Grammar & Syntax

Chapter 1: What is Syntax?

1. Introduction to Syntax
Syntax is the part of language that deals with how words come together to form phrases and
sentences. When people talk about "grammar," they often mean syntax, but actually, grammar
includes many other things too, like sounds and word forms. Syntax is just one part of the whole
grammar. In simple terms, syntax is about the structure of sentences — how words are ordered,
grouped, and organized to make meaningful sentences. For example, when we say "Ali sent the letter
to Hasan" and "Ali sent Hasan the letter," we are using different syntactic structures, but both are
correct in English. The study of syntax helps us understand these different sentence patterns not only
in English but also in many other languages.
Many people think learning about syntax means improving the way we speak or fixing our grammar
mistakes, but that's not the goal of this book. The author, Maggie Tallerman, makes it clear that if you
are a native speaker of a language, you already know its grammar perfectly. This is not the grammar
you learn at school, like using "whom" correctly or not ending a sentence with a preposition. Instead,
it is the deep knowledge that lets you form sentences naturally without even thinking about it. For
example, even young children, without any formal teaching, know not to say things like "Do wrong
didn’t anything I" — because it sounds wrong to them naturally. This shows that we all have an
internal, unconscious understanding of our native language's syntax.
Understanding syntax also helps us see that languages are different but also share many deep
similarities. Even unrelated languages like English and Indonesian show similar patterns in how
certain words can move in sentences, such as promoting the word "Hasan" in "Ali sent Hasan the
letter." The study of syntax aims to discover these shared patterns across languages. It also tries to
explain how humans are born with a special ability to learn language — something no other species
can do. By looking closely at different languages, syntax shows us not just how individual languages
work, but also how human minds are specially designed for language.
2. (1.1) Some Conceptions and Misconceptions
Many people have wrong ideas about what grammar and syntax really are. Some believe that
grammar is all about speaking "properly" or avoiding mistakes like double negatives or split
infinitives, but in reality, syntax is about how we naturally organize sentences in our minds. Maggie
Tallerman explains that when teachers correct students for saying things like "I ain’t done nothing,"
they are focusing on social rules, not true grammar. In fact, languages like French normally use
double negatives, like "Je ne mange jamais de viande" meaning "I never eat meat," and it is
completely correct in French. So, what some people call "bad grammar" is often just a different
dialect or style, not a mistake.
Another common misconception is that some ways of speaking are more logical than others. For
instance, in some English dialects, people say "I aren’t going," and some might claim it's wrong
because "I are" isn't correct. However, even in standard English, we have irregular forms like "Aren’t
I going?" instead of "Amn’t I going?" So both standard and non-standard forms have their own logic,
and non-standard forms are not "wrong" in a real linguistic sense. Maggie Tallerman uses examples
like "aren’t I" to show that what people often think is logical or correct in language is really based
more on tradition and social preference, not on true linguistic logic.
Lastly, the misconception that grammar must be taught is addressed clearly. Children do not need
formal teaching to learn their first language; they learn it naturally just by being around others who
speak it. Even without lessons, children quickly learn very complicated rules that they couldn't even
explain if asked. This shows that humans have a natural ability, built into our brains, to learn
language. Language learning is compared to learning how to walk — it happens naturally when the
child is ready. In every culture, children learn language perfectly without formal instruction, which
proves that grammar is something natural and internal, not something we are taught from books or
schools.
3. (1.1.1) What is the Study of Syntax About
The study of syntax is about understanding how words combine to form sentences and phrases.
Maggie Tallerman explains that syntax focuses on the rules that speakers of a language know
unconsciously. It includes classifying words (like nouns, verbs, and prepositions), understanding
word order (like subject-verb-object in English), and analyzing how different parts of a sentence
relate to each other. In the book, the author uses examples such as "They’re eating eggs and chips"
and questions like "What are they eating ___?" to show that certain sentence structures are natural
while others, like "What are they eating eggs and ___?" are impossible, even though no one has to be
taught that these are wrong.
