Agricultural Extension

& Communication

MARY YOLE APPLE DECLARO-RUEDAS

Occidental Mindoro State College
San Jose, Occidental Mindoro
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1: Overview of Agricultural Extension 7
a. Concepts, functions and nature of agricultural extension
b. Types, functions and objectives of extension
c. Principles and philosophy of extension
d. Roles of Extension professionals

2: History of Extension 35
a. Distant Origins of Extension
b. Extension in Europe and USA
c. Extension under Philippine Setting

3: Communication in Agricultural Extension 57

a. Importance and purpose of communication
b. Elements of communication
c. Models of communication
d. Levels of communication

4: Diffusion of Innovation and Technology Adoption Process 68

a. Diffusion and adoption process
b. Stages of adoption process
c. Types of adopters
d. Problems and issues in adoption

5: Extension Teaching Methods 81

a. Definition of Methods/Technologies
b. Types of extension teaching methods
c. Factors affecting teaching methods

6: Approaches in Extension 92
a. Concepts of Extension Approach
b. Factors in selecting approach in extension
c. Types of extension approaches

7: Program Planning 101

a. Stages in Program Planning
b. Participatory/Rapid Rural Appraisal

8: Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension 120

a. Monitoring
b. Evaluation
 LESSON 1
Overview of Agricultural Extension

TOPICS

1. Concepts and nature of agricultural extension

2. Types, functions and objectives of extension
3. Principles and philosophy of extension
4. Roles of extension workers

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the basic concepts of extension.
2. Identify the roles of extension workers.

Concepts and Nature of Agricultural Extension

“Agricultural extension is a non-formal type of training at the service of farmers, which
constitutes a link between research and the farmers aiming at effecting changes in farmers’
professional behavior toward the improvement of their livelihood.”

Extension distinguishes itself from formal training or education, such as schools,

colleges, university training and the like because there is no formal condition for participation
nor any diplomas on completion of studies in the field of extension work. Besides there is no
force to compel farmers either to attend nor to apply whatever is being taught or suggested. It
is a service offered to the client either for free of charge or with a fee but the approach is totally
non-formal. Extension service continue to bridge or link agricultural sciences and research and
the farmer. It is supposed to be a two-way linkage to bring innovations as a result of formal
research and field trials at the research station and the farmers’ on-farm trial plots to the farmer’s
field. As far as the aim is concerned, anything that will ultimately bring about betterment in the
quality of life of the farmers will be acceptable and ensure cooperation.

As Dr. Contado (2000) defined agricultural extension which refers to the process of
spreading and transferring of scientific knowledge, information, practices and technologies
through non-formal education and communication procedures from a source to the end-users,
conducted by an authorized body or organization to work directly or indirectly with farmers.

In addition, FAO Reference Manual (1984) define it as “. . . as a service or system which

assists farm people, through educational procedures, in improving farming methods and
techniques, increasing production efficiency and income, bettering their levels of living, and
lifting the social and educational standards of rural life.
DEFINITION OF EXTENSION

 The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin roots, ‘ex’ meaning out’ and‘tensio’
meaning ‘stretching’. Literally it means ‘stretching out’.

 Extension involves the conscious use of communication of information to help people

form sound opinions and make good decisions (Van den Ban & Hawkins, 1998).

 Extension is everything that people who think of themselves as extensionists do as part

of their professional practice (Leeuwis, 2004).

 An approach to development (Cardenas, 1996) that has come to be recognized as a noble

and essential function of an institution of higher learning.

 It is a force that has the potential of enabling the Universities and Colleges to actualize
their impact on individuals and society (PAEPI, 2010).

 An instrument of premeditated, deliberate intervention to achieve the intervener’s goals

and can only be effective by inducing voluntary change on the part of the client and
hence satisfying client’s goals (Rolling, 1988).

 Extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution, to

induce change in voluntary behavior with a presumed public or collective utility
(Rolling, 1988).
TERMS FOR EXTENSION

Country Terminology Meaning

Dutch Voorlichting Lighting the pathway

ahead to help people find
their way

Indonesia Penyuluhan Lighting the way ahead

with a torch

Thailand Song-Suem To promote

Germany Beratung “Advisory work”

Aufklärung “Enlightenment” so that

one knows clearly where
Erziehung he/she is going
“Education,” that is, to
teach, people to solve
their problems themselves

AuAustria Förderung “Furthering” or

stimulating one to go in a
desirable direction
France Vulgarisation Simplification of the
Animation message for the common
man

Spain Capacitacion Improving people’s

Consultacion abilities, normally
through training

USA Extension Education, or influencing

people to change their
behavior

Malaysia Perkembangan Education, the way USA

interprets it

Persian Tarvij & Gostaresh “to promote and to

extend” - ‫ت روی ج و‬
‫گ س ترش‬
HISTORICAL DEFINITIONS OF EXTENSION

1949: The central task of extension is to help rural families help themselves by applying science,
whether physical or social, to the daily routines of farming, homemaking, and family and
community living.
1965: Agricultural extension has been described as a system of out-of-school education for rural
people.
1966: Extension personnel have the task of bringing scientific knowledge to farm families in the
farms and homes. The object of the task is to improve the efficiency of agriculture.
1973: Extension is a service or system which assists farm people, through educational
procedures, in improving farming methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency and
income, bettering their standard of living and lifting social and educational standards.
1974: Extension involves the conscious use of communication of information to help people
form sound opinions and make good decisions.
1982: Agricultural Extension: Assistance to farmers to help them identify and analyze their
production problems and become aware of the opportunities for improvement.
1988: Extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to
induce change in voluntary behaviors with a presumed public or collective utility.
1997: Extension is the organized exchange of information and the deliberate transfer of skills.
1999: The essence of agricultural extension is to facilitate interplay and nurture synergies within
a total information system involving agricultural research, agricultural education and a vast
complex of information-providing businesses.
2004: Extension is a series of embedded communicative interventions that are meant, among
other goals, to develop and/or induce innovations which help to resolve (usually multi-actor)
problematic situations.
2006: Extension is the process of enabling change in individuals, communities and industries
involved in the primary industry sector and in natural resource management.

Agricultural extension is a very important weapon in bringing economic and social

progress as it (ATI, 2012):

 bridges the knowledge gap between researchers and farmers;

 promotes the application of knowledge and technology developed by the research
establishment to end-users;
 serves as a non-formal education of farmers;
 is a communication process and is also a means of information sharing, and
 is a process of empowerment of the weak and vulnerable constituents of society as they
become informed and active participants in decision-making.

Common elements in the definition of extension

1. Extension is an intervention
Intervention is a systematic effort to strategically apply resources to manipulate
seemingly causal elements in an ongoing social process, so as to permanently reorient
that process in directions deemed desirable by the intervening party (Roling & De Zeeuw
1983:p32)
An intervention involves two parties. It is initiated by an intervening party, a change
agent, extension worker, adult educator, or other professional, para-professional or
volunteer. It ‘aims at’ a client, or a target group, target category or target population.
2. Extension uses communication as its instrument to induce change.
 The strategic use of communication to induce behavior change is dependent upon the
extent to which meaning is shared between intervening party and target clients. A
communication intervention aims at changing people, not things.
3. Extension can be effective only through voluntary change.
Extension effectiveness depends on the willingness of people to be persuaded or on the
extent to which they see extension as serving their own interests and benefit.
Anyone who intervenes through communication can be effective only to the extent that
voluntary change can be induced.
4. Extension focuses on a number of different target processes and outcomes which
distinguish it from other communication interventions. The set of target processes,
extension aims to change can be distinguished by the different levels of aggregation. At
the individual level, target behaviors include attitudes, knowledge, decision making,
opinion formation, etc. At the societal or collective level of aggregation, the typical
target processes are cheap and good-quality food for the consumers, ensuring a
sustainable use of the environment, greater equity, ensuring adherence to public interest
policies, etc. A distinction must be made between covert and overt behavior at the
individual level of aggregation. The former must be inferred from the latter, The former
includes that behavior which takes place inside the mind such as knowledge, insight,
meanings, awareness, motivation, opinion or conviction. Overt behavior includes
decision, action, utilization of knowledge, or application of skill and leads to such
outcomes as innovation, social action, etc.
5. Extension is deployed by an institution. Extension being a professional activity requires
money. It is an instrument usually deployed by institutions. These can be government
institutions, voluntary agencies, commercial companies, and member associations.

Six components of extension program (Contado, 2002):

1. an authority and resources to do extension work
2. a message and source of knowledge and technology
3. a set up (organization) to do extension work
4. a clientele – the user beneficiary of the extension message (knowledge, practices,
technology) and
5. an outcome or result (i.e. process output and impact) of the extension function/effort.
6. Extension science developed first as a specialization within rural sociology. Given
rural sociology’s focus on change, extension as an instrument for promoting change
could not be ignored. Studying ‘change agents’ such as extension workers and their
agencies, became an acceptable sociological preoccupations. One of the earliest
extension research paradigms – diffusion of innovations, arose within, and was
consolidated as a tradition in rural sociology. It provided a comfortable home for
what was to become extension science.

However, extension soon became decision-oriented or activist, and divorced

itself from rural sociology, becoming more and more concerned with utilizing social
psychology and communication and borrowing heavily from the neighboring fields of
education, marketing and advertising. Extension did not need theories of change but,
rather, of changing. In the process, the focus shifted to the micro-level and to extension
methods, interpersonal communication processes and the adoption of technology by the
individual. The macro-consequences of technology-propelled development were
neglected.
 Knowledge and information systems
Extension science is beginning to be able to make propositions about extension
as a sub-system of a larger system in which research and utilizers also form sub-systems.
In fact, it seems unfruitful nowadays to look at extension in isolation from these sub-
systems. For example, one cannot improve extension without also improving research
and the mechanisms linking it to extension. Nor can one improve extension without
improving user control of farmers over extension services.

An agricultural information system

Is a system in which agricultural information is generated, transformed,
transferred, consolidated, received and feedback in such manner that these processes
function synergically to underpin knowledge utilization by agricultural producers.

In the Philippines. The extension system which forms part of the Agricultural
Information Knowledge System include the Agricultural Extension system of the Local
Government Units (LGUs), the Department of Agriculture Agencies and Bureaus, the
State Colleges and Universities, NGOs and private companies. This practice of allowing
several organizations to provide extension work to the different farmers of the country
implies that the country has a Pluralistic Extension Policy.. Even before the 1993
devolution of the Bureau of Agricultural Extension, there was already a plurality of
organizations that were providing agricultural extension work to the millions of Filipino
farmers. That included DA industry bureaus, the DA commodity agencies, the State
Agricultural Colleges and Universities as well as some NGOs and private companies.

Table 1. Differences between formal education and extension education.

Formal Education Extension Education
1. The teacher starts with theory & 1. The teacher (extension professional) starts with
works up to practical. practical & may take up theory later on.
2. Students study subjects. 2. Clients study problems.
3. Students must adapt themselves 3. It has no fixed curriculum or course of study & the
to the fixed curriculum offered. clients help to formulate the curriculum.
4. Authority rests with the teacher. 4. Authority rests with the clients.
5. Class attendance is compulsory. 5. Participation is voluntary.
6. Teacher instructs the students. 6. Teacher teaches & also learns from the clients.
7. Teaching is only through 7. Teaching is also through local leaders.
instructors.
8. Teaching is mainly vertical. 8. Teaching is mainly horizontal.
9. The teacher has more or less 9. The teacher has a large & heterogeneous audience.
homogeneous audience.
10. It is rigid. 10. It is flexible.
11. It has all pre-planned & pre- 11.It has freedom to develop programmes locally and
decided programmes. they are based on the needs & expressed desires of
the people.
12. It is more theoretical. 12. It is more practical & intended for immediate
application in the solution of problems.
NATURE/DIMENSION OF EXTENSION

1. Altruistic -extension is aimed at helping farmers. A basic premise of extension that must
be observed by practitioners
2. Education - extension is a non-formal method of adult education. Thus, extension
professionals must be imbued with knowledge on how adults learn
3. Communication - extension is a communication intervention. Knowledge of basic
communication process and its dynamics must be adequately understood by the
extension professional
4. Behavioral - extension is aimed at inducing behavioral changes among farmers. This
makes behavioral change the end goal of extension.if farmer has not changed his
behavior (for his betterment) no extension has been done
5. Technology - extension helps in the transfer of technology. Extension should be able to
identify technologies appropriate to clientele. The need for alternative approaches and
methods for diagnosing technical problems should be recognized
6. Research - extension aims at linking research with farmers. Ways to foster closer links
between the farmers and the researchers need further understanding
7. Input- provision of technical inputs plays an important linking function in the transfer of
technology. Requires that extension professional be knowledgeable of these technical
inputs
8. Income- extension is aimed at increased income for the farmer through increased
production and productivity
9. Management- extension aims to function according to sound management principles.
Hence, requiring that the extension professional be a good manager

SCOPE OF EXTENSION

1. Agricultural Production-Extension serves agriculture and the

nation’s economy by actively helping people cope with the
changes brought by continuous change of technology in
production, processing, marketing; available human and
material resource, government’s priority agricultural program,
etc.

