Faculty of Arts & Humanities

Bachelor of Science in Community Development

CDEV 123. COMMUNITY ASPECTS IN EXTENTION DEVELOPMENT
Course Outline
Updated: January , 2022
Course Instructor: G. Ngigi
Tel. 0722566301/0731566301
Emails: ngiginy@yahoo.com

Course Purpose

The main purpose of the course is to equip learners with knowledge and skills to disseminate new
innovations to the community for the purposes of improving their lives.

Expected Learning Outcome

At the end of this course the learner should be able to:-

i. Define extension
ii. Identify various characteristics of an extension agent
iii. Discuss factors that influence change
iv. Identify various methods of extension
v. Discuss the theories of extention

Course Description

Definition of key terms, Characteristics of an extension staff, Effective communication, Use of visual
aids, Selecting extension methods and tools, Extension objectives, Diffusion and adoption process,
Factors influencing change, Extension methods, Individual methods/techniques, Group methods, Mirror
techniques, Mass methods, Demonstration plan, Student demonstrations and presentations.
COURSE CONTENT

Week Topic
1-2 Introduction:
Definition of key terms
Elements of Extension
Guide for the Extension Programs towards effective results
Objectives and principles of extension
Extension worker/change agent
Qualities of an effective Extension worker/change agent
3-4 Communication
Elements of communication
Effective communication
Listening
Shared meaning and its aspects
5-6 Visual aids – Defination
Planning for visual aids
Factors to Consider when planning to use Visual Aids
Diffusion and adoption process
7-8 CAT 1
Extension methods/techniques
Individual teaching method
Group methods
9-10 Demonstration
Lecture
Mirrror technique
Group Discussion
11 -12 Mass Technique
PRA
13-15 Student demonstrations and presentations

Teaching Methodology

Lectures and tutorials, group discussions and class discussion, class presentations, case studies

Course Evaluation

Assessment Marks
C.A.T’s and Assignments 30%
Final Exam 70%
Total 100%
References:

Jones G.E and Rolls MJ. (1982). Progress in rural extension and community development.
Vol 1. Extension and relative advantage in rural development. New York: John Wiley
Carrey, H.A and Heather N. (2007) Communication in Extension. A teaching and Leaning
Guide FAO
Lahiri B. Mukhopadhyays (2012) Mass Media in Agricultural Extension.

Extension: We define extension as professional communication of information to help people form

sound opinions and make good decisions.

It is an informal system of education aimed at giving advisory assistance and/or material assistance
if possible so as to bring about continuous all round improvement of living standards through individual
to co-operating efforts. (Mama Mbogas, jua kali,)

Definition 2 and 3 are (old school definition)

2. Extension is an informal educational process directed toward the rural population. This process
offers advice and information to help community solve their problems. Extension also aims to increase
the efficiency of the family farm, increase production and generally increase the standard of living of the
farm family.

3. Extension is a process of working with rural people in order to improve their livelihoods. This
involves helping communities to improve the productivity of their agriculture and also developing their
abilities to direct their own future development.

Bottom line; Professional communication, it is a process, aim at improving the lives of people

History of Extension

The dissemination of relevant information and advice to farmers, however, has a long history prior to the
emergence of modem forms of agricultural extension in the nineteenth century.

The first known example was in Mesopotamia (roughly, present-day Iraq) around 1800 B.C.
Archaeologists have unearthed clay tablets of the time on which were inscribed advice on watering crops
and getting rid of rats - important for mitigating any potential loss of taxation revenue from farmers
(Ahmed, 1982, as quoted in Bne Saad, 1990). Some hieroglyphs on Egyptian columns also gave advice
on avoiding crop damage and loss of life from the Nile's floods. An important advance was the
beginning of agricultural writings. Though few have survived, the earliest were written during the
ancient Greek and Phoenician civilizations, but some of them were adapted by Roman writers. From the
second century B.C. to the fourth century A.D., several important Latin texts were written, frequently
drawing on practical farming experience, which aimed to help Roman landowners to maintain and
improve then-estates and their revenues (White, 1970, 1977).

At around the same period in imperial China, early forms of advancing and disseminating agricultural
information also began. That landowners and their tenants should improve their production was a matter
of concern to the state since, from the sixth century B.C. onwards, it relied heavily on land taxes for its
revenues. The support of relevant agricultural research and the dissemination of information and advice
had certainly begun by the late Han Dynasty (25-220 A.D.). The oldest fully surviving Chinese
agricultural treatise, Essential Techniques/or the Peasantry, dating from 535 A.D., aimed to show
landowners how to improve their estate management through the advice they gave to their tenants. The
Sung and Yuan Dynasties (960-1368) with their firm local government administrations were notable in
organizing and promoting agricultural research, extension work, and the teaching of agriculture and
sericulture, much facilitated by the invention of woodblock printing, which allowed agricultural treatises
and practical handbooks to be widely distributed. Similar activities continued during the succeeding
Ming (1368-1644) and Chi'ing (1644-1912) Dynasties, driven not only by the growing population and
periodic threats of famine, but also by the state's recognition of the importance of well-coordinated
extension work on agricultural recommendations if the most benefit was to be achieved (Perkins, 1969;
Elvin, 1973; Bray, 1984; Delman, 1991)

Elements of extension:

1. Knowledge and skills - (transfer of knowledge that can be applied to help someone)

Although communities already have a lot of knowledge about their environment and system within the
community, extension can bring them other knowledge and information which they do not have. For
example, knowledge about the cause of the damage to a particular crop, the general principles of pest
control, or the ways in which manure and compost are broken down to provide plant nutrients are all
areas of knowledge that the agent can usefully bring to farmers. The application of such knowledge
often means that the farmer has to acquire new skills of various kinds: for example, technical skills to
operate unfamiliar equipment, organizational skills to manage a group project, the skill to assess the
economic aspects of technical advice given, or farm management skills for keeping records and
allocating the use of farm resources and equipment.

The transfer of knowledge and skills to communities and their families is an important extension activity
and the extension agent must prepare himself thoroughly. He must find out which skills or areas of
knowledge are lacking among the communities in his area, and then arrange suitable learning
experiences through which the communities can acquire them.

