cocked it.
"Señores," said he, "I beg you not to leave my body to the mercy of
the wild beasts; it would distress me dreadfully to become their food
when I am dead."
"Set your mind at rest, dear señor; we will carry you home across
your own horse. We should be in despair if the body of so
accomplished a caballero were thus profaned."
"That is all I have to request of you, señores; now accept my thanks,
and farewell."
After this he cast one last look around him, and coolly placed the
muzzle of the pistol against his right temple.
Don Fernando suddenly arrested his hand.
"I have one remark to make," he said.
"Upon my honour, you are only just in time," said Don Torribio,
without exhibiting emotion: "two seconds more, and it would have
been too late. But let us hear this remark. Is it of much interest?"
"You yourself shall judge. You have lost your life fairly to me."
"As fairly as possible."
"Well, then, it belongs to me. You are dead; I have the right of
disposing of you as I think fit."
"I cannot deny it. You will observe that I am ready to pay my losses
like a caballero."
"I render you full justice, dear señor; therefore if I allow you to live
for the present, you are bound to kill yourself at my first requisition,
and to employ the life I leave you (which I could deprive you of at
this very moment) solely in my interest, and at my good pleasure."
"Then you offer me a bargain?" said Don Torribio.
"Yes, you have hit the word; it is a bargain."
"H'm!" said Don Torribio; "That requires consideration. What would
you do, if you were in my place, Don Estevan?"
"I?" replied he; "I would accept without hesitation. Life is so
beautiful, take it all in all, it is best to enjoy it as long as possible."
"There is something true about what you say; but recollect I should
become Don Fernando's slave as I could only employ my life in his
service, and should be bound to kill myself whenever he gives the
word."
"True; but Don Fernando is a caballero who will only exact this
sacrifice in so far as to protect his own life."
"I will even go further," broke in Don Fernando; "I will limit the
duration of our bargain to ten years. If by that time Don Torribio is
not dead, he will again enter upon his rights in all their plenitude,
and can dispose of his life after his own fashion."
"That really touches me to the heart! You are a perfect caballero,
señor; and I accept the life you offer me so gracefully. A thousand
thanks!" added he, uncocking the pistol. "I have no further use for
this weapon."
"One thing more, Don Torribio. As no one can read the future, you
will not object to have this bond drawn up in writing?"
"Certainly not; but where shall we get the paper?"
"I think I can find the writing materials in my alforjas."
"How right I was in pronouncing you a perfect man of business,
whom nothing escapes, dear señor!"
Don Fernando, without answering, went to fetch his alforjas, a kind
of double pocket, which is fastened behind the saddle, to hold the
necessary articles for travelling, and used throughout the whole of
Spanish America instead of the common European valise.
Don Fernando took out pens, ink, and paper, and laid them in order
before Don Torribio.
"Now," said he, "write as I shall dictate."
"Proceed, my dear señor; I will write."
Don Fernando began:
"I, the undersigned, Don Torribio Quiroga y Carvajal y Flores del
Cerro, acknowledge that I have fairly lost my life to Don Fernando
Carril, in a game played with the aforesaid señor; I acknowledge
that the life belongs henceforth to Don Fernando, who shall have the
right to dispose of it as he thinks fit, without my having power to
raise objection in any case, or to refuse obedience to the orders he
may give me, whether they be to kill myself before his eyes, or to
risk in any perilous adventure the life I have lost, and which I
acknowledge to hold only at his pleasure. I farther acknowledge that
all sentiments of hatred to the aforesaid Don Fernando Carril are
extinguished in my heart, and that I will never seek to injure him
directly or indirectly. I enter into this bond for the space of ten years,
beginning from the day on which this deed is signed; it being
formally stipulated by me, that at the end of the aforesaid ten years
I shall resume all my rights in full, with the entire possession of my
life, and that from thenceforth I shall not be responsible to Don
Fernando Carril for any account of it."
"Written and signed by me, this 17th March 18—, and subscribed, as
witness, by Señor Don Estevan Diaz y Morelos."
"Now," said Don Fernando, "sign: pass the paper to Don Estevan, for
his signature; then give it to me." Don Torribio signed with the
greatest good humour, added a tremendous flourish to his signature,
and gave the pen to Don Estevan, who affixed his name without
making the slightest objection to this strange arrangement.