2. Marketing and Processing of Farm Products-The extension

service may initiate a program in marketing, distribution and
utilization of farm products with the end view of reducing the
cost of marketing, expanding the market and helping the people
understand the marketing system.

3. Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Development-Extension service

have a unique opportunity in the following aspects: Creating awareness, Developing
appreciation of the economic and recreational values of natural resources, Supplying and
developing leadership, Sharing experiences and specialized knowledge, and Helping in
identifying solutions to individual problems.
 4. Farm and Home Management- Extension can play a great role in education
farmers in farm management. Helps farmers decide on what and how much resources to
acquire and how and when to use them.

5. Family Living- According to Maunder (1972), family, home economics, home

management, food and nutrition, clothing, health and safety, problems of low income
and human relations are some of the major areas in which extension conducts family
living programs.

6. Youth Development- The needs, problems and aspirations of the youth are different
from adults. Extension programs may be designed appropriate to their needs.

7. Leadership Development- Leadership when developed helps extension reach more

people.

8. Community Improvement and Resource Development-There are three kinds of

resources existing in the communities which extension have to reckon with: natural,
human, and institutional or organizational resources.

9. Public Affairs-Public affairs education is education for citizenship. Its scope is

measured by the educational needs of intelligent citizen concerned with public issues at
every level of government (Maunder, 1972). Extension service provides people
opportunity to participate in activities that aim to clarify issues and problems on public
affairs.

COMPONENTS OF EXTENSION SYSTEM

One way to think about the extension delivery function is to look at the dynamics of
the process in a systems framework. The components are interdependent; one will not function
satisfactorily if the other components are not doing so.
First, there should be relevant research conducted to generate technological innovations
to benefit the farmers and his family.
Second, there should be an organization charged with the responsibility of disseminating
the products of research to the intended end-users.
Third, the rural people themselves should adopt these new ideas, practice, skills, devices,
etc. to bring about the desired changes.

1. The Research System - It is composed of researchers and scientists from different research
institutions - local, national and international as well as state universities and colleges. They
conduct researches to produce new technology/innovations relevant to the needs of clients in the
agriculture sector. The main function of this system is to generate technological innovations
that will usher in the needed changes in line with the country's development efforts of increasing
the farmers real income and productivity.
2. The Change System- The change system is usually an extension organization that links
the generators/researchers and the end-users to technology. This organization assumes the task
of collaborating in the conduct of researches and disseminating information and other goods and
services designed to bring about changes on client behavior and practices.
3. The Client System- The rural people are the clients of the extension delivery system. These
are organized farm families. They should be involved in participative planning, programming,
implementation, evaluation and monitoring of research and extension programs and projects.

Extension work is directly and indirectly affected by the following governmental concerns and
population variables:
1. Lack of resources
2. Spatial distribution
3. Population size
4. Compositional characteristics
5. Community Institutions
6. Extension service is always associated with government reorganizations
7. Coordination of development efforts from other agencies providing support services to
extension is critically necessary

Types, functions, and objectives of Agricultural Extension

TYPES OF EXTENSION SERVICES

There is no one universal type of extension but a variety of activities and approaches
which can be called extension. Extension is any activity that works with farmers and their
families in order to improve the economic and social conditions of their lives and to develop
their ability to take responsibility for their own future development. This extension, however,
can take different forms and objectives.

Extension services are classified into 3 types (Agriculture for Impact, 2020):
1. Technology transfer – the traditional model of the transfer of advice, knowledge and
information in a linear manner;
2. Advisory – the use by farmers of a cadre of experts as a source of advice in relation to
specific problems faced by them;
3. Facilitation – the aim of this model is to help farmers to define their own problems and
develop their own solutions.

Types of extension (FAO, 1988):

1. Agricultural extension-There are probably more extension agents involved in
agricultural activities than in any other aspect of rural life. An agricultural extension
service offers technical advice on agriculture to farmers, and also supplies them with the
necessary inputs and services to support their agricultural production. It provides
information to farmers and passes to the farmers new ideas developed by agricultural
research stations. Agricultural extension programmes cover a broad area including
improved crop varieties, better livestock control, improved water management, and the
control of weeds, pests or plant diseases. Where appropriate, agricultural extension may
 also help to build up local farmers' groups and organizations so that they can benefit from
extension programmes. Agricultural extension, therefore, provides the indispensable
elements that farmers need to improve their agricultural productivity.
2. Non-agricultural extension-In the absence of a collective term to cover the other types
which may include home economics, family health and nutrition, population education
and community development are all non-agricultural extension activities.

OBJECTIVES OF EXTENSION

Objectives are expected outcomes of a certain specific activity. Therefore, objectives

serve as guides or direction in doing extension work.
1. Teach people living in the rural areas how to raise their standard of living by their own
effort, using their own resources of manpower and materials within minimum assistance
from the government (Saville, 1965).
2. Help people help themselves through educational means to improve their level of living
(Maunder, 1972).
3. Raise agricultural production and level of living (Di Franco, 1963). All objectives are
directed towards the development of human resources so that they can do things that may
improve their quality of life. The ultimate objective of extension is the development of
the people, so that they can do things for themselves.

The literal meaning of the term, objectives, is the expressions of the ends towards which
our efforts are directed. In other words, an objective means a direction of movement. The
fundamental objective of extension is the development of people by means of education.

More specifically stated, the following are general objectives of extension:

1. To assist people to discover and analyse their problems, their felt and unfelt needs.
2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to solve their
problems.
3. To disseminate information based on research and /or practical experience, in such a
manner that the people would accept it and put it into actual practice.
4. To keep the research workers informed of the peoples' problems from time to time, so
that they may offer solutions based on necessary research.
5. To assist people in mobilising and utilizing the resources which they have and which
they need from outside.

FUNCTIONS OF EXTENSION

The main function of extension is to bring about desirable changes in the human
behaviour. Changes may be brought about in their knowledge, skill and attitude towards ideas,
innovations, practices, etc. The extension system includes all intuitions like public, private, and
non government development institutions that educate people for their betterment. Extension
performs set of functions that induce voluntary change among people for development.
A set of functions of extension includes:
1. transferring technology for sustainable development
2. transferring management capacity to mobilize and organize developmental
activities by all communities
3. capacity building of all stakeholders in the developmental process on various
aspects like planning, evaluation and implementation of programmes
PURPOSE OF EXTENSION

Extension assists the transformative processes in rural development by way of its four
typologies (Roling, 1988) namely:

1. Informative extension-Helps people make well-considered choices among alternatives

provided by extension for the individual to achieve his/her goals.

2. Emancipatory Extension-An instrument to uplift the poor, to achieve societal goals, to

correct structural problems. Paolo Freire calls it “pedagogy of the oppressed.”

3. Formative Extension or Human Resource Development-An instrument for developing,

“forming” an individual or enhancing his/her capabilities to make decisions, to learn, to
manage, to communicate, to organize, etc.

4. Persuasive Extension-A policy instrument to induce preventive behaviour with respect to

societal concerns such as environmental pollution, health hazards, vandalisms, drug
addiction, rape, etc. such preventive behaviour is in the interest of the society as a whole or
of the future generation.
 Principles and Philosophy of Extension

GENERAL EXTENSION PRINCIPLES (Williams et al., 1984)

Certain basic principles underlie the conduct of agricultural extension work. These
principles differ with respect to the kind of community in which extension education is carried
on. Extension principles may be defined as guidelines for the conduct of extension work and
these principles are the bedrock upon which extension service rests. The principles are:

1. Extension should start where the people are. Williams et al. (1984) believed that extension
should work at the level where the people are, that is, at their level of knowledge, understanding,
interest and degree of readiness. In order to be able to assist the people to move to higher levels
of aspiration, it is important that extension worker should know what the conditions are. It means
personal contact with the local condition, and its environment, an understanding of the social
structure, the habits, traditions, attitude and economic status of the people and society. The first
principle therefore implies that to succeed with farmers, new ideas must be related to what the
farmer already knows and that with which he is familiar.

2. Extension should be based on the needs and interests of the people which are closely related
to improving their livelihood through increasing farm production and their physical environment
(Williams et at., 1984). It is imperative therefore to conceptualize the basic needs of the people
in the rural set up since the needs and interests of people vary from one set of people to the other
due to difference in culture. This is why it is necessary that the extension worker should gain
their confidence (Obibuaku, 1983). Unless they are sure of the ability and skill of an extension
worker, they will not be persuaded to accept his recommendations. This is more so if the
extension worker is young and has had little or no farm experience. In that case, he must start
with one or two programmes that are likely to succeed and must work on them until eventual
success.

3. Extension should assist farmers to determine their own problems, help them to find desirable
solutions and to encourage them to take action. This assistance does not imply that the extension
worker’s problems are replica of the farmer’s problems and does not indicate that the farmers
cannot think on their own. Embarking on this will enable the farmers to have the perception that
the extension worker cares about their problems by assisting them in identifying their problems.
In proffering solutions to these problems, the extension worker should not in any way solve their
problems on their behalf as this will amount to imposing his own value judgment on them.

4. It is an established fact that human beings have unsatisfied wants, this assertion is also
applicable to the farmers. An extension worker cannot go far with people unless they want to
help themselves, therefore programmes must start with the felt needs of the people and proceed
to others that are also needed by them. The wants of the people must be kept in reasonable
relationship with the effort they are capable and willing to make. All the people within a
community do not want the same thing at same time, and in the same fashion (Obibuaku, 1983).
To this end, their values differ and so do their goals and the ability to achieve them.

5. The principle of co-operative work must be pursued to logical conclusion. This is so because
the best programmes are those determined by the local people and extension staff working
together. Planning of programmes with the people is an important part of extension teaching.
People understand a programme better and are more likely to support it if they participate in its
creation. Planning is also a learning process. By participating in programme planning, people
learn to work together. Decisions that are collectively made are stronger and are more acceptable
than the decisions that are passed and imposed on them from the outside. Rural people tend to
resist change until they see the benefit of such a change and there is no better way of helping
them than by involving them in planning for change.

6. Extension workers should work with all members of the family. The family should be regarded
as a working unit in the home and in the field (Williiams et al., 1984). Religion, race or political
interests should be put aside in working with rural people, extension worker should treat them
as rational adults who are capable of making their own decisions.

7. The principle of the use of variety of teaching methods is another basic principle. In this case,
a teaching method can be conceived in teaching a segregated learning unit. This is equally based
on the principle of variety is the spice of life and that no one method will help to bring out
desirable changes in people. No method therefore is an island. The implication of this principle
is that, the more the variety of ways a topic is presented and practised, the quicker the people
tend to grasp the subject matter.

8. Participation in extension programme is voluntary and therefore programmes must meet the
varying needs of individuals. Participation in extension programmes differ significantly in age,
sex, education, attitudes, interests, needs and economic and social values. Programmes must
therefore be attractive and tailored to meet the needs and interests of the varying groups.

9. Extension workers should provide maximum opportunity for the people to work on
programmes that have been determined by them and the extension agent working together. The
joint determination of the programmes is one thing and full participation is another dimension
which is crucial to the eventual success of such programmes. The farmers feel fully satisfied
when they are given maximum opportunity to practice what they participated in building. The
principle of involvement has a sound psychological basis in that people are never interested in
programmes which they have not helped to develop.

10. Extension workers should take advantage of any existing local groups to involve the people
in extension programmes. The people in rural areas tend to listen more to the local leaders than
even the extension workers since they are power brokers and the inability of the extension agent
to work with them makes it impossible for him to succeed in his programmes. This principle
must be strictly adhered to if innovation is to be well adopted by the local people. The existence
of these local leaders makes it possible for extension agents to spread his service over a wide
area. There are numerous organizations and groups that are in existence in Ethiopia such as
farmers’ co-operative societies or unions, farmer’s kebele administrative councils. All these
groups should be used more intensively in involving the people in extension programmes.

11. Subject matter covered in extension must have definite purpose and must be specific so that
programme would be able to achieve the purpose for which it was established. The subject
matter here refers to the content of the extension programme, which must be relevant to the lives
of the rural people and must therefore be useful to them. The content of the programme must be
presented when it is most needed by the people. This is so because retention falls off rapidly if
opportunity for application of what is learnt is not present. The subject matter covered must
therefore be attainable within the time available, and within physical and economic resources of
clientele, and within the social condition and learning ability of the participants.
12. The principle of constant evaluation must be followed. It should appraise periodically its
work in the light of existing and changing conditions so that it can be seen whether the objective
are being achieved. Extension workers have to make endless decisions and then act according
to what they understand to be the mandates of their decisions. In a similar vein, the longer a
practice has been followed, the harder it is to be objective about its limitations and the harder it
is to get at making needed changes. Therefore frequent appraisal will assist a long way in
arriving at these benefits.