Syntax is not just about English or about fixing "bad" sentences. Instead, it is about studying the
natural, often hidden rules that all languages follow. Even languages that seem very different, like
Indonesian and English, share similar syntactic behaviors. For example, when promoting a recipient
in a sentence like "Ali sent Hasan the letter," English and Indonesian both show similar patterns, even
though the languages are unrelated. This shows that syntax is a universal part of human language, and
that by studying it, we learn not just about particular languages, but about the nature of human
communication itself.
The study of syntax also helps us understand deeper things, like the idea that all humans have an
innate "language faculty." This means we are born ready to learn language, and syntax gives us a way
to explore that amazing ability. By looking at different languages and seeing the patterns they share,
syntacticians aim to uncover the universal principles that all human languages follow. This makes the
study of syntax not just about understanding sentences, but also about understanding the human mind
and what makes human communication unique compared to other animals.
4. (1.1.2) Language Change
Language is always changing, even if many people do not like it. Maggie Tallerman explains that
people often see language change as a sign of decline, but in fact, it is a natural and unstoppable
process. For example, in Middle English, people said things like "I sey nat this" (I do not say this) and
negated verbs directly with "not" after the verb. Modern English does not do this anymore; instead,
we use "do" as a helper: "I do not say this." This shows that even basic parts of grammar, like
negation, can change over time. Language change happens to all languages, and it cannot be stopped,
no matter how many grammar rules people try to enforce.
Even today, English is changing. One example Maggie gives is the use of "innit" (short for "isn’t it")
as a general tag question in some British dialects. Instead of saying "We lost, didn’t we?" people
might say "We lost, init?" This mirrors how French uses "n’est-ce pas" ("isn't it?") as a general tag for
all kinds of statements. Another example of change is the use of "less" with plural nouns, like "less
people" instead of "fewer people," which is becoming very common. These changes start in informal
speech, but over time they can become accepted and even part of the standard language.
Language change also affects pronouns. In modern English, "they" is now often used as a singular
pronoun, especially when the gender is unknown, like "If any student forgot their book, they should
come and get it." Although "they" used to be only for plurals, now it is commonly used for singulars
as well, even when the speaker knows the gender. Maggie points out that this shift has been
happening for a long time and is becoming more accepted. This shows that language naturally adapts
to the needs of its speakers, and change is a normal, healthy part of how languages evolve over time.
5. (1.2) Use of Linguistic Examples
In studying syntax, it is very important to look at examples from many different languages, not just
English. Maggie Tallerman explains that using examples from other languages helps us see both how
languages can be different and how they can be similar. Every language has its own special ways of
organizing sentences. If we only looked at English, we might think that all languages work the same
way, but that is not true. For example, in German, the phrase "the pretty waterfall" is almost the same
as in English, but in Spanish, the words are ordered differently: "the waterfall beautiful." Without
seeing examples from other languages, we would not know about these differences.
Another reason for using examples from other languages is to understand the many unique features
that English might not show. Maggie gives examples from languages like Spanish, which can drop
the subject pronoun ("is new" instead of "it is new"), or Indonesian, where the word for "the" comes
after the noun ("letter the" instead of "the letter"). These types of examples show us that languages
can be structured in ways that we don't expect if we only know English. By looking at many
languages, we can find out about things like different word orders, the use or non-use of articles like
"the," and how verbs behave. This broader view helps us understand the full richness of human
language.
Finally, studying examples from different languages also helps linguists find the features that are
shared across languages. Even though languages can look very different on the surface, all languages
organize words into phrases and sentences, and they all have ways to show who is doing what to
whom. For instance, all languages have nouns and verbs, even if they behave differently. Maggie
emphasizes that by comparing many languages, we can find the basic building blocks that all human
languages share. This shows that underneath the differences, languages are remarkably similar, which
points to a deep common structure in how humans use language.
6. (1.2.1) Why Not Just Use Examples from English?