When all this was over, Don Torribio scattered a little sand over the
paper, to dry the ink, folded it neatly in four, and placed it in the
hands of Don Fernando, who read it attentively, and put it in his
bosom.
"There, that is finished," said Don Torribio. "Now señor, if you have
no commands for me, I ask your permission to retire."
"I should be distressed to detain you longer, caballero; go where
your engagements call you; may they be pleasant ones!"
"Thanks for the wish, though I fear it will scarcely be fulfilled; I have
had bad luck for some time past."
He saluted the others once more, put the bridle on his horse, and
departed at a gallop.
"Do you really intend to demand the execution of this bond?" asked
Don Estevan, as soon as he found himself alone with Don Fernando.
"Most certainly," replied the other; "you forget that this man is my
mortal foe. But I must leave you, Don Estevan; I must be today at
Las Norias de San Antonio, and it is growing late."
"Are you going to the hacienda of Don Pedro de Luna?"
"Not exactly to the hacienda, but to the neighbourhood."
"Then we can ride together; for I, too, am going in that direction."
"You," said he, looking at him inquisitively.
"I am the major-domo of the hacienda," replied Don Estevan.
The two men left the grotto, and mounted their horses. Don
Fernando rode pensively by the side of his companion, only replying
in monosyllables.

CHAPTER XI.
 THE RANCHO.

The road the two men had to travel together was tolerably long. Don
Estevan would not have been sorry to shorten it by talking to Don
Fernando, particularly as the manner in which he had made
acquaintance with the latter, and the light in which he had shown
himself, excited the curiosity of the former in the highest degree.
Unfortunately, Don Fernando did not seem in the least inclined to
keep up the conversation; and, in spite of all his efforts, the major-
domo found himself obliged to conform to his companion's state of
mind, and imitate his taciturnity.
They had already left the village a long way behind them, and were
cantering along the undulating banks of the Rio Bermejo, when they
heard, at a short distance in front of them, the sound of a horse at
full gallop. We say, they heard; for, shortly after leaving the grotto,
the sun had finally disappeared below the horizon, and there had
been a sudden transition from the glorious light of day to thick
darkness.
In Mexico, where there is no police, or, at all events, only a nominal
one, every man is obliged to take care of himself. Two men, meeting
on a road after nightfall, cannot accost each other without the
greatest precaution, nor approach each other until fully assured they
have nothing to fear.
"Keep your distance!" shouted Don Fernando, as soon as he thought
the person approaching was within reach of his voice.
"And why so? You know you have nothing to fear from me,"
answered somebody; the sound caused by the horse's hoofs ceasing
at the same time, denoting that the rider had halted.
"I know that voice," said the Mexican.
"And the man, too, Señor Don Fernando, for it is not very long since
we met; I am El Zapote."
"Aha!" laughed Don Fernando; "Is it you, Tonillo? Come on,
muchacho."
The latter rode up directly.
"What the devil are you doing on this road, at this hour of the
night?"
"I am coming from a rendezvous, and returning to the pueblo."
"I fancy that rendezvous has been a slippery affair."
"You insult me, Don Fernando. I am an honourable man."
"I have no doubt of it. Moreover, your affairs are not mine; and I do
not choose to be mixed up with them. Come, adieu, Tonillo."
"A moment if you please. Since I have been lucky enough to meet
you, grant me five minutes: I was going to look for you."
"You! Is it a case like the last? I thought you had had enough of that
speculation, which hardly succeeds with me."
"Here is the matter in two words, Don Fernando. After what
happened the other day, I considered that I owed you my life, and,
consequently, had not full liberty of action where you are concerned.
But you know, señor, I am a caballero; and as an honest man can
but stick to his word, I resolved to see the person who had paid me
to kill you, and return him the money. It was hard to disburse so
large a sum; but I did not hesitate. One may well say, a good action
always brings its own recompense."
"You ought to know that better than anyone else," laughed Don
Fernando.
"You laugh! Very well; judge for yourself. I sought this person,
whose name it is needless to mention."
"So much the more so, as I know it already."
"You do? Very well, then. This morning a caballero, one of my
friends, gave me notice that the person in question also wished to
speak to me. All was working wonderfully. But guess my amazement
when, just as I was going to refund the money and throw up my
engagement, this personage announced to me that he had been
reconciled to you, that you were the best friends, and begged me to
keep the hundred piastres as an indemnification for the damage he
had caused me."