13. The principle of professionalism should be followed. Extension workers should therefore
work with extension professionals who can sell their programmes to their clientele. Credibility
is therefore essential here. It should provide continuous opportunity, additional training and
professional improvement for its staff.

14. Learning is a gradual process and therefore results must not be expected too soon. Research
evidence has shown that learners must be exposed to new ideas over a period of time and in
variety of ways before they begin to respond to them. The rural people must not be rushed as
they do not learn at the same rate. This principle must be put in mind when basic things are
expected from the rural people. The adoption rate is therefore to be considered as a gradual
process.

15. Adult learning remains high throughout life. Adults have had years of varied experience, set
beliefs and habits. Their beliefs and habits tend to change very slowly. However many of these
have to be changed if progress is to be made. The Extension workers must therefore use all
available strategies in taking care of these beliefs and habits.

16. A closer principle to the one just highlighted is the principle that extension is educational in
function through assisting people to make their own decisions among various alternatives put
before them. Extension workers should not be involved with supply activities. The farmers may
be expecting the extension agents to supply them with needed planting materials, fertilizers and
fungicides. This is basically contrary to its educational function.

17. Extension workers should promote the use and development of volunteer leaders. It is
through this forum that extension agents can reach many people and educate them of the need
for change. This principle therefore sees the volunteer leaders as loud speaker for extension.
Without the use of the volunteer leader, most of the planned programmes will not be achieved.

18. Extension should be based on facts and knowledge. This principle can be achieved through
the process of working closely with the researchers and the farmer. Therefore, extension in this
regard will be seen as an intermediary or a link between researcher and the farmer.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION

Extension activities are widespread throughout the developing world and most
governments have set up formally structured extension services to implement extension
programmes and projects. The practice of extension is supported by budget, offices, personnel
and other resources. Before examining extension in detail in later chapters, however, it will be
useful to consider the principles which should guide it.
Principle 1. Extension works with its clients, not for them- The objectives of the extension
work is not to provide personal service but to work with people and to teach them how to do
things for themselves. This implies that decision-making on matters relating to the farm
enterprise rests with farmers themselves.Helping people to make decisions for themselves is
recognizing that they know what is good for themselves and treating them as rational adults.

Principle 2. Extension cooperates and coordinates with other Development Organizations-

If extension is to provide educational assistance relevant to the needs and goals of the rural
community, there is a need for cooperation and coordination between the extension agency and
those organizations, both government and private, that possess services, skills and resources
relating to the achievement of any client needs.

Principle 3. Extension is a two-way exchange of information. Through the extension workers,

researchers gain knowledge about farmers and local farming system so that recommendations
from research are relevant to farmers' needs and aspirations. Trials in farmers' fields are good
opportunity to determine whether the technology is appropriate.Farmers feedback helps both
extension workers and researcher learn how farmers react to a recommended practice - to what
extent it is adopted, adjusted, or rejected, and why farmers behave the way they do.

Principle 4. Extension works with different target groups in the community. Extension
recognizes that a community is composed of different categories of people with different
problems, aspirations and needs. Among those needing attention from extension agent
are:landless agricultural workers;small and marginal farmers; women; and youth. They are
significant parts of the rural social system

Principle 5. Extension works with what the clients know and have- Extension work is based
on the needs and interest of the people. It starts from where the people are, and from what they
know and have.For extension to be effective, the factors or conditions the extension workers
should consider are:physical environment such as rainfall, topography, soils and
water;biological factors such as the prevailing diseases, plants and insects; andsocio-economic
conditions such as access to markets, channels of information, credit availability, societal norms,
customs and land ownership.
Extension work is based on the cultural background of the people with whom the work is done.
Improvement can only begin from the level of the people where they are. The extension worker
has to know the level of the knowledge, and the skills of the people, methods and tools they
used, their customs, traditions, beliefs, values, etc. before starting the extension programme.

Principle 6. People should be involved in all aspects of extension- People should not be
regarded as mere "depositories" of knowledge or information. The recipients of change should
participate in all aspects of extension activities.Involvement or participation can be in the farm,
on problem analysis, project design, testing, implementation and selecting innovations that are
most appropriate to their own problems and aspirations.Effective extension education can
happen only when extension workers and clients become work-partners.
ARICULTURAL EXTENSION PRINCIPLES: An Intervention for Sustainable
Development

1. Communication and Education – These are extension agent’s role: Communication – to pass
on useful information or technology to people who need them.
 Extension starts with what the people know and what they understand. Extension should
take into account the bio-physical, socio-cultural, economic and cultural milieu of the
people in introducing change.
 Extension is essentially an educational process, and is dependent on the voluntary
participation of the people with whom extension workers work.
 Extension teaches people new knowledge and skills in relation to their current interests
and needs.
 Extension employs a wide variety of extension communication strategies.

2. Works with rural people – for impact and sustainability, it should be working with and not
working for the people. People must participate and make decisions that will benefit them;
extension agents must assist them by providing all the information needed and possible
alternative solutions to clientele problems.
 Extension identifies and works accordingly with target categories in the community.
 Effective extension seeks to facilitate or help a people do things for themselves.
 It would be a disservice if extentionists do things for the people.

3. Accountability to the clientele – extension agent must justify to the organization whatever
action he/she takes and be accountable and responsible to the clientele on whatever advice or
information given to them. The clientele is the one to pass judgment on the success or failure of
the extension program.
 The extension worker should identify closely with rural people.

4.Two-way process linkage – disseminate information and technology to and receive feedback
from clientele so that their needs can be better fulfilled, Learn from the clientele the wealth of
their experiences.

5. Cooperate with other agencies – extension is only one aspect of the many economic, social,
cultural, and political activities that hope to produce change for the betterment of the rural
masses. Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate with both GOs and NGOs to
accomplish the above. Extension can’t be effective on its own as its activities must be
interdependent on other related activities.
 Extension links and establishes cooperative/collaborative relationships with persons or
organizations whose purpose is devoted to development in the rural areas.

6.Different target groups – extension clientele is made up of various target groups with different
needs, social status, cultural and economic background; extension therefore cannot offer a
package of technology for all its clientele due to this heterogeneity; there must therefore be
targeting of extension, meaning different programs and technology packages for different target
groups.
 Farmers in a community would be divided into homogenous sub-groups so that
technologies extended are relevant to their conditions.
  Extension must therefore consciously and deliberately first identify these categories
using some criteria and formulate specific programs for each category e.g. age, gender,
agro-ecological zones, differential access to resources.

7.Developing rural leadership – once farmers and their representatives exercise responsibility
more effectively, lower level officials and staff are prompted to begin working more
energetically and responsively
 Extension works with local leaders and encourages the spirit of self help.
 An organized leadership training could be undertaken after which they will be given
responsibilities to further hone their skills and develop in them a sense of commitment
to serve their community.
 Local leaders if properly harnessed multiplies the work and efforts of the change agent.

8.Nurtures and sustains the natural environment - creating in the people the appreciation and
the consciousness to protect the natural environment.
 Choosing technologies which would not directly or indirectly contribute to the pollution
of water and air and indiscriminately consume non-renewable resources.
 Extension should make people understand the entricacies of the eco-system because only
then would they be able to think and act accordingly.

PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom, a body of general principles or laws of a field of

knowledge. Philosophy of a particular discipline would furnish the principles or guidelines with
which to shape or mould the programmes or activities relating to that discipline. The philosophy
of extension work is based on the importance of an individual in the promotion of progress for
rural people and for the nation. Extension Educators should work with people to help them,
develop themselves and achieve superior well-being.

The basic philosophy of extension work that is directed at conversion of the whole man
determines the approach that must be adopted for its implementation. Compulsion or even a
beneficent act does not necessarily improve the man. The only way to secure cooperation of a
person for betterment is to educate him. Therefore the primary aim is to transform the people by
bringing about desired changes in their knowledge, attitude and skills.

According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967) the basic philosophy of extension education is to
teach people how to think, not what to think. Extension's specific job is furnishing the
inspiration, supplying specific advice the technical help, and counseling to see that the people
as individuals, families, groups and communities work together as a unit in "blueprinting" their
own problems, charting their own courses, and that they launch forth to achieve their objectives.
Sound extension philosophy is always looking ahead.

The philosophy of extension education is based on the hypothesis that the rural people
are capable, intelligent and willing to change their situation. The philosophy of extension
education has been interpreted in many ways by various authors and some of them are as follows:

According to Ensminger (1962):

1. Extension is educational for all village people.
2. Extension is changing the knowledge, skill and attitude of the people.
 3. Extension is teaching people what to want, as well as how to work out ways of satisfying
these wants and inspiring them to achieve their desires.
4. Extension is “helping people to help themselves”.
5. Extension is “learning by doing and seeing is believing”.
6. Extension is development of individual and their society.
7. Extension is living relationship, respect and trust for each other.
8. Extension is working in harmony with culture of the people.
9. Extension is working together to expand the welfare and happiness of people.
10. Extension is a two-way channel.
11. Extension is a continuous process educational process in which both learner and teacher
contribute and receive

According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967), the basic philosophy of extension education is
to teach people how to think, not what to think. Extension’s specific job is furnishing the
inspiration, supplying specific advice and technical help, and counseling to see that the people
as individuals, families, groups and communities work together as a unit to solve their
problems. Extension workers work with people to help them develop themselves and achieve
personal superior personal wellbeing.

According to Dahama (1965):

1. Self-help
2. People are the greatest resources
3. It is a cooperative effort
4. It has its foundation in democracy
5. It involves a two-way channel of knowledge and experience
6. It is based on creating interest by seeing and doing
7. Voluntary, co-operative participation in programmes
8. Persuasion and education of the people
9. The programme is based on the attitude and values of the people
10. It is a never ending process

Extension Professionals

The extension worker or change agent is a professional who undertakes development

activities to uplift the living conditions in the community

Roles are an important dimension in increasing organizational effectiveness. Roles and

functions of the extension worker are as follows: enabler, educator, mediator, farmer aid and
facilitator.

The goals of extension include the transferring of knowledge from researchers to

farmers, advising farmers in their decision making and educating farmers on how to make better
decisions, enabling farmers to clarify their own goals and possibilities, and stimulating desirable
agricultural developments (van der Ban and Hawkins, 1996).

The services provided by extension have significant public-good attributes. There are at
least 800,000 official extension workers worldwide, and some 80% of the world’s extension
services are publicly funded and delivered by civil servants (Feder, Willett and Zijp, 2001).
Universities, autonomous public organizations, and NGOs deliver about 12% of extension
services, and the private sector delivers another 5%. There is a corresponding large volume of
public budget allocated to extension activities ( in 1988, for example, over six billion US dollars
worldwide (WB, 2003)).

From a development policy perpective, the investment in extension services or the

facilitation of nongovernment extension, are potentially important tools for improving
agricultural productivity and increasing farmers’ incomes. More than 90% of the world’s
extension personnel are located in developing countries (Umali and Schwarts, 1994), where
majority of the world’s farmers are located.

Productivity improvements are possible only if a differential exists between the actual
productivity on the farms and what could potentially be produced with better know-how, subject
as always to farmers’ preferences and resource constraints. The productivity differential is a
manifestation of the difference in the knowledge that farmers possess and the best-practice
knowledge that exists at any point in time. Best practice is often, though not always, an
embodiment of the latest science-based developments addressed to overcome the limitations
imposed by traditional technology and practices and thereby enhancing productivity.

Extension helps to reduce the differential between potential and actual yields in farmers’
fields by accelerating technology transfer and helping farmers become better farm managers. It
also has an important role to play in helping the research establishment tailor technology to the
agroecological and resource circumstances of farmers. Extension facilitates both the adoption
and adaptation of technology to local conditions. Adoption of technology involves translating
information from the store of knowledge and from new research to farmers. Adaptation of
technology to local condition is by helping to articulate for research systems the problems and
constraints faced by farmers.

Qualifications
 Educational background-An extension worker or change agent should preferably be a
Bachelor’s degree holder in any technical or social science field.
 Professional Requirements and Skills- He should have attended pre-service or in-
service trainings on extension programs. The change agent must possess a sound
knowledge of the processes of agricultural production.
 Should have a sound knowledge of farm management and economics.- The
extension worker must therefore be able to determine and show the cost benefit or cost
effectiveness of a technology or enterprise.
 Should have good communication skills.- This is the ability to deliver his/her message
clearly through the use of various channels and different audio-visual aids.

Qualities
1. Emphaty- As extension worker, you must have the ability to identify and understand
the feelings and difficulties of your clients
2. Interest-You must show your involvement to the activities within the community, and
its progress and success is important to you.
3. Commitment-As extension worker, you must have a missionary seal of devotion and
dedication to your service.
4. Reliability-You will be trusted by your clients on the things that are expected or has
been promised.
 5. Patience-You must have the ability to endure waiting or delay without becoming
annoyed or upset or to persevere calmly when faced with difficulties.
6. Initiative-As extension worker, you expected to start new interventions and act or
make decisions at the right time without waiting for help or advice from other people.
7. Leadership-You should have the ability to move others to act and manage group
activities successfully.
8. Ingenuity-yuou must have cleverness and originality.
9. Good judgement-Your conclusions must be generally sound. You must have the
ability to study a problem first before giving your opinion and logical in supporting
conclusions.
10. Good public relations-you must have the ability to get along with people. You must be
sympathetic to them and their problems.
11. Sincere-You care about the group and its success You also practice what you preach.