2. Technical advice and information and skills: are the job-specific knowledge and techniques
needed to proficiently perform tasks that require particular expertise

Extension also provides advice and information to assist communities in making decisions and generally
enable them to take action. This can be information about, new technologies, prices and markets, for
availability of credit and inputs etc. Much of the advise is based on research and benchmarking.

3. Community organization

As well as knowledge, information and technical advice, communities also need some form of
organization, both to represent their interests and to give them a means for taking collective action.
Extension, therefore, should be concerned with helping to set up, structure and develop organizations of
local communities. This should be a joint venture and any such organization should only be set up in
consultation with the communities. Such organizations act as a link between extension agents and
communities.

4. Motivation and self-confidence

One of the main constraints to development that many communities face is isolation, and a feeling that
there is little they can do to change their lives. Some communities live in vicious cycles of poverty thus
they feel weak and uninspired to get out of poverty. It is important for extension to work closely with
communities, helping them to take the initiative and generally encouraging them to become involved in
extension activities. Equally important is to convince communities that they have the capacity and
ability to liberate themselves from poverty.

Principles of Extension

 Extension helps people with self-development by helping them apply educational resources to
their own needs and desires.
 Extension helps people manage change in the social, economic and political arenas.
 Extension develops programs and activities that address people's needs and the priorities agreed
upon by the federal, state and local partners.
  Extension works with groups for cost-effectiveness, greater creativity and the encouragement and
strengthening of democratic processes.
 Extension helps people become educators by encouraging them to participate in development of
the learning activities.
 Extension is flexible and innovative in program approaches.
 Extension uses a team approach to program development, priority setting and problem solving.

Guide for the extension programme towards effective results.

1. Extension works with people, not for them

Extension works with rural people. Only the people themselves can make decisions about their way of
life and an extension agent does not try to take these decisions for them. People can and do make wise
decisions about their problems if they are given full information including possible alternative solutions.
By making decisions, people gain self-confidence. Extension, therefore, presents facts, helps people to
solve problems and encourages communities to make decisions that lead to behavioural change. People
have more confidence in programmes and decisions which they have actively participated than in those
which are imposed upon them.

2. Extension is accountable to its clients

Extension services and agents have two sets of masters. On the one hand, they are accountable to their
senior officers and to the government departments responsible for creating policies that the extension
programme is working around. Agents are expected to follow official policies and guidelines in their
work.

On the other hand, extension is the servant of the people and it has the responsibility to fulfill the needs
of the people in its area. This means that the community should have a say in deciding how effective
extension actually is. One measure of effectiveness is to see how well policies and plans have been
carried out. An equally important measure is the extent to which incomes and living standards of the
rural people have increased as a result of extension work.

Extension programmes, therefore, are based on people's needs, as well as on technical and national
economic needs. The extension agent's task is to bring these needs together. For example, an important
part of government policy may be to increase the amount of food grown and sold in the country. By
choosing to encourage the mass of small communities to increase their output by improving their
farming methods, national needs and communities' needs can be satisfied together.
 3. Extension is a two-way link

Extension is not a one-way process in which the extension agent transfers knowledge and ideas to
communities. Even though advise is based on thorough research, extension agents should be willing
to listen to communities. The two-way link can occur in the following stages:

 When the problem is being defined. Being in regular contact with the people, the extension agent
can help research workers to understand the problems of the area and the limitations under which
communities work and live.
 When recommendations are being tested in the field. E,g A new farm practice or crop variety
might produce good results at a research station but not do so well on a farmer's field. Trials on
communities' fields are an opportunity to test research recommendations and provide feedback
for research staff.

 When communities put recommendations into practice. E.g Sometimes communities discover
problems with a recommendation which the research station failed to note. With the feedback the
recommendations can be adjusted accordingly.

4. Extension cooperates with other rural development organizations

Extension services and agents should work closely with the other organizations that provide essential
services to communities and their families. Extension is only one aspect of the many economic, social
and political activities that seek to produce change for the better in the society. Extension, therefore, mus

t be prepared to collaborate with all other such organizations, both government and non-government, and
to take them into account when preparing to implement extension policies. The kinds of organizations
with which extension services should cooperate include:

Political institutions and local political leaders whose active local support will help the extension agent,
who may thereby be brought into closer touch with local communities.
Support organizations such as those which supply agricultural or other inputs, credit facilities or
marketing services. Such inputs must be available in sufficient quantity, in the right place and at the
right time if they are to be of any use.
Health services, so that the extension agent is kept aware of local health problems, particularly
nuritional levels. health and nutrition are a major aspect of community life and the agent must keep
closely in touch with health programmes and projects and adapt his programme to conform to local
health requirements for development for wholistic communities.
Local schools, so that the agent can have early access to the communities of the future, and begin to
equip them with the knowledge and skills required to achieve the target.
Community development, whose objectives will be very similar to the educational work of extension.
Extension agents often work very closely with community development workers to break down local
social and cultural barriers to change, and to encourage community action programmes.

It is essential that the extension agent in the field know what his colleagues in other services and
government departments are doing, and that they understand what he is doing. Close cooperation not
only avoids duplication but provides opportunities for integrated farm programmes.

Objectives of extension

1. Dissemination of useful and practical information related to areas of need to the clients
2. Ensure practical application of this information and knowledge so as to help people analyse
their patterns

3. Assisting the farmers/rural community to use technical knowledge gained to solve their
problems

4. Change communities’ outlook toward their difficulties. Extension is concerned not just with
physical and economic achievements but also with the development of the rural people
themselves. Extension agents, therefore, discuss matters with the rural people, help them to gain
a clearer insight into their problems and also to decide how to overcome these problems

AN EXTENSION WORKER

Extension workers are the main force in community improvement. They are professionals who influence
innovation and decision in a direction deemed desirable by the change agency as well as the community.
Their main function is to seek adoption of new ideas and innovations from their organization to
community members. They are usually technically trained with excellent people’s skills.