"Was it this person, then, whom you went to meet tonight?"
"The same. I have only just left him."
"Very well: go on, compadre" (comrade).
"Well, caballero, since this affair has ended in a manner honourable
to me, as I flatter myself, I am at liberty to follow my own
inclinations, and am quite at your service, if you will do me the
honour to employ me."
"I will not say no; perhaps in a day or two I may find a use for your
services."
"You will not repent having employed me, señor. You will be always
sure to find me at—"
"Not a word on that subject," said Don Fernando, interrupting him
suddenly; "when the time comes, I shall find you."
"As you please, señor. Now permit me to take leave of you and this
honourable caballero, your friend."
"Adieu, Zapote. A happy journey."
The lepero joyfully took to his road again.
"Señor," said Don Estevan, as soon as the latter had gone, "in a
short time we shall reach the rancho (farmhouse) I inhabit with my
mother; it would glad me to offer you shelter for the night."
"Thanks for your courtesy, which I gratefully accept. Is the rancho
far from Las Norias?"
"Hardly a league. Were it daylight, you would be able to see from
hence the tall walls of the hacienda. Permit me to be your guide on
the road to my poor dwelling."
The cavaliers then bent to the left, entering a broad path lined with
aloes. Very soon the barking of several watchdogs, and two or three
specks of light which twinkled through the darkness, apprised them
that it would not be long before they reached the end of their
tedious journey. In fact, after riding some ten minutes longer, they
found themselves in front of a house, small, but apparently
comfortable, under the zaguán (veranda) of which several persons,
provided with torches, seemed to be expecting their arrival.
They stopped before the porch, dismounted, gave their horses to a
peon, who led them away, and entered the dwelling, Don Estevan
preceding his guest in order to do the honours of his house.
They found themselves in a chamber of good dimensions, furnished
with sundry chairs, a few armchairs, and a massive table, on which
the cloth was laid for several persons. The whitewashed walls of the
room were adorned with prints, frightfully coloured, representing the
four seasons, the five quarters of the globe, &c.
A woman, no longer young, dressed with a certain degree of
refinement, and whose features, although marked by age, still
preserved traces of great beauty, stood in the middle of the room.
"Mother," said Don Estevan, bowing respectfully before her, "permit
me to present to you Don Fernando Carril, an honourable caballero,
who consents to be our guest tonight."
"He is welcome," answered Doña Manuela, with a gracious smile;
"this house and all that is in it is at his disposal."
"Many thanks, señora, for this kind reception."
At first sight of the stranger Doña Manuela had begun to tremble,
and had scarcely repressed an exclamation of surprise. The sound of
his voice struck her no less, and she cast a profoundly scrutinising
look over him; but after a moment she shook her head gently, as if
mistrusting the thought which had arisen.
"Be seated, señor," she said, pointing to the table with great
cordiality; "the supper shall be served directly. Your long ride will
have sharpened your appetite, and will make the frugality of the
viands less distasteful."
In fact, the meal was frugal, consisting of beans with red pepper,
beef dried in the sun, a fowl boiled in rice, rolls of maize, with
pulque and mezcal to drink With great pleasure Doña Manuela
watched the viands disappear with which she loaded their plates.
She encouraged them by all the means in her power to satisfy their
hunger.
When supper was over, they passed into an inner chamber, more
comfortably furnished, which appeared to be the reception room.
The conversation, which had naturally been rather languid at dinner,
now, little by little, grew more animated, and soon reached, thanks
to the efforts of Doña Manuela, that tone of pleasant familiarity
which banishes every constraint, and doubles the charms of familiar
chat.
Don Fernando seemed to enter with all his heart into the desultory
conversation, which leaped without ceasing from one subject to
another; listening with complacency to the long stories of Doña
Manuela, and answering with apparent rankness the questions she
asked him.
"Are you a costeño" (an inhabitant of the sea border), "or a tierras a
dentro" (one of those who dwell inland), "caballero?" the good dame
suddenly asked her guest.
"By my faith, señora," replied he, laughing, "I confess I feel some
difficulty in replying."
"Why so, señor?"
"For the simple reason that I have no idea where I was born."