Roles of Extension worker

1. Initiator of Change
 Gather data or information about the barangay and people - also rapport
establishment.
 Identifies and analyzes problems, needs and situations.
 Develops/formulates plans and programme with community/people.
 Provides alternative solutions to identified problems and needs. Sustains the
interest and enthusiasm of recipient of change.
 Provides guidance and directions. Introduces new ideas and challenges.
2. Source of Knowledge and Technology
 Extension workers are considered the main and the most credible source of
information and advice on technology from 40 to 92 percent of the farmers.
 Continually seeks new findings and information of practical use on farm.
 Translates technical information into easier terms or more understandable language.
 Establishes linkages with other agencies and institutions as sources of knowledge
and information and for coordination and cooperative work.
 Provides the necessary knowledge, skills, and technology for increasing production
and income.
3. Special Teacher
 Deals with special groups of students - the experienced farmers, the homemakers,
and the youth.
 Conducts classes or educational activities in a unique classroom - the field,
farmshed, under a tree, at home, barangay hall, etc.
 Bears the inconvenience of village life.
 Overcomes the barriers that impede the transfer of knowledge and technology.
 Provides the psychological setting for the teaching-learning process.
 Selects and uses appropriate strategies or approaches for the effective transfer of
technology.
 Allows his clientele to make their own decisions concerning their development and
welfare.
 Considers the clientele as human beings with all the potentials and capabilities for
development. Identifies, trains and develops local leaders.
 Create awareness.
 Enhances the knowledge, attitude and skills of farm families.
 Relate the farm families' condition to the environment and do advocacy work.
 4. Organizer and Coordinator
 Encourages and forms associations and organized groups as means for rural
development.
 Involves as many people as he can to participate in various community activities and
rural development projects.
 Taps and utilizes local leaderships.
 Uses or harnesses available indigenous resources in the community.
5. Researcher

 Records and keeps data or information.

 Conceptualizes actual field experiences and new ideas.
 Submits reports, Make suggestions or recommendations.
6. All-purpose Person- Attends meetings and other activities of the agency or
organization.

Activities*

1. Enroll in ATI E-extension (choose at least two courses):

-Basic Agricultural Marketing Extension
- Changing People's Lives through Effective Extension Delivery
-Training Management
-Community Organizing

2. Interview an Agricultural Extension worker in your community with regards to their role in
extending/implementing extension services.

* Outputs should be submitted/uploaded in the FB Group Chat

 References

Agricultural Training Institute. (2012). “Changing People's Lives through Effective Extension
Delivery”. Lectures on e-Extension . Retrieved 10 November 2016, from ati.gov.ph

Battad, et al. (2003). Agricultural Extension. Makati City: Grandwater Publications.

Calao,J. et al. (2006). Agricultural Extension and Communication Review Material for the
Board Examination for Agriculture. UPLB, Laguna: CA Publications Program.

Declaro-Ruedas, M. (June 2015). “Management Strategies of OMSC in attaining Extension

Productivity.” OMSC Research Journal 2015 Volume 14 No. 1

Elliott, H. (1994). Applying the agricultural technology systems approach: Lessons from
ISNAR's experience. In R. M. A. Loyns & F. Datepa-Mupondwa (Eds.), Management
for researchers. Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management,
University of Manitoba. Winnipeg, Manitoba: Friesen Printers.

Mathur, P. N., & Sinha, B. P. (1991). Extension and communication strategies for rainfed
agriculture - Indian experience. In C. Prasad & P. Das (Eds.), Extension strategies for
rainfed agriculture. New Delhi: Indian Society of Extension Education.

Moris, J. (1991). Extension alternatives in tropical agriculture. London: ODI.

Röling, N. (1991). Knowledge systems in their political context. In Proceedings of the

international workshop: Agricultural knowledge systems and the role of extension. Bad
Boll, May 21-24, 1991.

Swanson, B. E., & Peterson, W. E. (1991). Strengthening research-extension linkages to address

the needs of resource-poor farmers in rainfed agriculture. In C. Prasad & P. Das
(Eds.), Extension strategies for rainfed agriculture. New Delhi: Indian Society of
Extension Education.

Swanson, B. E., Sands, C. M., & Peterson, W. E. (1990). Analyzing agricultural technology
systems: Some methodological tools. In R. Echeverria (Ed.), Methods for diagnosing
research system constraints and assessing the impact of agricultural research: Vol. I.
Diagnosing agricultural research system constraints. The Hague: ISNAR.

World Bank (1994). Agricultural extension: Lessons from completed projects. Washington, DC:
World Bank.
 LESSON 2
History of Agricultural Extension

TOPICS

1. Distant Origins of Extension

2. Extension in Europe and USA
3. Extension under Philippine Setting

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to relate the importance of
studying the history of extension.

Distant origins of Extension

The first known example was in Mesopotamia (roughly, present-day Iraq) around 1800
B.C. Archaeologists have unearthed clay tablets of the time on which were inscribed advice on
watering crops and getting rid of rats - important for mitigating any potential loss of taxation
revenue from farmers (Ahmed, 1982, as quoted in Bne Saad, 1990). Some hieroglyphs on
Egyptian columns also gave advice on avoiding crop damage and loss of life from the Nile's
floods. An important advance was the beginning of agricultural writings. Though few have
survived, the earliest were written during the ancient Greek and Phoenician civilizations, but
some of them were adapted by Roman writers. From the second century B.C. to the fourth
century A.D., several important Latin texts were written, frequently drawing on practical
farming experience, which aimed to help Roman landowners to maintain and improve then-
estates and their revenues (White, 1970, 1977).

At around the same period in imperial China, early forms of advancing and
disseminating agricultural information also began. That landowners and their tenants should
improve their production was a matter of concern to the state since, from the sixth century B.C.
onwards, it relied heavily on land taxes for its revenues. The support of relevant agricultural
research and the dissemination of information and advice had certainly begun by the late Han
Dynasty (25-220 A.D.). The oldest fully surviving Chinese agricultural treatise, Essential
Techniques/or the Peasantry, dating from 535 A.D., aimed to show landowners how to improve
their estate management through the advice they gave to their tenants. The Sung and Yuan
Dynasties (960-1368) with their firm local government administrations were notable in
organizing and promoting agricultural research, extension work, and the teaching of agriculture
and sericulture, much facilitated by the invention of woodblock printing, which allowed
agricultural treatises and practical handbooks to be widely distributed. Similar activities
continued during the succeeding Ming (1368-1644) and Chi'ing (1644-1912) Dynasties, driven
not only by the growing population and periodic threats of famine, but also by the state's
recognition of the importance of well-coordinated extension work on agricultural
recommendations if the most benefit was to be achieved (Perkins, 1969; Elvin, 1973; Bray,
1984; Delman, 1991).

Apart from the importance of farmers and agriculture in the society and economy
concerned, several conditions appear to be necessary for the initiation and organized
development of agricultural extension work.
 The prime condition is that information has been assembled, systematized, and made
available on good or progressive or new agricultural practices suited to a particular environment,
and is based on either (or both) the accumulation of experience or findings from research
(however rudimentary). Second, this information is used, among other things, to educate
professional agriculturists who may further enlarge or refine this body of knowledge or become
active promoters and disseminators of it. Third, an appropriate administrative or organizational
structure exists by and within which the dissemination activities may be established and
conducted. Fourth, there is a legislative or some other official mandate or influential proponent
which prescribes or enables that agricultural extension work is desirable and must occur. Fifth,
there are invariably a variety of antecedents which have attempted protoforms of agricultural
information and advice dissemination. In addition, the incidence of critical situations, such as
famine, crop failure, soil exhaustion, or altered economic conditions or relationships, may create
an immediate cause for initiating the organization of extension work. All or several of these
conditions have been present in the evolution of modem forms of agricultural extension.

Extension in Europe and USA

The direct antecedents of organized agricultural

research and dissemination of its results which occurred in
nineteenth century Europe and North America can be
traced back to the "renaissance" which began in the
fourteenth century. Between 1300 and 1700, European
society became transformed from its medieval feudal
forms into recognizably modem social systems. It was a
period of complex, multistranded development. Along
with the growth of national states and European
exploration and "discovery" of the rest of the world was
the "new learning." This involved not only a fresh
appreciation of rediscovered classical writings and art
forms, but also many novel ideas and activities, a spirit of
humanism, and rational enquiry. All of this was
considerably facilitated by the invention of printing using
movable type, usually attributed to Gutenberg around
1450, and the rapid diffusion over Europe of the printing
press, for whose output there existed a ready market.

The earliest known renaissance agricultural text was written in Latin by Pietro de
Crescenzi in 1304 and was translated into Italian and French. This became the first book on
agriculture to be printed in the mid-fifteenth century. Others soon followed, often based on the
old Latin texts or on the collected wisdom of farmers and their families. A well-known example,
a compendium of helpful advice in simple verse and a bestseller in Tudor England, was Thomas
Tusser's A hundredth goode pointes of husbandrie, published in 1557 and expanded in 1573 to
five hundred good points with as many on "goode housewiferie" (Tusser, 1580). Less popular,
but of greater significance, were Francis Bacon's writings early in the next century based on his
observations and scientific experiments on his estate north of London - the beginnings of the
application of science and scientific method to agriculture (Russell, 1966).

By the mid-eighteenth century, throughout much of Europe, progressive landowners

(frequently aristocrats) and their agents and a few similarly minded farmers were being known
as "improvers." These, along with some "men of science," were the main proponents of
agricultural clubs or societies. At their regular meetings and demonstrations, locally and
regionally, landowners and leading farmers exchanged ideas and information and discussed
farming improvements. Two main forces underlay the movement. First, many landowners were
eager to learn of ways to improve their estates and the production capabilities of their tenants so
as to increase the value of their estates and their rental incomes. Secondly, progress was being
made towards modern science and its application to agriculture, especially in agricultural
chemistry and plant physiology (Russell, 1966). These societies sought to alter radically the
traditional modes of farming by initiating experiments, arranging demonstrations, disseminating
information, and advocating the adoption of innovations. It was considered almost a duty by
their elite membership to make their initiatives and activities known to "the generality" of
farmers through publishing their proceedings and reporting their meetings in newspapers
(Hudson, 1972). Although such agricultural societies initially spread slowly - the first had been
formed at Rezzato near Milan in 1548 (Coletti, 1900) - they had become common throughout
much of Europe by 1800, and a small number had been established by that year in the young
United States and eastern Canada.

By the 1820s, most of the elements for creating modem forms of agricultural extension
were in being, although each was to develop considerably during the nineteenth century. A
crucial missing element, however, was an effective means by which the "generality" of farmers
could be directly given information, advice, and encouragement. This required itinerant
agriculturists who could meet farmers in their home localities, give instructional talks and
demonstrations, advocate superior or new practices, and have discussions with the farmers. The
notion of "itinerancy" was not new: since late medieval times, tradesmen and proto-professional
men had travelled through rural areas to serve their clients.

The first examples of itinerant agricultural lecturers-cum-instructors were in parts of

New England and New York in the 1820s (True, 1928) and in France, where a first migratory
agricultural teacher was appointed in the Gironde in 1837, followed by nine more in various
areas of the country in succeeding years (Boulet n.d.). During the 1840s, further sporadic
developments also occurred in the United States, particularly in New York, Ohio, and Maryland
(True, 1928), while in Württemberg, in southwest Germany, a pasture specialist
(Wiesenbaumeister) together with a staff of eighteen technicians was employed by the state
agricultural society to advise farmers, landowners, and town administrations on land drainage,
irrigation, and improved pasture management (CLVS, 1845).

In Europe, agricultural science was evolving rapidly by the 1840s, with notable strides
being made in Germany by Justus von Liebig at Giessen, and with the establishment of
agricultural experiments at Rothamsted in England in 1843 by John Bennet Lawes and Henry
Gilbert. Agricultural societies and their shows were flourishing. Numerous publications and
periodicals were aimed at farmers. The first agricultural extension service of a modem kind came
into existence as the result of a crisis and the initiative of the occupant of a high office of
authority. The crisis was the outbreak of potato blight in Europe in 1845. In Ireland its effects
were particularly severe because the predominantly peasant population relied on potatoes in their
diet, and "the potato famine" persisted until 1851.
 The potato famine also led to consideration being given in Württemberg to employing
itinerant farm advisers, but the proposal failed to gain approval (R. Bühler, personal
communication). However, from the mid-1850s, first in Württemberg, Hesse, and western
Prussia, itinerant agricultural teachers (Wanderlehrer) began to be appointed under the auspices
of central agricultural societies. After some ten years, the system grew rapidly, influenced in
part by the crisis among vine growers resulting from the devastation caused by phylloxera aphid
infestations, and became formalized (Jones, 1981). Normally, the Wanderlehrer spent the
summer half of the year travelling around their districts giving talks, demonstrations, and advice
to farmers; during the remainder of the year they taught farmers' sons at winter agricultural
schools. Although officially they were part of the activities of the agricultural associations, their
work was in all cases supported heavily by state funds, and their advice was free to farmers.
When the system was adopted in the kingdom of Bavaria in 1896, it was as an integral part of
the state civil service; the extension workers were grandly titled Royal Agricultural Teachers
(Königliche Landwirtschafts-lehrer) (Maier-Bode, 1910).