Qualities of an effective extension worker

1. Should be patient
2. Should listen to community members.
3. Should treat all community members equally.
4. Should be creative.
5. Should be willing to work with the people
6. Should have self- discipline and create boundaries between him/her and the community members.
7. Should be self-driven
8. Should encourage the community members to take initiative.
9. Should be determined.
10. Should appreciate community efforts.
11. Should not misuse position to exploit community members.
12. Should be partial and neutral when dealing with community issues.
13. should firm and friendly.
14. Should be confident.
15. Should make friends easily with community members.
16. Should build trust easily with community members.
17. Should lead by example.
18. Should be a good communicator-articulate idea well in a language that is comprehensive.
19. Should let the community take credit of successful doings.
20. Should flexible-abandon own personal plans to take part in community decisions or work.
20. Should ask questions-Through this he learns from the community.
21. Should be mature-Not in age but in the way of handling community issues.
22. Should have vision-A vision of better life where community can handle its own problems.
23. Should be a sense of humor-Every time should not be serious business.
2

Role of An Extension Worker

1. The encourager
The community development worker helps awaken members of a community and get them to feel discontented
about their situations and also encourage the community the need to arouse the community consciousness.
2. An enabler
Through discussion listening and asking pertinent queries the community development agent enables the people to
see the nature of their discomfort and their causes and enable them to organize for an actio0n. Here enabler should
be sensitive to, culture values and desires of a community.

3. A guider
A community development agent helps a community find means of achieving its own goals. He/she helps the
community to Improve into the direction it has decided and he/she may suggest the alternative course of action.
Worker provides the facts and leaves the community to produce their own judgment. You should also take
initiative by going to the community.

4. An advisor-Consultant
A change agent may not be involved in day today community work but travel to the field ever now and then. As
an advisor the change agent provides a link between the agency and the community and to this the change agent
relies on the periodic information through periodic visit and the advice he/she gives to the agency would be about
the reality of the community situation.

5. An advocate
The change agent is committed you the aspirations and desires of the members of the community and the agency.

6. A broker
The change agent helps the community to locate resources and stimulate collective work. Sometimes the agent
helps the community locate resources outside the community.
 7. Change agent
The change agent brings change to community by helping them identify and solve their problems.
8. As an expert

Provide advice and provide informati0on on matters where you are knowledgeable and thus provide information
in your area of competence and you will be able to interpret and evaluate the community in order to give useful
information.

9. A Therapist
The worker provides diagnosis and treatment of the community as a whole. He/she deals with deep and
unconscious problems that threaten to disrupt a community organization process.

10. A Teacher
The community development worker searches his/her knowledge and passes it on his/her information to the
community.

13. A Catalyst
The agent is expected to speed up development activities in the community. Despite the dragging of members of
the community, the agent as to strive to pull up their efforts.

13. A Facilitator
The agent is expected to work with the people by being there for any doubt and uncertainties

Communication In Extension

What is communication

Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or nonverbal means
including speech or oral communication, writing or written communication, signs, signals, and behavior.
More simply, communication is said to be "the creation and exchange of meaning."

Communication forms a large part of the extension agent's job. He or she passes on ideas, advice and
information to influence the decisions of community. An extension worker must also be able to
communicate with his supervisors and research workers about the situation faced by community in his
area.

Any act of communication, be it a speech at a public meeting, a written report, a radio broadcast or a
question from a community member, includes five important elements of communication:- source,
message, channel, receiver and feedback.

The source, or where the information or idea comes from;

  Where should the information be seen to come from? An account of a successful cooperative in a
nearby village may have much more effect if it is given by the members, through a radio
programme or a visit, than by an extension agent at a public meeting.
 Has information from the source proved reliable in the past?

 How credible is the source in the eyes of the receiver?

The message, which is the information or idea that is communicated;

 What should the content be? A balance must be achieved between what the receiver wants to
know and what the source feels the receiver ought to know.
 What form should the message take? In other words, how can the message be put into the words,
pictures or symbols that the receiver will understand and take notice of?

The channel, which is the way the message is transmitted;

 What will be the most effective way of sharing the information?

 What are the characteristics of the message?

 Does it need a visual presentation, as when crop pests are being described? Is it necessary to
show movement or detailed actions (in which case, film, video or a demonstration will be
needed)?

 If a permanent, accurate record of detailed information is required, as in farm records or fertilizer

recommendations, the information should be in written or printed form.

 What channels are available to the receivers? Do they see newspapers? Can they read? Do many
of them have radios?

 What are the receiver's expectations? A senior government official, for example, is more likely to
take notice of a written submission followed by a personal visit.

The receiver :who is the person for whom the message is intended.

 What information does the receiver want or need?

 What information can he make use of?
  How much does the receiver already know about the particular topic?

 What attitudes does the receiver hold concerning the topic?

 Should these attitudes be reinforced, or should an attempt be made to change them?

Feedback - The term feedback is a reaction to the message passed. It could be helpful information or
criticism about the message. Feedback can be used to adjust and improve current and future actions and
behaviors.

Information often passes through several channels before it reaches a particular receiver, but it is rarely
passed on in exactly the same words in which it was received. In particular, technical information is
often distorted as it goes from one person to another. Extension agents should aim at being accurate
sources and channels of information, and should make sure that community have heard and fully
understood any information passed on to them. Leaflets and posters can be useful reminders of the
spoken word.

Not all communication is deliberate. For example, people's behaviour, the way they speak to each other
or the clothes they wear reveal much about them and their attitudes. If an extension agent is always late
for meetings with community" groups, the members may come to the conclusion that he does not take
them seriously. If he wears casual clothes when addressing a formal village meeting, villagers may say
that he has no respect for them. Even if this is not so, the fact that they think it is will affect their
relationship with the agent and, therefore, his effectiveness. The message that is received is not always
the one that the source intends to pass.

Listening

A good communicator listens more than he speaks. An extension agent who does not listen to
community and engage in a dialogue with them is unlikely to be very effective. There are four main
reasons why a two-way exchange or dialogue is more effective than a monologue.

 Information needs can be assessed.

 Attitudes concerning the topic of the communication will emerge.

 Misunderstandings that occur during the exchange can quickly be identified and cleared
up.
  Relationships of mutual respect can develop. If an agent listens, community will know
that one agent is interested in them, and they will be more likely to pay attention to what
the agent has to say.

Shared meanings

Communication is only successful when the receiver can interpret the information that the source has put
into the message. An extension agent may give what he feels is a clear and concise talk, or an artist may
be satisfied that he has designed a poster that conveys over the desired message, but there is no
guarantee that those for whom the talk and poster are intended will interpret the message correctly.