"But you are hijo del país" (literally, a son of the country),—"a
Mexican, at all events?"
"Everything leads me to think so, señora; but I would not swear it."
"That is very singular. Does not your family reside in the province?"
A shadow crossed the face of Don Fernando. "No, señora," he
replied dryly.
The mistress of the house perceived she had touched a tender
chord, and hastened to turn the conversation.
"Of course you know Don Pedro de Luna?"
"Very little, señora; accident threw us together once. It is true the
circumstances were too singular for him to forget them easily; but it
remains to be seen whether I ever set foot in his hacienda."
"You are wrong, caballero; Don Pedro is a cristiano Viejo" (an old
Christian, i.e. a descendant of the early conquerors), "who exercises
hospitality after the fashion of old times: nothing makes him happier
than to practise it."
"Most unfortunately, important affairs call me to some distance, and
I fear I shall have no time to stop at his hacienda."
"Forgive the question," said Don Estevan; "but have you really the
intention of entering the prairie?"
"Why do you ask, caballero?"
"Because we are here on the extreme Indian frontier; and unless
you retrace your steps, it is only towards the wilderness you can
bend them."
"Well, then, it is my intention to go into the desert."
Don Estevan made a gesture of surprise.
"Forgive my pertinacity," said he; "but without doubt you must be
acquainted with the desert you intend to enter?"
"By your leave, señor, I am thoroughly acquainted with it."
"And knowing its dangers, dare you enter it alone?"
"I thought I had given you a proof today," said he, with an
indefinable smile, "that I dare many things."
"Yes, yes; I know your courage carries you on to rashness: but what
you would undertake is worse than temerity—it is madness!"
"Madness, señor! The word is too strong. Can a resolute man, well
armed and mounted, have anything to fear from the Indians?"
"If you had nothing to do but defend yourself against Indians and
wild beasts. I should be somewhat in your way of thinking, señor: a
determined white can make head against twenty redskins. But how
will you escape from the Tigercat?"
"From the Tigercat? Excuse me, caballero, but I do not understand
you at all."
"I will soon explain, señor. The Tigercat is a white. This man, from
reasons unknown to all, has joined the Apaches, has become one of
their chiefs, and sworn implacable hatred to all men of his own
colour."
"I have heard vaguely of the man you mention; but, after all, he is
the only one of his race among the Indians. Redoubtable as he may
be, he is not invulnerable, I suppose; and a brave man might kill
him."
"Unfortunately you are mistaken, caballero; this man is not the only
one of his race among the Indians; other bandits of his class are
with him."
"Yes," cried Doña Manuela; "his son among the rest, who, they say,
is as fierce a bandit as his father."
"Mother, that is only a surmise. If you come to proof, nothing can be
affirmed against Stoneheart."
"Who is the man of whom you speak?"
"His son, as people say; but one cannot be sure of it."
"And you call this man Stoneheart?"
"Yes, señor. For my own part, I know several instances of his
generosity, which indicate, on the contrary, a heart in its right place,
and an ardent spirit capable of noble deeds."
A slight blush overspread the face of Don Fernando.
"Let us return to the Tigercat," said he. "What have I to dread from
this man?"
"Everything. Concealed in the prairie, like a hideous zopilote
(vulture) on its point of rock, this wretch pounces upon the
caravans, whatever their strength, and pillages them; he murders in
cold blood the solitary travellers whom their evil destiny delivers into
his hands: his nets are stretched with such cruel skill, that none may
escape him. Listen to me, caballero: give up this journey, or you are
a lost man."
"I thank you for your advice, which, I know, is prompted by the
interest you take in me; nevertheless, I cannot follow it. But it is too
late; allow me to retire. I observed a hammock under the zaguán, in
which I could pass the night admirably."
"I will give orders to have my son's chamber prepared for you."
"I could not allow anyone to be disturbed on my account, señora; I
am an old traveller. Moreover, the night is already far gone. I swear
you would disoblige me by forcing me to accept the chamber of Don
Estevan."
"Do as you think proper, caballero. A guest is one sent from God; he
ought to be master in the house he inhabits, as long as he chooses
to honour it with his presence. May the Lord watch over your repose
and bless your slumbers! My son shall show you the corral
(outhouse) where your horse has been stabled, in case you should
wish to depart before the household is awake."