By the close of the nineteenth century, agricultural extension systems modelled to a

considerable extent on the German Wanderlehrer had spread: to Denmark from 1870 onwards;
to the Netherlands, where a few extension workers (wandelleraren) had been appointed by
agricultural societies in the late 1840s and 1850s, but had then disappeared before being revived
as a government system in the 1890s; to Italy, where the first itinerant agricultural teacher
(cattedra ambulante di agricoltura) was appointed in 1886 at Rovigo, near the estuary of the
River Po, with many others following in the next decade and funded largely by public donations,
the church, and the banks; to Switzerland; to much of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; and to
Russia.

Associated with this development was the official appointment in these states of the
first itinerant agricultural instructors in the late 1880s. At the same time, because of the potential
importance of milk products, travelling dairy schools were begun, while state exhibitions,
especially the Centennial Exhibition in Melbourne in 1888, showed what was possible and gave
considerable impetus to farming improvements. The few "government experts," some from the
United Kingdom or the United States, grew in number during the 1890s and the first decade of
this century, developing the range of the extension work. Its impact and that of the agricultural
colleges in their early years was probably slight, but the basis had been laid for further
development (Logan, 1984).
 Agricultural extension work had also started before 1900 in Japan. Following the Meiji
Restoration in 1868, new administrative structures and various modernizing policies were
adopted. Two agricultural colleges were established in the mid-1870s, staffed by Western
(mainly European) teachers. At these colleges and government farms, experimental work was
conducted and new practices were tested and developed. At the same time, agricultural fairs and
exhibitions were begun, and progressive Japanese farmers gave talks and demonstrations at
them. These led to the development of many agricultural societies from 1881 onwards, a
"movement" formalized by legislation in 1899. In 1885, the government also initiated, at
national and prefectural levels, a system of appointing experienced farmers as itinerant
agricultural lecturers (because the Western "experts" knew little about rice husbandry).
Supported by the work at government experiment stations, established from 1893, these farmers
formed the basis of agricultural extension work. The development and organization of
agricultural extension work was not entirely confined to temperate countries. In a variety of
ways, it had also begun in tropical areas, especially in colonial territories. The European colonial
powers looked to their overseas territories as a source of tropical agricultural products.

Despite a long connection with some of the colonial areas, the Europeans remained
largely ignorant of many tropical agricultural plants. The solution was to establish experimental
and demonstration "botanical gardens." The earliest was opened in 1821 at Peradeniya, Sri
Lanka (Ceylon), and two others were established in the country later in the nineteenth century.
Smaller ones were also created in several Caribbean islands and some West African territories.
During the early years of this century, some of these developed considerably, although others
were short-lived. Those which succeeded provided important sources of agricultural knowledge
and innovation and formed the basis for an interest in agricultural societies and agricultural
instruction. Some attempts were also undertaken to improve "native agriculture." This was often
associated with the creation, as part of the administration, of departments of agriculture and the
appointment of professional agriculturists as directors of agriculture.

A central department of agriculture was established in India after the 1866 Orissa
famine, and the government of India soon after resolved to establish departments in each
province. However, it was 1905 before a central government directive ordered every province
to appoint a full time director of agriculture who should organize agricultural research and
demonstration farms with staff who could advise farmers (Mook, 1982). The first British colony
to appoint a director of agriculture was Zanzibar in 1896. Of more significance, however, was
the creation in 1898 of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies, with
headquarters in Barbados. Before 1914, such departments of agriculture had been created in
several African and Southeast Asian territories, as well as in several Caribbean islands
(Masefield, 1950). In Sri Lanka, a few agricultural instructors had been appointed about 1880 to
work alongside government agents. When in 1904 the Ceylon Agricultural Society was formed
to promote experimental work, it also began an agricultural extension service with the objective
of reaching native cultivators (Arasasingham, 1981

In most tropical African territories, the European interaction with native agriculture
was minimal before 1914. The "scramble for Africa" had been mainly in the late nineteenth
century, and the young departments of agriculture, where they existed, were largely involved in
administrative duties. In addition, missionaries often undertook agricultural education, with
demonstration and improvement activities, alongside their religious work. The church farms
(fermes-chapelles) begun in 1895 by Jesuits in the then Belgian Congo (de Failly, 1970) were
copied by missionaries of other persuasions in many other areas.
 Extension under the Philippine Setting

Agricultural extension may be traced back from the Spanish regime, when the Granja
modelos or model farm was introduced. Granja modelos were simply experimental or
demonstration centers for farmers during the 19th century.

In the Philippines, it dates back to the first farm school in La Granja, in Negros during
the Spanish time. But the contemporary concept of public extension dates back to the early
1950’s with the establishment of the Bureau of Agricultural Extension. Shortly after the turn of
the 20th century the current concept of extension was preceded by the creation of a Bureau of
Agriculture, which had one of its functions the dissemination of agricultural information.
The end of World War II for the Philippines was the beginning of a conscious effort to modernize
and develop agriculture to feed its growing population, to be a source of raw materials for
industrialization and to increase export earnings. This led to the creation of agricultural schools
and colleges, the establishment of agricultural research stations, and the establishment of
commodity authorities (i.e. National Tobacco Administration, Philippine Coconut Authority,
etc. included the functions of research and extension for their respective commodity
responsibility.

Furthermore, influenced by the experience of Land Grant Agricultural Colleges in the

United States, the functions of research and extension were added to the teaching function of an
agricultural college which started in the then UP College of Agriculture in the late 1960’s.

NON GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION (NGO)

The term NGO, literally means any organization that is an initiative of private sector and
not of government. NGOs in nature are non-profit, their focus on and service to marginal groups,
flexibility in leadership structures. They generally have formal registration to government
agencies. Foundation register with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC);
cooperatives with the Bureau of Cooperatives which is under the Department of Agriculture;
social welfare types of groups with the Bureau of Rural Workers under the Department of Labor
and Employment.
 The non-profit nature of NGO means that surplus income generated at the end of the year
are not divided among the members of the group. These are instead plowed back into the
operations of the organization for the next year.

Another common characteristic of NGOs is their assisting on the different marginal

sectors in society. These target groups are the farmers, women, tribal minorities, squatters,
youth, etc.NGOs can more easily adapt their structures according to the needs of their
programmes and activities thus making it a flexible organization. These are of course cases
where there have been little or no changes in top leadership of several NGOs over the years.

One of the significant characteristics to be mentioned is their generally voluntary nature

and orientation. They do not operate like business corporations and much of the services they
rendered to their target groups or beneficiaries are free or minimally charged.

In terms of perception of the work, social development agencies believe in the

participation of people in the decisions and processes affecting them. The approaches is towards
the self reliance of the communities or groups they work with and not the continued dependence
on the organization’s assistance. A moving force of NGOs is through the committed and
motivated personnel of it. Development workers have generally high sense of motivation and
commitment in their service to their target groups despite a usually low remuneration and some
risks involved with this type of work.

GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION (National Level)

The Department of Agriculture is the principal agency of the Philippine government

responsible for the promotion of agricultural development growth. In pursuit of this, it provides
the policy framework, helps direct public investments, and in partnership with local government
units (LGUs) provides the support services necessary to make agriculture and agri-based
enterprises profitable and to help spread the benefits of development to the poor, particularly
those in rural areas
The department is supported by five (5) Agricultural Industry Extension Extension
Systems, four (4) Specialized Commodity Extension Systems and two (2) Commodity Research
Institution Extension System. Each of these agencies and Bureaus have their own extension
mandates, such as:
 Bureau of Animal Industry – to develop a vibrant livestock and poultry farming
communities for food security and global competitiveness
 Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources – to develop cost-effective, practical, and
efficient extension services on a sustained basis . . . especially to municipal fisher folk
in underdeveloped areas. (RA 8550)
 Bureau of Plant Industry
 Bureau of Post-Harvest Research and Extension – generate, extend and commercialize
appropriate and problem-oriented post production technology and practices.
 Bureau of Soil and Water Management - to promote and disseminate technology for the
identification and packaging of appropriate rain water harvesting.
 Fiber Industry and Development Authority – to promote the accelerated growth and
development of the Philippine fiber industry in all its aspects: research, production,
processing, marketing and trade relation.
 National Tobacco Authority – to improve the economic and living conditions and raise
the quality of life of the tobacco farmers.
 Philippine Coconut Authority – to work directly with coconut farmers
  Sugar Regulatory Administration – to transfer sugar industry information and the
technology generated by the research wing of SRA and other agencies and progressive
farmers.
 PhilRice

STATE UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES (SUC)

Under the AFMA of 1997, SUCs do not deliver direct extension services but work with
DA operated extension. SUC play a significant role in addressing the shortage of well-trained
agricultural extension staff in the field level through trainings and non-degree programs. They
can revitalize the Agricultural Extension curriculum through student internships, field work as
well as interactions with allied disciplines such as agricultural education, developmentt
communication and rural sociology.

When the Americans came at the turn of the century, extension services were expanded
by creating the Bureau of Agriculture, with the Administrative Division, doing the extension
service program. In the succeeding years, important changes took place like the creation of
Demonstration and Extension Division which included farmer’s cooperative, rural credit,
marketing and animal insurance in 1918; and the splitting of the Bureau of Agriculture into
Bureau of Plant Industry and the Bureau of Animal Industry in 1928. The agricultural extension
division was placed under the Bureau of Plant Industry and later on renamed agricultural
division in 1932. This division carried out extension services up to the assumption of Mr. Manuel
L. Quezon, as President of the Commonwealth in 1938.

In the provinces, extension service was done by the provincial agriculturist and home
demonstrators by virtue of Commonwealth Act No. 85 in 1936. This Act widened the extension
service coverage as it authorized local government units to support extension service logistically
up to years immediately preceding World War II.

The Bureau of Agricultural Extension (BAEx) was created on July 16, 1952 by virtue of
R.A. 650. The BAEx consolidated all existing extension services being carried out by different
offices. The BAEx was changed into Agriculture Productivity Commission (APC) when
R.A. 3844 or the Land Reform Code was enacted in 1963. It was placed directly under the office
of the President, “for the purpose of accelerating progressive improvement of farm productivity,
the advancement of farmers and strengthening of existing agricultural services via the
consolidation of all promotional, educational and informational activities pertaining to
agriculture.”

Republic Act No. 188 of 1967 decentralized the functions of BAEx and granted
autonomous powers to the local government unit to appoint their respective provincial
agriculturist and municipal extension workers. The imposition of Martial Law in 1972 changed
everything in the field of agricultural extension service. Presidential Decree No. 1 (P.D. No. 1)
and Presidential Letter of Implementation No. 9, reverted APC to its original name, BAEx and
its control was returned to Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources on November 1,
1972 with P.D. 970 abolishing the Farm Management Office of DAR transferring its function
to BAEx.
Philippine Policies in Agricultural Extension
All national governments should develop and periodically review their agricultural
extension policy. The policy should include the goals of agricultural extension, the responsible
agencies and personnel, the clientele to be served, the broad programmatic area to be addresses
and other relevant guidelines.
Philippine Agriculture over the years

1. During the Spanish Era

 Spaniards offered local and foreign scholarships, grants and endowment fund for a
professorial chair in agriculture and establish an academy of design.
 Introduced and acclimatized the myrrh birds (martinez) from China to fight against
migratory locust infestation in the Philippines.
 Plan General Economico included the income generating monopolies of tobacco, jareca
nut, spirituous liquors and explosives.
 Gave incentives by awarding cash prizes and medals of recognition for excellence in
farming indigo, spices, cotton, cultivating mulberry for silk production and bee-keeping.

2. During the American Occupation

 Created the then Department of Agriculture and Manufacturing through a presidential
proclamation on June 23 1898.
 A homestead Law was passed, giving every Filipino citizen the opportunity to acquire at
least 24 hectares of land. All titles to cultivated lands owned by private persons were
safeguarded by the Torrens Act. Foreign capitalists and corporations were restricted in
purchasing or leasing public lands. This is done to preserve the public lands of the
Philippines for the Filipinos.
 In 1902, the Bureau of Agriculture , now the Bureau of Plant Industry was created to
promote agriculture. Experimental and model farms were established, plant pests were
gradually exterminated, modern tractors and farm machinery were introduced, and the
people were taught modern methods of cultivation.