It is important that the same meanings for the words, pictures and symbols used in communication be
used by the source and the receiver. If this does not happen, various kinds of problems can arise.

Aspects in shared meaning

Language. Even if source and receiver speak the same language, local variations or dialects may use
similar words with different meanings.
Jargon. The technical language of specialists has to be translated into words that are familiar to the
receiver. Extension agents need to learn what words and phrases community use when talking about
their farming activities.
Pictures and symbols. Attempts to communicate through pictures and visual symbols often fail because
the receiver does not recognize what they represent. Interpreting pictures is a skill which, like reading,
has to be learned.

Effective communication

Information, knowledge and skills serve no useful purpose, if they are not effectively
transmitted/communicated to the community and utilized by the people for the desired purpose.
Defective and ineffective communication results in wastage of resources peoples efforts and time. This
can be a barrier for further work even if the innovation was good for the people. Any communicator
must consider four elements carefully, as they contribute to effectiveness communication.

Effective communication therefore:

1. Creates awareness
2. Initiates the urge to know and learn
3. Results in a change in outlook and values of the people
4. It leads to a two way channel of exchanging information on individual and community needs,
activities, programs and experiences.
The use of visual aids
One of the most effective ways to get your message across and memorable is with visual aids. Visual
aids can be deemed as the enhancements to presentation that can engage the audience, provide additional
information, and reinforce key points. Examples of visual aids are: charts, photos and pictures, graphs,
slides, drawings, schedules, videos, demonstrations.

Advantages of using visual aids in communication

The following are the advantages of using visual aid in communication.

a. Better understanding or comprehension

When you communicate to others, it is through their senses that they perceive the messages that are
being transmitted to them. If you are only using one sense (hearing) they may not understand or may
misunderstand the message. By using visual aids we activate the sense of sight thereby increase the
chances of understanding.

b. Better recall
Research has shown that when people learn by hearing alone they remember about 20% of the material.
When they learn by sight alone, recall is about 35% but when sight and sound are combined they
remember 65% visual aids are also stronger persuasion because “seeing is believing”

c. Added interests
Pictures have an inherent appeal to most people. They make it possible to add variety and even suspense
to subjects which may be boring if we only talk about them. This is especially fine when the pictures are
colored and even more so when they move in motion pictures. The amount of curiosity in people to look
at things is almost infinity.

d. Time saving
Frequently we have to cover a lot of ground in limited time yet we must make sure that everything is
clearly understood. It is usually faster to show an object of a picture that illustrates it than to describe it
in words. It also takes less time to describe it verbally.
e. Organizing communication
Visual aids can be used to organize communication, making it easier to remember points made in a
presentation. The visual aid create a point of reference for the mind to quickly refer to. It helps the
speaker stay on track

Important points to consider when using visual aids

1. A visual aid should never become an end in itself, nor do use it as a substitute for a meaningful
message. To plan for a visual aid, you have to make a series of decisions e.g.
a) What is it that you want to illustrate?
b) What approach are you going to use?
c) What do you want to show?
2. You have to take into account your audience and the context in which you are going to use your
aid. Otherwise you may end up spending time explaining the visual aid instead of having the aid
explaining your message.
3. Think through your presentation and assess the following:
 Is there anything that will be difficult to understand
 Is there anything that may be difficult to remember
 Is there any point on which it will be difficult to convince people
 Is there anything that will take much time to explain
4. When using visual aid a rule of thumb is to get as near to reality as possible e.g. the best way to
teach farmers on recommended spacing for planting maize is by getting to the field and doing it
practically. If you show pictures or even a movie some people may not understand or will forget
the message once you are gone. Describing the practice merely in words and numbers there are
many more who will not understand.

Factors to consider when planning for a visual aid

1. Resources at your disposal e.g. videos and films are expensive while posters and charts are relatively
inexpensive. Time is also an important resource that u should consider in deciding how many
resources you are going to invest in your visual aid and how often you are going to use it.
2. Physical constrains: consider availability or unavailability of electricity, sitting arrangements, the
possible of darkening the room, availability of transport for your materials.
3. The audience e.g. who are they, what can they see, how old are they, what is the education
background, what kind of pictures, symbols and colors are they used to.
4. Beware of oversimplification or over sophistication. Do not underestimate your audiences’
intelligence or their knowledge. Assuming non-existence standards of knowledge can cause
 discouragement and frustration. Aiming below the audiences’ level of intelligence will offend and
irritate them. A visual aid should be clear, simple, accurate and attractive.
The audience must be kept in mind because people differ in their levels of education, their cultural
backgrounds, standards and levels of sophistication

EXTENTION METHODS/TECHNIQUES
A method/technique is a procedure or way of doing something systematically according to a plan. A.
method can also be defined as a systematic process of achieving certain ends with accuracy and
efficiency, usually in an ordered sequence of fixed steps
Selecting an extension method/techniques
Before choosing an extension method, the following should be considered:
a) No single method is better than another. The extension agent should choose those techniques most
suitable for the situation, because no technique is considered superior than the other.
b) Use a number of methods. Experience in extension work has shown that, the more methods used,
the new information is presented and the faster an individual learns.
c) Use Methods that can overlap. e.g. you can use a slide and demonstration. This also will stimulate
group discussion and will reinforce the information. One can also use visual aid and written material:
teaching can be reinforced and supported by use of visual aids and written material.

Methods/Techniques
a. Individual teaching method
b. Group teaching method
c. Mass teaching method

1. Individual methods
Learning is an individual process; therefore personal contact should be encouraged between the change
agent and the client. Clients will listen to the advice and suggestions of an extension worker who they
feel they know. Clients appreciate the attention and contact from with the extension worker.