"Many thanks, once more, señorita. I hope to pay my respects to
you before I go."
Having exchanged a few more compliments with his hostess, Don
Fernando rose and left the room, accompanied by Don Estevan. The
wish he expressed, to sleep in a hammock under the zaguán, was
not at all extraordinary, and perfectly in accordance with the
customs of a country where the nights, by their beauty and
freshness, compensate the inhabitants for the overpowering heat of
the day.
The American ranchos all have a porch, formed by four, and often six
columns, outside the house, and which support an azotea (flat roof).
In the large space between these columns, which are placed on
either side of the main entrance, hammocks are slung, in which the
owners of the dwellings themselves often pass the night, preferring
to sleep in the open air rather than endure the torrid heat which
literally converts into a stove the interior of the houses.
Don Estevan led his guest to the corral, explained to him the
mechanism of the lock, asked if he could be of any further service,
wished him good night, and retired into the house, leaving the door
open, so that Don Fernando might enter if he thought fit.
Doña Manuela awaited her son's return in the apartment where he
had left her. The old lady seemed restless.
"Well," she asked, immediately her son made his appearance, "what
do you think of this man, Estevan?"
"I, mother!" he answered, looking astonished; "What can I think of
him? I saw him today for the first time."
The old señora shook her head impatiently.
"You have been side by side for many hours; such a long tête-à-tête
should have given you an opportunity of studying and forming an
opinion of him."
"That man, my dear mother, during the short time I have been with
him, has appeared under so many different aspects, that it has been
altogether an impossibility, I will not say to form an opinion, but
even to gain a ray of light by means of which I could direct my study
of him. I believe his to be a strong nature, full of nerve, capable of
good or evil, accordingly as he follows the impulse of his heart or the
calculations of his egotism. At San Lucar everyone seems to dread
him instinctively,—for nothing ostensible in his conduct justifies the
repulsion he inspires; no one can say positively who he is: his life is
an impenetrable mystery."
"Estevan," said his mother, placing her hand heavily on his arm, as if
to lend force to the words she was about to utter, "a secret
presentiment warns me that the presence of this man in these parts
presages great misfortune. I cannot explain why. The moment he
entered, his features recalled a confused recollection of events that
happened long ago. I saw in his face points of resemblance with that
of a person dead, alas! How long?" She sighed. "When he spoke, the
tone of his voice sounded mournfully on my ear; for the voice
completed the likeness I had found in his face. Whoever this man
may be, I am convinced there is trouble, perhaps danger, in store for
us. I am old, my son; I have much experience; and, you know, one
is seldom mistaken at my age. Presentiments come from God; we
must have faith in them. Watch that man's doings as long as he
remains here. I could wish you had never brought him under our
roof."
"What could I do, mother? Hospitality is a duty from which no one
should shrink."
"I do not reproach you, Estevan; you have acted according to your
conscience."
"God grant that you delude yourself, mother! After all, whatever the
man's intentions may be, if he seeks to injure us, as you suppose,
we can but countermine his machinations."
"No, Estevan; it is not exactly for ourselves I fear."
"For whom, then, mother?"
"Cannot you understand me?" said she, with, a mournful smile.
"¡Vive Dios, mother! Let him beware. But no, it is impossible.
Nevertheless, I will go to the hacienda at daybreak, and put Don
Pedro on his guard."
"Do not say a word to them, Estevan; but watch over them like a
faithful friend."
"Yes, mother, you are right," said Estevan, who had suddenly
become thoughtful. "I will surround Hermosa with a vigilant
protection, so secret that no one shall suspect it. I swear it, ¡vive
Dios! I would a thousand times rather die under the most atrocious
torture, than see her exposed anew to dangers like those of the last
few days. And now, mother, give me your blessing, and let me go."
"Go, my son; and God protect you!"
Don Estevan bent respectfully before his mother, and retired; but
before seeking repose, he made a minute examination of the house,
and did not extinguish his lamp till after he had convinced himself
that all was in perfect order.
As soon as Don Estevan had left him, Don Fernando threw himself
into the hammock, and closed his eyes. The night was calm and
beautiful; the stars studded the heavens with an infinite number of
diamonds; the moon spread her silver rays over the landscape; at
intervals, the prolonged baying of the watchdogs mingled with the
abrupter bark of the coyotes (prairie-wolves), whose sinister forms
were often perceptible in the distance, the transparency of the
atmosphere permitting remote objects to be easily distinguished.