3. The time of President Manuel L. Quezon

 People were encouraged to go into agricultural business especially people in Mindanao
where favorable climatic condition is available since food is highly needed during these
times.
 Due to financial shortage, information were not passed and shared to farmers.
 Trading of agricultural products between the Philippines and US increased.
 Division of Soil Survey was created to undertake soil and agronomical survey.

4. President Jose P. Laurel (The Japanase Occupation)

 This period was called “the rude awakening” because it was realized that the Philippines
did not raise enough food for the people and have been dependent all along upon other
countries for its deficiency in rice and other cereals.
 He tried to have a gradual but determined reorientation of the economy from dependence
upon raw materials exports to increasing reliance upon the home market.

5. President Manual A. Roxas

 Giving parity rights to the Americans: - the disposition, exploitation, development and
utilization of all agricultural, timber and mineral lands of the public domain, waters,
minerals, coal, petroleum, and other natural resources of the Philippines
  Established the Rehabilitation Finance Corporation (RFC, later changed to Development
Bank of the Philippines) for the rehabilitation and development of agriculture among
others.

6. President Elpidio Quirino

 The Bureau of Agricultural Extension was established. He made the rice industry the
first commodity sector to have an integrated national planning. There was an intensive
rehabilitation of the rice, corn, tobacco, fiber, sugar, livestock, fishery and mining
industries begun.
 Congress passed the Rural Bank Act in 1952 which authorized the organization of a
system of rural banks with substantial capital participation of the government.
 Congress also created the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration
(ACCFA) which was authorized to organize the Farmers Cooperative Marketing
Associations (FACOMAS) and to extend low cost loans to them.

7. President Ramon Magsaysay

 The Philippines actively pursued an import-substitution strategy to achieve higher
employment, reduce domestic inflation and market interest rates with the goal of
creating stronger economic growth and accelerating modernization and industrialization.
 The Philippines became a member of the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization.
 The National Rice and Corn Production Program were launched coupled with the
creation of the Rice and Corn Coordinating Council, the forerunner of the National Food
and Agriculture Council (NFAC) which is now the National Agricultural and Fishery
Council (NAFC).

8. President Carlos P. Garcia

 Austerity program – urged the people to lead simple lives and do away with luxurious
lifestyles. He emphasized the values, wise spending, industry, thrift, thrustworthiness,
integrity and honesty. Government officials and employees were reminded that public
office is a public trust and that graft and corruption destroy the people’s trust in
government. Graft and corruption was not totally eliminated but his efforts were timely
in strengthening the people’s faith and confidence in the democratic process.
 The Filipino First Policy – encourage the people to patronize Philippine-made products
and to promote Filipino labor.
 Cultural Revival

9. President Diosdado Macapagal

 Believed that research will make full and comprehensive solution to our rice problem. It
is for this reason that he allowed the establishment of the International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) in our land.
 Dissected the problem of the sugar industry.

10. President Ferdinand Marcos

 Agricultural Republic Act 6389 – automatic conversion of share tenency to leasehold
and a retention rate of 75 to 24 hectares must be lowered and the creation of DAR. A
failure because it provided for the right to eject the lessee for having failed to adopt
proven farm practice. Risk minimizers rather than profit maximizer.
 A balanced Agro-Industrialized Economy
  Farmers without land was resettled in agricultural settlements owned by the government.
Average farm lot is 6 has.
 Breakthrough to self sufficiency for about 2 years only through MASAGANA 99, a
massive dispersal of a modern package of technology (HYV’s, fertilizers and pesticides),
the extension of supervised credit without collateral, dispersal of agricultural extension
workers to facilitate technology transfer, utilization of mass media to disseminate
information, and total coordinated government management of the program.
 Sugar industry provides the country with a stable flow of foreign exchange earnings and
employment for a great number of Filipinos.
 Replanting program for coconut

11. President Corazon C. Aquino

 Comprehensive and genuine agrarian reform program with some supports as credit,
marketing and technology
 Uplift the farmers from poverty, ignorance and stagnation
 Make the farmers useful, dignified, responsible and progressive partners in nation
building
 Distribute portions of public lands through resettlement
 Lend idle private lands to the landless
 Encourage voluntary land sharing protection
 Shortlived due to the destabilizing effect of the various military coups mounted against
Aquino Administration.
 Nonetheless, Aquino government was able to lay the foundation for which succeeding
administrations could proceed to develop the countryside.

12. President Fidel V. Ramos

 Too preoccupied with industrializing the economy by the year 2000 that it failed to give
the appropriate financial support and attention on developing the Philippine Agriculture
for the World Trade.
 Except for livestock and export crops such as banana and pineapple all agricultural
commodities suffered a decline in productivity.
 Initiated the MTADP (Medium Term Agricultural Development Plan
 Intensified Delivery of Support Service
 Adopted GATT Safety Measures.

13. President Joseph E. Estrada

 Continue the program of President Ramos
 More focused on crime prevention and on constitutional correction for development
(CONCORD)
 Little evidence that the agricultural policies and institutions were moving in right
directions because he further centralize the distribution of tents and dispensation of
political favors which perpetuate ineffective government programs.
 Agrikulturang Makamasa – continue the activities of Gintong Ani.
 Approved the implementation of Biotechnology in the country

14. President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo

 Ensured the yearly funding of AFMA .
  GMA-CARES (Ginintuang Masaganang Ani-Countrywide Assistance for Rural
Employment and Services. – provide sustainable credit for small borrowers and
marginalized groups in the country.
 Hybrid Rice Commercialization Program – to promote widespread use of hybrid rice
seeds in the country in order to enhance farmers’ productivity and income and to generate
employment in the rural areas.
 Commodity Programs
15. President Benigno Simeon Aquino III
 Organic Agriculture
 Farm Tourism Development Act of 2016
 Agricultural Modernization
 Agro-Industry Modernization Credit and Financing Program
 Agricultural and Fisheries Mechanization (AFMech) Law

16. President Rodrigo R. Duterte

 Republic Act No. 11321 or the "Sagip Saka Act," signed on April 17, 2019, provides
mechanisms for the "Farmers and Fisherfolk Enterprise Development Program."

Activity

1. Make a poster depicting the history of Agricultural Extension in the Philippines. Take a
picture and upload it in the FB Chat Group.

References

Battad, et al. (2003). Agricultural Extension. Makati City: Grandwater Publications.

Calao,J. et al. (2006). Agricultural Extension and Communication Review Material for the
Board Examination for Agriculture. UPLB, Laguna: CA Publications

FAO .(1993). The potentials of microcomputers in support of agricultural extension, education

and training. Rome: FAO.

Hayward, J. (1990). Agricultural extension: The World Bank's experience and approaches. In
FAO Report of the Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension (p. 115-134). Rome:
FAO.

Jones, G. E. (1981). The origins of agricultural advisory services in the nineteenth

century. Social Biology and Human Affairs, 46 (2), 89-106.

Russell, E. J. (1966). A history of agricultural science in Great Britain, 1620-1954. London:

George Alien and Unwin.
 LESSON 3
Communication in Agricultural Extension

TOPICS

1. Importance and purpose of communication

2. Elements of communication
3. Models of communication
4. Levels of communication

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to discuss the communication process,
tools, levels, elements, types, factors and barriers in agricultural extension

Importance and purpose of communication

COMMUNICATION
Communication is a dynamic process, ever-changing, and unending. It helps the
different actors to become aware of problems which require a government policy, and helping
them to define these problems as clearly and as accurately as possible. Through communication
analyses of possible solutions for these problems and the consequences which can be expected
for each these solutions. The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which
means to share, or to make common.

Definition:
 process by which individuals share meaning (Black & Bryant,1992).
 ‘social interaction through messages’ (Gerbner,1967).
 process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by means of a channel to
produce a response from the receiver, in accordance with the intention of a source
(SRA, Sourcebook,1996).
 is a process (Berlo,1961).
 is a transaction (Stewart,1990).
 is a convergence of mutual understanding (Rogers & |Kincaid, 1981).

According to Kincaid & Schramm (nd):

 Not all communication has to be human communication.
 Not all participants in a communication process have to be present.
 Communication can take place over a large distances of space and time.
 Not all communication takes place in words.
 Communication does not always require two or more participants.
 Thinking is a form of communication.
ATTRIBUTES OF COMMUNICATION
1. Dynamic –ever changing ;no clear beginnings and endings.
2. Systematic – as a system, it consists of a group of elements which interact to influence
each other and the system as a whole.
3. Symbolic Interaction– language is a form of symbols which people use in interacting
with each other, in describing & classifying experiences.
4. Meaning is personally constructed – “meanings are in people, not in words.”

MISCONCEPTION OF COMMUNICATION
1. Communication Can Solve All of Our Problems-The art of communication with others
does not carry any guarantees. Obviously without communication we cannot solve our
problems, but somehow communication can also create problems.
2. The More We Communicate the Better-Most of us assume that the more we
communicate, the better we will be. Within limits, people who communicate a great
deal are often perceived as leaders, to be more friendly, competent, and powerful.
However, quantity of communication is the same as quality. It isn’t about the act or the
amount of communication, but the content of communication that makes difference.
3. Meanings Are in Words-Meanings are in the people, and not in the words we use. The
notion that words contain meanings is probably the most serious misconception of all.
Words only have meaning when we give them meaning. “No two people share the
same meanings for all words.”

Elements of communication
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

According to Tubbs & Moss (1991):

1. Sender/Receiver – who is trying to transmit a message
2. Messages – the message that the sender transmits it may be verbal or non-verbal and
intentional or unintentional.
3. Channels – if you are talking on the telephone, the channels that transmit the
communicative stimuli are the telephone wires.
4. Interference – or noise, that is anything that distorts the information transmitted to the
receiver or distract him/her from receiving it.
5. Receiver/Sender – the one who receives the message being transmitted.
6. Feedback – the return to you a behavior you have generated. (Luft, 1969)
7. Time

According to Pearson et al (2011):

1. source A message initiator.
2. receiver A message target.
3. message The verbal or nonverbal form of the idea, thought, or feeling that one person
(the source) wishes to communicate to another person or group of people (the
receivers).
4. channel The means by which a message moves from the source to the receiver of the
message.
5. feedback The receiver’s verbal and nonverbal response to the source’s message
6. encoding The process of translating an idea or thought into a code.
7. decoding The process of assigning meaning to the idea or thought in a code.
8. noise Any interference in the encoding and decoding processes that reduces message
clarity.
According to Soriano and Henson (2011):
1. Control Analysis (Source) – this refers to the performance of the communicator.
2. Content Analysis (Message) - the effect of diff. forms of the same message may be
compared through variations in style, length, and etc.
3. Media Analysis (Channel) – various media perform the functions of informing,
interpreting, entertaining and selling.
4. Audience Analysis (Receiver) – the object of communication is to affect attitudes and
behavior of the receiver.
5. Impact Analysis (Effect) – what do people seek in the media? What happens when they
use media?

According to Will (2013):

1. Source-The source is the person (or thing) attempting to share information.
2. Message-The message is simply the information you want to communicate.
3. Encoding-Encoding is the process of assembling the message (information, ideas and
thoughts) into a representative design with the objective of ensuring that the receiver
can comprehend it.
4. Channel-An encoded message is conveyed by the source through a channel. There are
numerous channel categories: verbal, non-verbal, personal, non-personal, etc.
5. Decoding-This is where listening, and reading directions carefully, makes its claim to
fame—decode with care, my friends.
6. Receiver-Ultimately, the message is delivered to the receiver.
 7. Feedback-A better word might be “reaction” or “responses.” The source judges its
success based on the feedback it receives, so pay close attention.
8. Context-Context is simply the environment in which your message is delivered.

Models of communication

COMMUNICATION MODEL

“Communication models are merely pictures; they’re even distorting pictures, because they
stop or freeze an essentially dynamic interactive or transactive process into a static picture.”

The models reflect trends in communication theory:

 Communication is a process (Berlo,1961).
 Communication is a transaction (Stewart,1990).
 Communication is a convergence of mutual understanding (Rogers & |Kincaid, 1981).

A. CLASSICAL COMMUNICATION MODEL

Aristotle’s Rhetoric : the speaker, the speech , & the audience

According to this model, the speaker plays a key role in communication. He is the one who takes
complete charge of the communication. The sender first prepares a content which he does by carefully
putting his thoughts in words with an objective of influencing the listeners or the recipients, who would
then respond in the sender’s desired way. The model says that the speaker communicates in such a way
that the listeners get influenced and respond accordingly (MSG,nd).

The classic example of the Aristotle’s model could be depicted in the political meeting/campaign, the
politician’s delivers speech to the audience influencing them more votes/support from the electorate. The
politician may try to convince the crowd in the best possible way he can so that he emerges as a winner.