Individual method can take place in a farm visit or home visits form:
Farm and home visits
This allows an extension agent to concentrate on clients’ problem, builds relationships with the family
and discusses client’s interests privately without interruptions unlike in group meetings. They also allow
the extension agent to develop better understanding of the area and of the individual, creating an
opportunity to explain new recommended practice as well as stimulate involvement in extension
activities

The Home Visit

a. Make an appointment in advance to allow the client think about issues he would want addressed by
the agent
b. Before the visit, the extension staff should review all the facts about the farm/business/premise, the
client and the family. He must avoid showing ignorance towards the client’s activities.

d. The extension staff should prepare specific information concerning the problem in form of
pamphlets to leave with the farmer.
e. Plan the visit at a time convenient with the client at home/business premise and at a time when the
client is ready to have you i.e. make an appointment with the client and the visit should not conflict
with other activities.
f. During the visit, if the client is busy come quickly to the point and end the interview as soon as the
purpose is accomplished.
g. If the clients wants to extend the visit then make time
h. The extension staff must have sound technical knowledge and should take the opportunity to arouse
interests of the clients to other activities in the programme. Provide sound technical information and
relate to clients and farm/business premise
i. In discussing with the client, listen carefully and allow the client to do more of the talking but guide
the conversation.
The extension staff should keep the record of the visits i.e. the purpose of the visit, time and place,
observations made, help given to the client, what results were achieved, and when the follow-up is
required.
Check list for planning for home visit
• Make an appointment if possible
• Decide the purpose on the visit
• Review previous records and information
• Preparation of specialist subject matter that might be required
• Schedule the visit and the overall work
Record keeping
The extension agent should make a record of any visit that he makes, indicating the date, purpose,
conclusions and recommendations arising from the visit. This makes a useful reference for agents
coming after him.

How to make follow-ups after the farm visit.

Office calls
Encourage the client to visit the extension agent in his/her office to make inquiries or follow-up. For
ease, the office visit also needs to be carefully prepared ensuring that the client is able to access the
office. Additional information should be posted on the notice board. Apart from the client visit, the
extension worker should also visit the client (visit is two-way)
Letters/emails
Letters or e-mails are used mostly as a follow-up or enquiry resulting from farm/home or office visit.
The agent should ensure that he uses language that is understood by the client. The letter should be
concise giving only relevant information.

Telephone calls or Sms: usually used to pass short messages and quick enquiry.

Advantages of individual method

a. It helps the extension staff to get acquitted with the client and his or her family
b. Helps develop a good relationship between extension staff and clientele and builds clients’
confidence on the extension worker.
c. Enable extension staff to answer specific request for help.
d. Helps the extension staff to explain recommended practice and follow up.
e. Enable an extension staff to plan an activity with the clients and participate in the planned activity.
f. Enable extension staff to discuss policy and program with clientele, and also stimulate interests in
clients.
Disadvantages
a. Its time consuming
b. It is not cost effective
c. Limited creativity
d. No information sharing as opposed to group method

ii) Group methods

Group teaching methods are more frequently used in extension work than individual teaching method.
These methods are particularly effective in persuading the clients to try new ideas or practices.
A group decision to try a new practice is likely to carry more weight in an area than a similar decision
made by an individual. Groups are effective in moving people from the interest stage to the trial stage of
learning.

Group methods include:-

a. Method demonstration
b. Result demonstration
c. Field days
d. Field trips
e. Group meetings
f. Seminars
g. Workshops
h. Symposiums
i. Mirror techniques

1. Demonstrations (Method Demonstration)

This shows how something is done step by step for the purpose of teaching new techniques and practices
of how to do an old job better and quicker. The effectiveness of the demonstration depends greatly on
the amount of preparation and planning. Because the results of the demonstration can be observed and
even practice it is very effective in persuading the client to try something new.

Steps to follow for a successful demonstration Methods:

a) Planning the demonstration
i) Identifying the problem. Involve people in identifying their problem
ii) Identify the skill to be taught. The extension agent must decide what skill to be taught, what
educational and altitudinal objectives he/she wishes to attain.
The extension agent must ask the following questions?
a. Is the skill important?
b. Can the people afford to adopt the skill
c. Are there enough supplies and equipment available to permit its widespread use
iii) Gather information about the skills and study it thoroughly. The demonstrator must be familiar
with method to break it down into teachable segments.
iv) Involve clientele in planning and presentation of demonstration. By seeking people’s advice and
assistance, local interest and level of adoption will be increased.
v) Assemble the material required to conduct the demonstration.
vi) Plan the presentation step by step including the information and the summary.
vii) Rehearse the presentation until it can be given with confidence.

b) Holding the demonstration

(i)Schedule the demonstration at the most convenient time and place for the client.
(ii)Arrange the audience so that everyone can see and hear the demonstration clearly e.g. semi-circle.
(iii)Introduce yourself and the presentation giving the background of the problem and why it is
important that they learn the skill and what will take place at the gathering.
(iv) Ask for help from the audience to help in demonstrating the various steps.
(v)Proceed with the presentation step by step answering questions and repeating difficult steps.
(vi)Encourage the members/audience to attempt the new method during the meeting. If time allows
each individual should have an opportunity to practice the skills.
(vii)Summarize the importance of the skill, the steps and the supplies and equipment needed.
(viii)Distribute illustrated literature, if available showing each step.

c) Follow up
(i)Evaluate the demonstration carefully noting the strengths and weaknesses.
(ii)Visit those clients who indicated an interest in the demonstrations e.g. if they have adopted or not.

b. Result demonstration
It is a demonstration which shows after a period of time what happened after a practice was adopted. In
result demonstration, comparison is the important ingredient.
Planning the demo
i) Identify the problem to be solved by the demonstration
ii) Decide upon the objectives to be accomplished. Three types of objectives.
d. Attitudinal objective – aim is to change their attitude
e. Knowledge objective
f. Skill objective
iii) Gather complete information about the practice
iv) Seek the assistance of the clientele in planning and carrying out the demonstration
 Endorsement by the local leaders will add credence to the efforts; seek their recommendations
about good possible host farmers.
v) Develop a complete plan of work clearly delineating each individual stake and showing who has
responsibility for each task.
vi) Select accessible demonstration plot that are centrally located and near a road so that people can
easily visit the site.
vii) Visit the host farmer/client and work with him/her to make sure that he or she understands the
purpose of the demonstration and how it will be implemented. This is a very important step

During the demonstration

i) Ask the area leaders and influential client to encourage the clientele to attend the start of the
demonstration i.e. the first time to put up the intervention.
ii) Visit the demonstration site often
iii) Use the demonstration site for meetings for tours during the life of the demonstration.
Encourage the host client to describe the process.
iv) Keep records at both sites so that the results can be compared. Detailed records maintained
during the life of the demonstration will facilitate speaking about the process in meetings and
elsewhere.
v) Publicize the demonstration. Use newspapers and radios, talk about the demonstration on a
market day to informal contacts and in the meetings held for the other purposes.