All slept, or seemed to sleep.
Suddenly Don Fernando raised his head, and peered cautiously over
the edge of his hammock. Thoroughly convinced that silence reigned
throughout the house, he slipped to the ground; after carefully
listening, and prying into the darkness in all directions, he placed on
his head the accoutrements of his horse, and turned his steps
towards the corral.
Opening the door noiselessly, he whistled gently. At the signal, the
horse raised his head, and walked up to his master, who was holding
the door half open.
The latter caught him by the mane, caressed him playfully, and then
saddled and bridled him with the dexterity and speed only acquired
by constant habit. The task over, his master wrapped his hoofs in
four pieces of sheepskin, to deaden the sound of his steps, vaulted
into the saddle, and bending over the neck of the noble brute:
"Santiago!" cried he, "now is the time to prove your mettle."
The horse, as if he understood his master, dashed off into the
darkness, and took the direction of the river at the top of his speed.
Meanwhile the greatest silence pervaded the rancho, none of the
inhabitants of which seemed to be aware of this sudden flight.

CHAPTER XII.

THE REDSKINS.

We must now return to the Far West.

On the banks of the Rio Grande del Norte, about ten leagues'
distance from the presidio of San Lucar stood the atepelt, or
temporary village, of Des Venados.
The atepelt, a simple camp, like most of the Indian villages,
consisted of about a hundred callis, or huts, irregularly grouped near
each other.
Each calli was built of about a dozen stakes driven into the ground,
four or five feet high at the sides, and six or seven in the centre,
with an aperture towards the east, for the master of the calli to
throw water in the direction of the rising sun—a ceremony by which
the Indians conjure the Wacondah to befriend their families during
the course of the day just breaking.
These callis were covered with bison hides sewn together, with a
hole in the centre to admit the exit of the smoke of the fires kindled
in the interior,—fires which equal in number the wives of the owner,
each wife having a right to a fire of her own.
The hides which formed the outer walls were carefully dressed, and
painted of divers colours; the painting, by its extravagance,
enlivening the aspect of the atepelt.
The lances of the fighting men were planted upright in the ground in
front of the entrance to the calli. These light lances, made of flexible
reed, sixteen or eighteen feet long, and armed at one end with a
long grooved iron, forged by the Indians themselves, are the most
redoubtable weapons of the Apaches.
The liveliest joy seemed to animate the atepelt. In some callis the
women were spinning the wool of their flocks with their spindles; in
others they wove those zarapés, so renowned for their fineness and
the perfection of the work, at looms of primitive simplicity.
The young people of the tribe, assembled in the centre of the
atepelt,—a large open space,—were playing at milt (an Indian word
signifying "arrow") a singular game, to which the Indians are greatly
addicted.
The players trace a large circle on the ground, into which they step,
arranging themselves in two opposite rows. The leader of one row,
holding a ball filled with air in the right hand, the leader of the other
in the left, they throw their balls backwards with a motion which
brings them in front again. The left leg is then lifted, the ball caught
and hurled at the opposite player, whose body it must touch, under
penalty of losing a point. A thousand extravagant contortions ensue
on the part of the latter, in order to avoid the ball: he stoops, he
rises, bends himself backwards or forwards, jumps up where he
stands, or bounds to one side. If the ball quits the ring, the first
player loses two points and runs after it; if, on the contrary, the
second is struck, he must seize the ball and throw it back at his
opponent, whom it must hit, or he loses a point. The next in order,
at the opposite side of the ring, begins the game again; and so on,
till the close of the sport.
One can understand what shouts of laughter arise from the
grotesque attitudes into which the players fall as the game goes on.
Other Indians of riper age, were gravely playing with curious packs
of cards, made of squares of hide, coarsely painted with figures of
different animals.
In a calli larger and better painted than the other huts of the atepelt
—the dwelling of the sachem, or principal chief, whose lances,
ornamented at the foot with pieces of skin-dyed red, were the
distinguishing badge of power—three men, crouched round the
embers of a fire, were, talking, heedless of the uproar without. They
were the Tigercat, the Zopilote, and the amantzin, or the sorcerer of
the tribe.