B. EARLY LINEAR MODEL

Shannon-Weaver Mathematical

In the late 1940s, engineer and mathematician Claude Shannon, who worked for the Bell Telephone
Company, and scientist Warren Weaver created what they called ''A Mathematical Theory of
Communication'' in an effort to help engineers more efficiently perform their jobs. Today, it is called by
some ''The Mother of All Models,'' having become the most popular method of communicating
(study.com,nd).
To understand the model better, let us look into this scenario: Apol is working as Director for Extension
in a State University. She is currently heading Toti who in turn is taking care of a campus extension
project. Apol wanted Toti to prepare an accomplishment report on extension strategies which can be
employed to achieve the goals of the project. She also wanted a detailed study on the extension activity
conducted. Finally, when Apol got the complete information, she in turn delegated the responsibility to
the other extension coordinators and states the expected output.

Schramm’s model

Wilber Schramm proposed the model of communication in 1954. Information is of no use unless and
until it is carefully put into words and conveyed to others. In this model, encoding plays a very important
role because it initiates the process of communication by converting the thought into content. When the
information reaches the recipient, their prime responsibility is to understand what the speaker intends to
convey. Unless and until the second party is able to understand or decode the information what the sender
wants to communicate, the message is actually of no use.

Thus encoding and decoding are two most important factors of an effective communication without
which information can never flow between two individuals. Schramm’s model also revolves around the
above principle. According to the Schramm’s model, coding and decoding are the two essential
processes of an effective communication.

Schramm’s model emphasizes that communication is actually a two way process between the first party
and the second party.

Let us understand more with the help of an example, Director of Extension to Training Specialist I -
“Will you accompany me to an LGU meeting?”

The Training Specialist I kept silent and did not respond and hence the communication between Director
of Extension to Training Specialist I was not complete. If Training Specialist I was not interested to
attend the LGU meeting, he could have responded or given the feedback to Director of Extension about
his unwillingness due to prior commitment. According to Schramm’s model, whenever the information
reaches the recipient, it becomes his/her responsibility to give the feedback and let him/her know if he/she
has downloaded the message in exactly the same manner the speaker wanted. If he/she is not clear with
anything or has any doubts, it must be cleared with the speaker. Thus, when the speaker conveys any
message to the listener, the listener, decodes the message and once again passes the message to the
speaker after understanding it and completing the full circle.
Berlo’s Model

While, the Aristotle model of communication places the source as the central position and put forward
that the speaker is the one who runs the entire communication, the Berlo’s model of communication takes
into account the emotional aspect of the message. The model operates on the SMCR model, which stands
as S – Source, M – Message, C – Channel, and R – Receiver.

The model could be illustrated in an extension activities, Source-Extensionist, Message-Organic

Agriculture, Channel-Radio, and Receiver-Farmer.

C. NON-LINEAR MODEL

Dance’s Helical Model

The Helical Model of communication was proposed by Frank Dance in 1967 to throw some more light
on communication process. Dance thought of communication process similar to helix.

For instance, when a child is born, they already started to communicate. In the hospital, the nurse will
rub that baby’s back to make the child cry. If the child doesn’t cry, it is an indication of a still born child.
As the child grows up, it cries whenever the baby is hungry or expects something from their parents.
The model posits the process of communication evolves from the very birth of an individual and
continues till the existing moment. All living entities start communicating from the very first day of their
origin.

Westley and MacLeans Conceptual Model

Westley and MacLean believed that communication doesn’t start from day one but actually begins when
the speaker receives signals or messages from his external surroundings. In this model again the process
of initiating communication by first sending messages takes a back seat and suggests that communication
actually starts with receiving messages from the environment.

For instance, the Director had important stakeholders meeting to be attended during the day. The moment
he/she was about to step out of his door, there was a heavy downpour due to Typhoon Quinta. He/she
had no other option but to cancel the meeting to stay indoors.

In this model it is not necessary that the signals coming from the surroundings are intentionally sent to
start the process of communication. Sometimes events might accidentally occur or the thought can be
accidentally received. This model of communication supports the initiation of communication from
receiving messages rather than the sender sending it.
Becker’s Mosaic Model

Sam Becker proposed a communication model in “The Prospect of Rhetoric” (1968), which is known as
Becker’s Mosaic Model of Communication. According to him, the classical models of communication
are not very useful in contemporary communication. The model explains the complexity of human
communication. It also describes the randomness of the origin of messages and communication as a
dynamic process. The model is believed to reduce the limitations of the linear models. The model stresses
the meaning of messages. The model was inspired by Marshall McLuhan’s views and metaphors of
television as a collection of light and dark spots.

D. MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL

Ruesch and Bateson Functional Model

Lutterer (2007) wrote the beginning of Bateson’s communication theory dates to 1951. In that year
Bateson published together with the psychiatrist Jurgen Ruesch, “Communication: The Social Matrix of
Psychiatry” (Ruesch and Bateson, 1951). In this book Bateson initiated the beginnings of a modern and
today widely absorbed communication theory which until today still remains often unconnected with his
name. He introduced several terms, such as ‘metacommunication’ or ‘analogic and digital
communication’, which are now considered common currency. It was also the first time that modern
cybernetics and information theory were extensively used in social science.

Mortensen (1970) said that “Ruesch and Bateson conceived of communication as functioning
simultaneously at four levels of analysis. One is the basic intrapersonal process (level 1). The next (level
2) is interpersonal and focuses on the overlapping fields of experience of two interact ants. Group
interaction (level 3) comprises many people. And finally a cultural level (level 4) links large groups of
people.
E. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL

Barnlund’s Transactional Model

The Transactional Model of Communication by Barnlund states that giving and receiving messages is
reciprocal (Barnlund, 1962). This means that both communicators (the sender and the receiver) are
responsible of the effect and effectiveness of the communication. People do not simply send meaning
from one to the other then back again. They need to build a shared meaning of the message. In addition,
both verbal and non-verbal behavioural cues, the environmental and noise are a part of the message.
Barnlund broke down communication into two types: interpersonal (encoding and
decoding messages withing one's self) and intrapersonal (encoding and decoding messages with another).

Furthermore, he established seven communication postulates, as follows:

1. Communication describes the evolution of meaning
2. Communication is dynamic
3. Communication is continuous
4. Communication is circular
5. Communication is unrepeatable
6. Communication is complex
7. Communication is irreversible
F. ECOLOGICAL MODEL

Laswell’s model

Communication is who says what in which channel to whom with what effect (Laswell,1948).

Lasswell's (1948) model has been further developed and modernised and is now referred to as the 'Five
Ws' and this model has been widely used, particularly when managing change. However, addressing the
'Five Ws' is an essential element of all communication, getting this right is the first step in the process
and is dependent upon what is required to be communicated at the time.

1. Who should be told?-Everyone who needs to be told about something should be told. It is advisable
to relate the communication to all as soon as possible. Openness is the key to making everyone feel
involved (although there will always be some things which are not disseminated as widely as others).
Where appropriate, communicate widely so that individuals are given the opportunity to influence the
process and local ownership is gained. Barriers can also be identified and overcome.

2. When should they be told?-The time to communicate with relevant people should be carefully
considered. It might be within a set meeting or a one-off arrangement. If the communication covers a
wide range of people where possible it is desirable that discussions take place at the same time to avoid
confusion, spread of rumours or misunderstandings. If internal and external stakeholders are involved,
internal staff should be communicated with prior to external stakeholders; this is to prevent staff hearing
from other sources, including the media. Key communications should be made as soon as possible
following a significant event or decision.

3. What should they be told?-Clear messages, related to the subject or problem. In complex situations it
is advisable to create a shared meaning and understanding, this can be done by: checking back with the
recipients through an iterative process let them ask questions asking for clarification of what they have
understood being clear that words, behaviours and symbols are not misunderstood or misinterpreted.

4. Where should the message be conveyed?-Choose the most effective medium to get your message
across, this could be in meetings, seminars, press releases etc. Make time to communicate properly, do
not do it in the corridor, in the toilet or the car park. This leads to gabbled and garbled messages and can
contribute to the 'grape vine'.

5. Who should control the communications process?-The most appropriate person depending on the
subject. If it involves external agencies include the Press Officer.
 Levels of communication

According to Tubbs and Moss (1991)

 Two-Person Communication – also dyadic communication is the basic unit of
communication.
 Small-group Communication – is defined as “face to face” communication among a
small group of people who share a common purpose or goal.
 Public Communication – often referred to as public speaking.
 Organizational Communication – “the flow of messages within a network of
interdependent relationships” (Goldhaber, 1990).
 Mass Communication – communication that is mediated. Communicates through
printed or electronic media.
 Intercultural Communication – communication between members of different cultures.
 Communication Technologies

According to Martinez (2007):

 Intrapersonal Communication – happens when a person talks to oneself.
 Interpersonal Communication – a second level, takes place primarily when two people
are involved in the process.
 Group Communication – a third level, involves three to six person usually engaged in
face-face interaction.
 Public Communication – a fourth level, requires an individual to deliver messages or
information in front of a group.

According to Padilla et al. (2003):

 Intrapersonal Communication (Level 1) – refers to communication with yourself.
 Interpersonal Communication (Level 2) – involves two persons or two groups of
people who share the role of sender and receiver.
 Group Communication (Level 3) – builds on the foundation of interpersonal
communication and interpersonal relationships often develop between dyads of group
members.
 Public Communication (Level 4) – one person delivers his/her remarks to the
remaining members called the audience.

Intrapersonal communication is communication in which there is one person.

Interpersonal communication, which communication is between two people on inside a small

group of people in a less formal environment.

Characteristics Interpersonal Mass

Senses stimulated All senses Limited
Opportunity for feedback Maximum, immediate Minimum, delayed
Control of pace Controlled Uncontrolled
Message codes used Verbal & non verbal Highly verbal
 Multiplicative power Slow Fast
Direction of message Two-way One-way
Characteristics Interpersonal Mass
Message accuracy Low High
Power to preserve message Low High
Ability to select receiver High Low
Ability to overcome noise High Low
Ability to meet specialized needs Serves specialized needs Serves common needs
Speed to a large audience Low High
Possible effects Attitude and action change Knowledge gain

Activity

1. Enroll in ATI e-extension course : Effective Human Communication & Relation

2. Choose a communication model discussed in this unit and relate this to illustrate and/or
visualize the communication flow or delivery of extension services of certain extension program
either government or nongovernment. Justify why this communication model exemplify the
extension delivery system of this extension program.

References

Battad, et al. (2003). Agricultural Extension. Makati City: Grandwater Publications.

Calao,J. et al. (2006). Agricultural Extension and Communication Review Material for the
Board Examination for Agriculture. UPLB, Laguna: CA Publications

Declaro-Ruedas, M. (July 2019). Technology Transfer Modalities Utilized by Agricultural

Extension Workers in Organic Agriculture in Philippines. Journal of Agricultural
Extension, [S.l.], v. 23, n. 3, p. 75-83, July 2019. ISSN 2408-6851.

Declaro-Ruedas, M. & Bais, L. (April 2019). Communication Modalities Used In The Delivery
Of Extension Programs To Small Scale Livestock Raisers In San Jose, Occidental
Mindoro, Philippines. International Journal of Agricultural Extension Vo. 7 No. 1.

Martinez, N. (2007). Responsible Speech Communication. National Book Store. ISBN 971-
08-6858-6 pg. 2
Padilla, M. et. al (2003). Speech For Effective Communication. Trinitas Publishing Inc. ISBN
971-42-0392-9 R0305 pg. 26-29

Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding

and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Pearson, J et al. (2011). Human Communication 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.
Pg. 12

Soriano, R. and Henson, R. (2011). Communication Research (A Course Guide in

Communication Research) Booklore Publishing Corporation. ISBN 97181-7001-4 Pg. 9

Stewart, L. et al (1991). Human Communication 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill. INC

Weekley, E. (1967). An etymological dictionary of modern English (Vol. 1, p. 338). New

York, NY: Dover Publications.
 LESSON 4
Diffusion of Innovation and Technology Adoption

TOPICS

1. Diffusion and adoption process

2. Stages of adoption process
3. Types of adopters
4. Problems and issues in adoption

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to analyze the various processes
in technology diffusion.

Diffusion and adoption process

Diffusion process
The concept of diffusion was first studied by the French sociologist,
Gabriel Tarde (1843 – 1904), who was born in France and one of the forefathers
of sociology and social psychology. What was called as “imitation” is today
referred “adoption”. Tarde introduced the S-shaped curve and opinion
leadership. Georg Simmel (1858 –1918), German sociologist, derived concepts
as social distance, heterophily, and cosmopoliteness.

Ryan (1943) identified an influential diffusion study and studied the

diffusion of hybrid corn amongst farmers in Iowa covering the four main
elements of diffusion innovation, communication channels, time and social
system.

The Bass model that forecasting the rate of diffusion is another major
contribution to diffusion theory (Bass, 1969). The basic premise of the model is
that adopters can be classified as innovators or as imitators and the speed and
timing of adoption depends on their degree of innovativeness and the degree of
imitation among adopters.