After the demonstration

i) Evaluate the process and results of the demonstration
ii) Provide follow up information and training to interested clientele

Advantages
i) It shows convincingly why a practice should be adopted.
ii) It is an effective method of introducing new subjects.
iii) It appeals to the eye.
iv) Provides a good source of information for meetings, new items, pictures, radio etc.
v) It aims in developing local leaders
vi) It establishes confidence in extension staff and extension work

Disadvantages
i) It is time consuming
ii) It is costly especially if new technology which will require new gadgets is applied.

2. Lecture Method
A lecture is a formal verbal presentation by a single speaker to a group of listeners. Visual aids may
illustrate the lecture and a question-answer period may follow a talk.

Advantages
i) Much information can be transmitted in a relatively short time
ii) Large numbers of people can be addressed together
iii) Abstract ideas and unfamiliar subjects can be conveniently presented

Disadvantages
i) The subject matter of lectures is usually not well remembered
ii) The audience generally remains passive/minimum activity
iii) A lecture is not suited for teaching skills and only rarely so for changing attitudes. Whatever the
occasion the effectiveness of a lecture is not to be judged by what the lecturer says but what the
audience remembers.

Points to consider when planning a lecture

1. Objective – the objective of lecture should describe the results which the lecturer wants the listeners
to show after having heard his/her lecture. The only way he/she can check whether his/her lecture
has been effective or not is to compare the actual results with the planned objectives.
2. Audience – it is important for the lecturer to know the audience size and education level. A lecturer
should try to elicit audience participation as much as possible. Group size will frequently limit the
amount of material he/she can present.
It also affects the style on which he/she should speak with small groups it is possible to be informal
and allow relatively much time for questions and comments whereas larger audiences require a more
formal and structural presentation.
Knowledge and level of education of the audience will enable the lecture to adopt the subject matter
and style accordingly. If he/she speaks below their level, they may feel bored or even insulted and if
he/she speaks above their heads they simply will not understand him/her.
3. Subject – the different between what the audiences already know and the objective indicates the
material that should be presented (subject). If the gap between the existing knowledge and the
desired objective is large it may not be possible to present all the material in one session.
4. Situation – the situation in which the lecture is delivered has physical as well as social dimensions.
The physical dimensions concern primarily the time and location. At what time of day is the lecture
to be given, activities to precede the lecture and to follow it, is it going to be indoors or outdoors.
The social dimensions include; how well know is the lecturer to these learners, what do they think of
him/her, would they consider him/her as one of their own or socially superior or inferior to
themselves?

Preparing a lecture
Having decided the objective, audience and subject, the lecturer should do the following;
1. Gather information
Carry out an extensive informative reading in order to acquire have overall familiarity with the subject.
2. Selective reading
Reading of the same material where the lecturer chooses and marks those points which have a direct
bearing on the lecture he/she is preparing.
3. Final reading
The lecturer goes over his/her notes and completes them with he/she knows from his/her own experience
subdividing all material into a series of sub heading and arranging them in a logical order.
The material should be subdivided into;
i) Essential (e.g. by use of different pens, cards etc.). This is information that must be connected for
the lecturer to attain his objectives.
ii) Desirable (consists of additional information which could preferably/profitably be represented if
occasion arises and time permits)
iii) The optional material (information which no greater harm could be done if it is omitted)

Delivering the lecture

1. Overcoming nervousness. Most people a little tense when lecturing for the first time or addressing a
strange audience, this is quite normal. Nervousness and tension are natural phenomenon which
indicates that the body is summoning its resources to meet the task that lies ahead.
It is important to maintain a reasonable balance between the tension on one hand and the required
effort on the other. The lecturer must remain thoroughly in control of himself in order to
successfully deliver his lecture.

Hints to overcoming nervousness

a) Much of the tension is due to fear of failure therefore thorough preparation, a clearly legible
outline and a little rehearsal will go a long way towards putting you at your ease.
b) Learn the first two or three sentences of your lecture at heart.
c) Do not take a heavy meal before lecturing and abstain from artificial stimulants (e.g. alcohol and
sedatives. This is because nervous tension often manifests itself in the digestive system making a
person feel slightly sick with “butterflies” in the stomach.
Vent your attention on some objects that can take it e.g. holding tightly to the back of chair or the
lecturers table but do not hold your notes in your hands.
d) Take the audience into your confidence and enlist their cooperation. Most audiences will bear with
you, smile back at you and help you with sympathetic attentiveness and interest.
2. Using the outline. Keep the outline on the desk in front of you and grasp at it from time to time to
keep yourself on track. The outline should be clearly marked at appropriate places to indicate the
timing of your lecture. Have your watch next to your outline so that you will know at a glance how
you stand for time. Quicken your phase or slacken it considering the time left. Lecturers who cannot
stop on time may anger the audience.
3. Audience participation. Research has revealed that the average time a passive group maintains
interest on its own is about five minutes. Thus the lecturer must arouse fresh interests periodically. It
is important therefore that a lecturer plans in advance active audience participation.
This can be achieved by use of questions; the lecturer may ask questions in order to stimulate
independent thinking in his listeners. The purpose of encouraging audience question is to evaluate
the success of the lecture, to clarify doubtful points and to relieve possible tensions.
Absence of questions from the audience should serve as a warning signal to the lecturer because it
suggests that he/she has not succeeded in holding their interests. Audience interest may also be
maintained by presenting interesting cases and examples, by modulating the voice in pitch and
intensity and by using audio visual aids, movements.

Characteristics of a good lecturer

1. Should stick to your prepared outline
2. Show enthusiasm for the subject
3. Use notes but does not read from them
4. Simple language
5. Speak clearly and fluently
6. Modulate voice for emphasis and variety
7. Should not jump from theme to theme but connect them logically and gracefully
8. Respond to the state of mind your audience
9. Avoid unpleasant mannerism and gestures
10. Calm and relaxed
 11. Make each member of the audience feel that the lecture is meant personally for him/her

4. Mirror technique
Presentation of situations, barriers or problems in a form that reflects the audience. The ‘mirror’
depicts a situation that the community can easily recognize and with which they can identify
themselves. This includes drama, role play, puppets shows, mimics, songs, poems, proverbs etc.
The mirror technique avoids antagonizing the audience as it does not attack them directly.
The technique is best used in sensitive situations to open up discussions on silent issues and help
people to reflect on their behavior without feeling pressurized.
The mirror technique is useful when creating awareness on sensitive issues like of condom and/or
change of attitude.
Areas where mirror technique can be used in general extension week include; school parent day,
field days, rallies, training sessions (movies, videos) barazas, groups etc.