The Zopilote was a half-breed, who had taken refuge with the
Apaches long ago, and been adopted by them. This man, every way
worthy of the name he bore, was a wretch whose cold and
malignant cruelty revolted the very Indians, who are themselves not
delicate in matters of this kind. The Tigercat had made this ferocious
miscreant, who was devoted to him, prime-minister of his
vengeance, and the docile instrument of his will. His latest wife, to
whom he had been married a year, had given birth to a boy that
morning—hence the rejoicings of the Indians; and he had come to
take the orders of the Tigercat—the great chief of the tribe—with
respect to the ceremonies usual on the like occasions.
The Zopilote left the calli, to which he speedily returned, followed by
his wives and all his friends, one of whom held the infant in his
arms. The Tigercat, placing himself between the Zopilote and the
amantzin at the head of the party, led them towards the Rio Grande
del Norte.
The procession halted on the bank of the river; the amantzin took a
little water in the hollow of his hand, and threw it into the air,
muttering a prayer to the Master of the life of men. He next
proceeded to the great medicine; that is, the newborn child,
wrapped in his woollen swaddling bands, was five times plunged into
the waters of the river, while the amantzin repeated, in a loud voice:
"Master of life, look upon this young warrior with favourable eye;
remove from him all evil influences; protect him, Wacondah!"
At the termination of this part of the ceremony, the procession
returned to the atepelt, and arranged itself in a circle in front of the
Zopilote's calli, at the entrance of which lay a young mare on her
back, with her four feet tied together. A new zarapé was stretched
under the belly of the animal, on which relations and friends
deposited, one after the other, the gifts intended for the child—
spurs, arms, and clothing. The Tigercat, out of friendship for the
Zopilote, had consented to act as godfather to the infant. He placed
it in the midst of the various gifts which filled the zarapé.
Then the Zopilote seized his scalping knife, opened at one slash the
flanks of the mare, tore out the heart, and gave it, bleeding as it
was, to the Tigercat, who made a cross with it on the forehead of
the child, addressing him thus:
"Young warrior of the tribe of Apache-Bisons, be brave and cunning.
I name thee Mixcoatzin—Cloud-Serpent."
The father took the child, and the chief, raising the bleeding heart
above his head, shouted thrice:
"Long live the Cloud-Serpent!"
The cry was enthusiastically repeated by the bystanders. The
amantzin then commended the child to the Spirit of Evil, praying him
to make the young warrior brave, eloquent, and cunning;
terminating his prayer in these words, which found an ardent
response in the hearts of all those fierce beings:
"Above all, may he never be a slave!"
Thus terminated the ceremony: every religious rite had been
performed. The poor mare, the victim of this stupid superstition, was
cut into pieces; a great fire was kindled; friends and relations took
their seats at a feast, which was intended to last until nothing was
left of the mare.
The Zopilote was about to seat himself, and feast with the others;
but, at a sign from the Tigercat, he followed the great chief to his
calli, where they once more took their seats by the fire. The
amantzin was also with them.
The Tigercat waved his band to his wives, who left the calli, and
after a short meditation, spoke as follows:
"I trust my brothers, and my heart opens before them like a
chirimoya" (a kind of American pear), "to show them my secret
thoughts: I have sorrowed for many days."
"My father sorrows for his son Stoneheart," said the amantzin.
"No; I care not where he is now; I can find him again when I want
him. But I have a secret mission to confide to a safe man. Till this
morning, I hesitated to open my heart to you."
"Let my father speak; his sons listen."
"To hesitate longer would be to compromise things sacred. You will
to horse, Zopilote; I have no words for you: you know where I send
you. Induce these men to aid our enterprise; it will be a notable
service."
"I will do it. Do I go at once?"
"Without delay."
"In ten minutes I shall be far hence;" and, saluting the chiefs, he
went out.
A few minutes later, the sound of a horse's hoofs fading away in the
distance announced his departure.
Tigercat gave a sigh of satisfaction.
"Let my brother, the amantzin open his ears," said he. "I am about
to leave the atepelt, I hope to be back tonight; but my absence may
be for two or three days. I leave my brother in my stead and place;
he will command the warriors, and will forbid them to go far from
the village, or approach the frontiers of the palefaces. It is important
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