Rogers’ diffusion of innovation model is the most widely tested and

implemented model. Rogers (1995) modeled innovation-decision process which
an individual passes through when encountering new innovations or ideas. The
process is essentially information-seeking and information-processing activities
starting from obtaining initial knowledge about the innovation, to forming an
attitude toward it, to deciding to adopt or reject, to implementing the new idea,
and finally to confirming the decision made by the people (Rogers,2003).
Four Elements in Diffusion of Innovations:

1) The innovation:
An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or
other unit of adoption. The perceived newness of the idea for the individual determines his or
her reaction to it. The "newness" aspect of an innovation may be expressed in terms of
knowledge, persuasion or a decision to adopt.

2) Communication channels:
A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to
another. The following classification of channels would help the communicator to use them
appropriately:
i) Interpersonal channels - It refers to those which are used for face to face communication
between two or more individuals.
ii) Mass media channels - These enable the messages to reach a larger, diverse audience
simultaneously in a relatively shorter time. e.g.: Radio and T.V.
iii) Localite channels - They originate within the social system of the receiver. eg: neighbours,
relatives, opinion leaders etc.
iv)Cosmopolite channels - They originate outside a particular social system. eg: Extension
worker, sales personnel etc.

3. Time:
It is an important element in the diffusion process. Time is an obvious aspect of any
communication process. Time does not exist independently of events, but it is an aspect of every
activity. The time dimension is involved in diffusion (i) in the innovation - decision process,
(ii) in the innovativeness of an individual or other unit of adoption, and (iii) innovation's rate of
adoption in a system.

4. Social System:
It is defined as a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to
accomplish a common goal. The members or units of a social system may be individuals,
informal groups, organisations and / or subsystems. The social system constitutes a boundary
within which an innovation diffuses.

INNOVATION - DECISION PROCESS

As an alternative to the "Stages in the adoption process" viz., Awareness, Interest,
Evaluation, Trial and Adoption, due to the advancements in diffusion research, currently"
Innovation - Decision process" is proposed which enlightens the sequential stages in the
adoption - decisions made by individuals or other units of adoption. The "Innovation - Decision
Process" is the process through which an individual (or other decision - making unit) passes
from first knowledge of an innovation, to forming an attitude towards the innovation to a
decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea, and to confirmation of this
decision.

This process consists of a series of actions and choices over time through which an
individual or an organization evaluates a new idea and decides whether or not to incorporate the
new idea into on going practice. The conceptualization of the model of the innovation decision
process consist of the following five stages.
 The process of Rogers’ (2003) diffusion of innovations theory consists of
five sequential stages:

I. Knowledge occurs when an individual or other decision-making unit

is exposed to an innovation’s existence and gains some
understanding of how it functions.
II. Persuasion occurs when an individual forms a favorable or
unfavorable attitude toward the innovation based on perceived
characteristics of the innovation, such as relative advantage and
complexity.
III. Decision occurs when an individual engages in activities that lead to a
choice to adopt or reject the innovation.
IV. Implementation occurs when an individual puts the innovation into
use.
V. Confirmation occurs when an individual seeks reinforcement of an
innovation decision already made, or reverses a previous decision to
adopt or reject the innovation if exposed to conflicting messages about
the innovation.

Adoption process
The other important consideration in selecting methods for the delivery of appropriate
content is an understanding of the adoption process. The adoption process consisted of five
distinct stages: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and adoption. The individual in the process
goes through each stage within a definable time period.

Several studies showed that some of the stages may become condensed within the
individual cognitive processes, thus making them unrecognizable as a behavior which can be
measured over time. Although, in some instances, the steps in the adoption process nay not be
recognizable, yet the model provides a useful guideline for selecting extension methods in
programme delivery. For instance, in the awareness stage, knowledge of the innovation is
critical to the individual. Mass media and popular theatre are the preferred methods because
they can reach many people at the same time. In using the mass media, extensionists must pay
attention to the characteristics of the audience targeted. For instance, in multiracial societies, an
ethnic group with a special language may require programming in that language.

In the interest stage of the adoption process, knowledge continues to be important, but
building a positive attitude towards the innovation becomes the critical issue. For this reason,
the desired methods should include information strengthening and attitude as their goal. These
methods should use senses of hearing and sight, either individually or collectively. Group
meetings, group discussions, and radio forums are recommended fro strengthening knowledge,
while field days and farm visits will allow individuals to see what they have been hearing, thus
providing the opportunity for building the desired attitude towards the innovation.

Stages in the adoption process

Evaluation is the most critical stage in the adoption process, because the outcome usually
determines whether or not individuals proceed to the trial and adoption stages. At this stage,
people need to match knowledge against facts. Farmers need to be assured that what they heard
and saw are indeed workable. Result demonstration, farmers exchange, and field days are
recommended because they allow individuals to reinforce their interest by viewing tangible
evidence. Within this group of methods, farmer exchange is an important method. Farmers
selected for the exchange should be further advanced in the adoption process and within the
same reference group as the visiting farmers. These types of experiences allow for the removal
of doubts. Some skill training may be necessary at this stage to facilitate the individual’s
progression to the trial stage.

At the trial stage, the farmer’s technical and management skill should be the main area
to be targeted. The individual visit becomes the most preferred method at this stage, and the
needs of individual farmers must be taken into consideration. This means that the extension
officer will have to develop a plan for each individual farmer or group of farmers in similar
situations. The extensionist has to remember that , although similar farmers are adopting similar
techniques, the problems experienced are not always the same.

At this stage, methods for reinforcing the farmers’ interest by the use of farmer exchange
and skill training can be useful in helping individuals to continue adopting. Once the farmers
start adopting, extension should continue to support their efforts. Recognition programmes and
farmers’ competition can be used to encourage farmers to continue adopting. The goals and
criteria for these methods should be carefully developed so as not to bring out any negative
effects because of poor planning and implementation.
Table 2. Recommended extension Methods for use at different stages of adoption.

Stages of Adoption Definition Extension Methods Learning

Process
Adoption The farmer Recognition Attitudinal
APPLIES the programme, change
innovation on a competition,
LARGE SCALE in incorporating practices
preference to the into farming system
old method(s).

Trial Farmer TESTS the Individual visit, farmer Behavioral

innovation on a exchange, method change
SMALL SCALE demonstration, on-
for himself. farm trials

Evaluation He WEIGHS up the Result demonstration, Improved skills

ADVANTAGES farmer exchange,
and method demonstration
DISADVANTAGE
S of using the
innovation.

Interest Farmer SEEKS Group meetings, group Increased

ADDITIONAL discussion, radio knowledge
information about forums, field days,
it. farm visit

Awareness A farmer FIRST Mass media, popular New/additional

HEARS about the theatre information
innovation but he
LACKS
ADEQUATE
INFORMATION
about it.

Source: Campbel, Dunstan A. and St. Clair Barker. “Selecting Appropriate Content and Methods in Programme
Delivery,” In Swanson, B.E., R.P. Bentz, and A.J. Sofranko (Eds.) Improving Agricultural Wxtension, A Reference
Manual. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationsn(FAO).
 Types of adopters

Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Theory, developed by E.M. Rogers in 1962, is one of

the oldest social science theories. It originated in communication to explain how, over time, an
idea or product gains momentum and diffuses (or spreads) through a specific population or social
system. The end result of this diffusion is that people, as part of a social system, adopt a new
idea, behavior, or product. Adoption means that a person does something differently than what
they had previously (i.e., purchase or use a new product, acquire and perform a new behavior,
etc.). The key to adoption is that the person must perceive the idea, behavior, or product as new
or innovative. It is through this that diffusion is possible.

Adoption of a new idea, behavior, or product (i.e., "innovation") does not happen
simultaneously in a social system; rather it is a process whereby some people are more apt to
adopt the innovation than others. Researchers have found that people who adopt an innovation
early have different characteristics than people who adopt an innovation later. When promoting
an innovation to a target population, it is important to understand the characteristics of the target
population that will help or hinder adoption of the innovation.

There are five established adopter categories, and while the majority of the general
population tends to fall in the middle categories, it is still necessary to understand the
characteristics of the target population. When promoting an innovation, there are different
strategies used to appeal to the different adopter categories.

1. Innovators - These are people who want to be the first to try the innovation. They are
venturesome and interested in new ideas. These people are very willing to take risks, and
are often the first to develop new ideas. Very little, if anything, needs to be done to appeal
to this population.

Characteristics:
 Have larger farms.
 High net worth and risk capital.
 Willing to take risks.
 Usually not past middle age
 Generally well educated
 Have respect and prestige in progressive communities but not in conservative type of
communities.
 Mentally alert and actively seeking new ideas.
 Their sphere of influence and activity often goes beyond the community boundaries.
 They have many formal and informal contact outside the immediate locality.
 They often by-pass the local extension worker in getting information from the
originating sources, and may learn about new things even before he does. They
sometimes manage to get samples of seeds or chemicals even before they are released
for public use.
 They subscribe to many farm magazines and specialised publications.
 Other farmers may watch the innovators and know what they are doing but the
innovators are not generally named by other farmers as "neighbours and friends" to
whom they go for information.

2. Early Adopters - These are people who represent opinion leaders. They enjoy leadership
roles, and embrace change opportunities. They are already aware of the need to change
 and so are very comfortable adopting new ideas. Strategies to appeal to this population
include how-to manuals and information sheets on implementation. They do not need
information to convince them to change.

Characteristics:
 Younger than those who have a slower adoption rate, but not necessarily younger than
the innovators
 They are not the persons who test the untried ideas but they are quickest to use tried
ideas in their own situations.
 Have large farms.
 Higher education than those who adopt more slowly.
 High income.
 They participate more in the format activities of the community.
 They also participate more in government programmes.
 This group usually furnishes a disproportionate amount of the formal leadership
(elected positions) in the community.
 They read papers and farm journals and receive more bulletins than people who adopt
later.
 They may be regarded as community adoption leaders.

3. Early Majority - These people are rarely leaders, but they do adopt new ideas before the
average person. That said, they typically need to see evidence that the innovation works
before they are willing to adopt it. Strategies to appeal to this population include success
stories and evidence of the innovation's effectiveness.

Characteristics:
 Slightly above average in age, education and farming experience.
 They take a few more farm journals and bulletins than the average.
 They have medium high social and economic status.
 Less active in formal groups than early adopters, but more active than those adopting
later.
 In many cases, they are not formal leaders in the association
 They also attend extension meetings and farm demonstrations.
 They are most likely to be informal resources than early adopters and innovators, and
so cannot afford to make hasty or poor decisions.
 They associate mainly with people of their own community.
 They value highly the opinions their neighbours and friends hold about them; for this is
their main source of status and prestige.
 They are mostly mentioned as "neighbours and friends" from whom the majority of
farmers seek information.

4. Late Majority - These people are skeptical of change, and will only adopt an innovation
after it has been tried by the majority. Strategies to appeal to this population include
information on how many other people have tried the innovation and have adopted it
successfully.

Characteristics:
 Those in this group have less education and are older than the early majority.
 They form the major part 9( formal organisational membership, although they
participate less in such formal groups.
  They take fewer leadership roles than the earlier adopters.
 They take and read fewer papers, magazines and bulletins, than the early majority.
 They do not participate in as many activities outside the community as do people that
adopt earlier.

5. Laggards - These people are bound by tradition and very conservative. They are very
skeptical of change and are the hardest group to bring on board. Strategies to appeal to
this population include statistics, fear appeals, and pressure from people in the other
adopter groups.

Characteristics:
 Least education.
 Oldest.
 Participate least in formal organisations, cooperatives and government programmes.
 They hardly read farm magazines and bulletins.

The stages by which a person adopts an innovation, and whereby diffusion is

accomplished, include awareness of the need for an innovation, decision to adopt (or reject) the
innovation, initial use of the innovation to test it, and continued use of the innovation.

There are five main factors that influence adoption of an innovation, and each of these
factors is at play to a different extent in the five adopter categories.

1. Relative Advantage - The degree to which an

innovation is seen as better than the idea, program,
or product it replaces.

2. Compatibility - How consistent the innovation is

with the values, experiences, and needs of the
potential adopters.
 3. Complexity - How difficult the innovation is to
understand and/or use.

4. Triability - The extent to which the innovation can

be tested or experimented with before a
commitment to adopt is made.

5. Observability - The extent to which the innovation

provides tangible results.

Limitations of Diffusion of Innovation Theory

There are several limitations of Diffusion of Innovation Theory, which include the following:

 Much of the evidence for this theory, including the adopter categories, did not originate
in public health and it was not developed to explicitly apply to adoption of new behaviors
or health innovations.
 It does not foster a participatory approach to adoption of a public health program.
 It works better with adoption of behaviors rather than cessation or prevention of
behaviors.
 It doesn't take into account an individual's resources or social support to adopt the new
behavior (or innovation).

References

Agricultural Training Institute. (2012). “Changing People's Lives through Effective Extension
Delivery”. Lectures on e-Extension . Retrieved 10 November 2016, from ati.gov.ph

Battad, et al. (2003). Agricultural Extension. Makati City: Grandwater Publications.

Calao,J. et al. (2006). Agricultural Extension and Communication Review Material for the
Board Examination for Agriculture. UPLB, Laguna: CA Publications Program.