Steps in developing mirror techniques

The problems and causes should be clearly identified and this will form the main content of the theme of
the mirror. Information is collected about the social, cultural and environmental aspects of the area and
barriers and shy feelings identified.
The storyline is developed. Participation of selected individuals, groups and local leaders is elicited to
make the message realistic.
a. Script writing: The information gathered should be put in a story line that will help the actors. This
will include names of places and characters and will be organized in a logical sequence.
b. Identification of singing groups/actors: The drama or singing group should be chosen from the
community where the message has been developed. This will make the exercise more realistic in
terms of socio cultural aspects.
A popular group identified by the members of the community may also be chosen. It is important
that the community should be involved in identifying the group that you use for the mirror
techniques.
c. Training of the groups identified: First and foremost the groups identified should be exposed to the
findings of the messages developed during the initial discussions i.e. the groups should also be
exposed to some individuals or groups which participated in earlier decisions.
d. Acting or composing of songs: The actors need to be exposed to theatre style before reverting to
local realistic acting so that they can acquire more experiences and confidence on how to act on
stage. It will also enable the actors know how to project and stress certain words and how to change
 their voices and movements. The costumes should resemble the average community wear and the
behavior on the stage should depict real action in various households in that community.
e. Pretesting: The presentation should be pretested on a smaller group and adjustments made before it
is taken to the large audience.

Presentation of the mirror to the audience

a. Venue: It should be identified and acceptable by the community. It should be a neutral place e.g.
social hall, school. The participants should have access to the venue for practice.
b. Timing: Arrange to have the mirror presentation during an appropriate time for the audience. Avoid
bad weather, time the mirror to correspond with the activities if technical messages have to be
implemented.
c. Audience: Identify who the target group for your message in the mirror should be so that they are
targeted in the mirror.
d. Actors: Give the actors freedom to organize themselves on how they want to run the show. Draw up
the progress of the day with them.
e. Stage: It should be in a convenient place (sight to allow the audience to see all the actions
undertaken by the actors).
f. Publicity: Publicize the events in good time so that everybody knows about the time, date and
venue. During presentations announce when and where to follow up meetings to take place. For the
technique to work as an effective mirror it should have the following qualities:
5. Realness: Situations presented should be real and close to the audience.
6. Clarity: The message conveyed should be clear to the audience otherwise they might make
different interpretations.
7. Simplicity: The presentation should be simple and at the level of audience understanding.
8. Acceptability: Avoid embarrassing or annoying situations in the presentations.
9. Humor: Make the presentation interesting to the audience.

Definitions
a. Drama: Information or message put across to the audience through actions by actors.
b. Role play: The activity in which a person imitates or acts out a situation by use of guidelines or
instructions or storyline.
c. Puppet: An art of manipulating small figures or dots which are made by strings attached to its limbs
or by cloth body to perform certain actions.
d. Proverbs: A wise saying providing guidance. They would provide a lot of useful information.
e. Poems: A comparison in verse usually characterized by words chosen from their sound and
suggestive to carry very informative messages to the audience.
f. Songs/dance: Songs usually sung in their traditional local tone but passing specific messages
sometimes accompanied by dances.

5. Group discussions
This can be used to exchange ideas and knowledge, to solve group problems, to air opinions and
disagreements and to work towards consensus on contested issues. It is therefore used quite frequently.
Successful discussions depend on the participant skills and attitudes, same to the official discussion
leader. The leader act is to draw the best out of a very lose and unstructured situation. Discussion is an
interchange of thoughts, ideas and opinions among different people.
In a genuine decision, participants must assume the possibility that he/she can learn something that
others may also be right and that the interchange of opinions can be more variable than the
predominance of any particular opinion.
The boundary lines between discussion, debates, arguments and lecturing are not fixed or always clear.

Advantages of group discussions

a. There is active participation, mutual learning and pulling of experiences.
b. Having to face various opinions, participants have an opportunity to develop their critical faculties, a
sense of responsibility and cooperation in reaching group discussion.
c. Participants learn to tolerate other people’s point of view.
d. The need to identify with the group can frequently induce an individual to readjust his/her previously
held attitudes.

Disadvantages
a. It is time consuming
b. It can be done well and effectively only in relatively small groups
c. It is not suitable for teaching skills
d. It requires that participants have some communication skills and prior knowledge of the subject

Group’s discussions can be sued to achieve the following extension objectives

a. To change participants attitude
b. To develop spirit of cooperation
c. To develop their sense of responsibility
d. To discover and encourage potential leaders
e. To reach groups decisions about opinions and problems

Planning for good discussions

a. Define objectives: A good definition objectives is one that is expressed in simple precise terms
describing the desired results in the participants.
b. Audience: The ideal number of participants is between 6 to 12 members. A group of this size will
usually represent sufficiently different ideas and opinions to make a decision possible yet being
small enough to assure each participant the opportunity to speak.
Members of the same groups should be of approximately similar educational and social
backgrounds. Avoid inviting outstandingly important people or anyone who by his mere presence
might inhibit the free exchange of ideas.
c. Subject: This to be discussed should be one that assures at least some common ground.

Participatory Rural Appraisal

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is considered one of the popular and effective approaches to gather
information in rural areas. This approach was developed in early 1990s with considerable shift in
paradigm from top-down to bottom-up approach, and from blueprint to the learning process.

PRA can be defined as an approach and method for learning about rural life and conditions from, with
and by rural people. He further stated that PRA extends into analysis, planning and action. PRA closely
involve community and local officials in the process.

Participatory – Means that people are involved in the process – a “bottom-up” approach that requires
good communication skills and positive attitude of the extension worker.

Rural – The techniques can be used in any situation, urban or rural, with both literate and illiterate
people.

Appraisal – it means judging the value of or analyzing the information collected about problems, or
needs, the community.

PRA is intended to enable local communities to conduct their own analysis and to plan and take action.
PRA requires the extension worker to learn together with community about their problems. It is based
on the principle that local people are creative and capable and can do their own investigations, analysis,
and planning. Therefore the aim of PRA is to help strengthen the capacity of community to plan, make
decisions, and to take action towards improving their own situation. It is a methodology of learning rural
life and their environment from the rural people. It requires extension workers to act as facilitators to
help local people conduct their own analysis, plan and take action accordingly. The basic concept of
PRA is to learn from rural people.

Elements of PRA

Three common elements found in a PRA approach are:

1. Individual responsibility and judgment facilitated by an extension worker

2. Commitment to equity (especially the excluded, deprived members of the community e.g.
women, disabled etc.)
3. Recognition and celebration of diversity

Principles of PRA

There are five key principles that form the basis of any PRA activity no matter what the objectives or
setting:

1. Participation - PRA relies heavily on participation by the communities, as the method is designed to
enable local people to be involved, not only as sources of information, but as partners with the PRA
team in gathering and analyzing the information.

2. Flexibility - The techniques should be appropriate in a particular group.

3. Teamwork - Generally, a PRA is best conducted by a local team (speaking the local languages) with
a few outsiders present, a significant representation of women, and a mix of sector specialists, according
to the topic.

4. PRA is a field based technique where learning takes place.

5. PRA seeks out the vulnerable

Participatory Rural Appraisal TOOLS

Semi-structured interview (SSI)

The purpose of a SSI is to gain information from an individual or small group on an issue. SSI is guided
conversation where broad questions are asked, which do not constrain the conversation, and new
questions are allowed to arise as a result of the discussion. It is therefore a relatively informal, relaxed
discussion based around a pre-determined topic. SSI can be used with individuals, key informants,
interest groups or other small groups of community (i.e. women’s groups).

The weakness of this approach is that it does not permit the interviewer to pursue topics or issues of
interest that were not anticipated because interview guide is elaborated. Also, interviewer flexibility in
wording and sequencing questions may result in substantially different responses from different persons,
thus reducing comparability.

Maps

Mapping is one of the most powerful tool used to generate pictures on any aspect of the physical reality.
Usually mapping is used to depict infrastructures, natural resources, land ownership, settlement pattern,
soil types, cropping pattern etc. Usually the maps are drawn on the ground using on the spot available
materials. The location of the mapping session should be freely accessible to all groups of the
community. Maps can be also used according to a timeline like the community or group 30 years back to
now. A future model can be drawn to discuss peoples vision of the future how it will be or how they
want it should be. Such historical maps help to discuss the root cause of the present situation and
possible future developments.

Types of mapping

Social mapping

Social mapping is a PRA method that involves the sketching/drawing of houses and other social
facilities and infrastructure (i.e. churches, stores, rice mills, schools, pharmacies, trails and roads, water
pumps, irrigation, recreation facilities etc) in a community. Its main objective is to help learn about the
social structures in the community and the differences among the households by ethnicity, religion and
wealth and to learn about who is living where. This helps to visualize and situate the location of
households and other social facilities/infrastructure in a community. It serves as a baseline for planning,
implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of community development activities.

Resource Map

The community Resource Map is a tool that helps to learn about a community and its resource base and
how these resources are used. The primary concern is not to develop an accurate map but to get useful
information about local perceptions of resources. The participants should develop the content of the map
according to what is important to them.
During resource mapping the following questions are asked: 1. What resources are abundant? 2. What
resources are scarce? 3. Does everyone have equal access to land? 4. Do women have access to land? 5.
Do the poor have access to land? 6. Who makes decision on land allocation? 7. Where do people go to
collect water? 8. Who collects water? 9. Where do people go to collect firewood? 10. Who collects
firewood? E.t.c.

Timeline (Historical Mapping)

The facilitators meet small groups of community and discuss with them the most important events in the
community’s past and prepare with the information a historical timeline which serves as the base for
further work. It is important to involve different groups of the communities to get their usually different
perspectives. The timeline with basic events can be used for focussed discussions on problems, social
and technological innovations or on communities history of co operations and activities which helped
them to solve in past problems successfully.

Time chart or Seasonal calendar

A seasonal calendar is a PRA method that determines patterns and trends throughout the year in a certain
village. It can be used for purposes such as rainfall distribution, food availability, agricultural
production, income and expenditures, health problems, and others. The seasonal calendar can also be
used to collect information on how community allocate their time as well as their labour in various
activities within the village . A time chart or seasonal calendar is prepared by drawing a two-
dimensional matrix and writing the time period (i.e. month, year) on an axis and the different village
activities on the other axis. Community are encouraged to fill in the matrix of the chart/calendar by
marking the grid or by placing stones or other objects on the matrix.

Wealth ranking

Wealth ranking is a PRA method that determines the economic attributes of households in a village. It
shows information on the relative wealth and well-being of households in a community. It helps in
determining the social and economic status of households in a community. The information generated by
the wealth ranking exercise helps in identifying the poor households in the community. Ranking is done
by community themselves. It serves as baseline and as an opportunity to identify indicators for planning,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of community development activities (including selection of
village organizing strategy).

Structured Direct observation

What people say and what they do may be two different things. Sometimes people idealize a situation
and tell things which are more a description of how things should be than how things are. Other reasons
for this difference is that while talking about routine activities a person is only able to give information
about some aspects of this activity. One reason for this is that these activities are often routines and done
without reflection and they have been learned by observation and by doing. Usually community do not
talk much about their routine activities, like selection of seeds, preparation of seed mixtures etc., they
simply do it. Farmers, like others, often say things, which do not correspond with reality. What people
tell in interviews is not a picture of the reality, but their mental construction of the activities. Direct
observation allows a cross-check of findings of what people tell. Direct observation can also be used
to generate on-the-spot questions in direct interaction with the farmers.

Key informant interview

Depending on the nature and scope of an inquiry, the investigator identifies appropriate groups from
which the key informants may be drawn, and then selects a few from each group. The accuracy of
information obtained from key informant interviews depends mainly on developing a suitable interview
guide, and the selection of the informants. The information received from the key informants has to be
cross-checked through group discussions and interviews with other people.