Some people might wonder why it is necessary to use examples from languages other than English
when studying syntax. Maggie Tallerman explains that if we only looked at English, we would get a
very limited and even wrong idea of how language works. English shares many features with closely
related languages like German and Spanish, but there are thousands of languages in the world that are
very different. For example, in some languages, there is no word like "the" at all, and in others,
adjectives like "beautiful" come after the noun instead of before it. Without looking at these
languages, we would miss many important differences.
Another important reason is that by looking at other languages, we learn about special features that
English does not have. For instance, Spanish can drop subject pronouns, so a sentence like "is new" is
correct without needing to say "it." In languages like Arabic and Indonesian, sentences like "it new"
are normal. This shows that languages can organize information differently. English has its own way,
but it is just one example among many. If we only focused on English, we might wrongly think that
all languages must work the way English does, which is not true at all.
Finally, studying different languages helps us find what all languages have in common. For example,
even though languages may look different, every language has nouns and verbs and ways of making
sentences. Linguists want to discover these shared patterns. Maggie shows that languages don't vary
randomly; they have regular patterns and structures that repeat in many places around the world. By
studying many languages, not just English, we can better understand the nature of human language
itself — how it is different in surface ways but very similar underneath.
7. (1.2.2) How to Read Linguistic Examples
Maggie Tallerman explains that when studying syntax, it is very important to know how to read
examples from different languages properly. Linguists usually present examples in three lines: the
first line shows the original sentence in the foreign language, the second line gives a word-for-word
or part-by-part translation called a "gloss," and the third line gives a smooth translation into English.
The gloss line is the most important because it shows exactly how the original language organizes its
words, even if it looks strange compared to English. For example, in Japanese and Welsh, the word
orders are very different, and we can only notice that by looking carefully at the glosses.
The glosses also show information about grammar, not just about the meanings of words. In the gloss,
real words are written in normal letters, while grammatical information like tense (past, future) or
number (singular, plural) is written in small capital letters. Maggie gives examples like "student-PL"
to show that a word is plural. Sometimes a hyphen (-) is used to show that something is attached to a
word, like "-ed" showing past tense in "asked." If two pieces of meaning are mixed together in one
word with no clear boundary, a dot (.) or colon (:) is used, like "take.past" for "took." Understanding
these details is key to reading linguistic examples correctly.
Knowing how to read examples properly allows students to see important patterns across languages.
For instance, in a language like Rapa Nui (from Easter Island), a sentence meaning "The boy is
crying" would literally be "nonpast cry progressive the boy," showing that Rapa Nui uses different
ways to show tense and ongoing action compared to English. Without carefully reading the gloss,
students would miss all these interesting features. Maggie encourages readers to read from the bottom
up — starting with the English translation, then studying the gloss, and finally looking at the original
sentence — to fully understand how different languages work.
8. (1.3) Why Do Languages Have Syntax?
Languages have syntax because it is necessary to organize words into meaningful groups and
structures. Maggie Tallerman explains that without syntax, we would not be able to communicate
complex ideas. Words on their own are not enough; they need to be combined in specific ways to
show who is doing what to whom. For example, "The cat chased the dog" and "The dog chased the
cat" have the same words but a very different meaning because of the word order. Syntax gives us the
rules for putting words together so that listeners can understand the right meaning without confusion.
One important reason for syntax is word order. Different languages arrange their subjects, verbs, and
objects in different ways. In English, the normal order is subject-verb-object ("The girl reads the
book"), but other languages like Japanese often have the object before the verb. Syntax helps speakers
know which order to use to make their sentences understandable. Without a consistent word order,
communication would be very difficult because people would not know which word relates to which
action or which object. Syntax gives language a structure that makes it clear and easy to follow.
Another reason syntax exists is that all languages need ways to change the focus of a sentence or
adjust meaning. For example, sometimes we want to promote a word to a more important place in the
sentence, like in passive constructions ("The letter was sent by Ali"). Syntax allows for processes like
promotion and demotion of sentence parts. Even though the rules can vary from language to
language, every language has some way of organizing and structuring information. This shows that
having syntax is a universal feature of human language, and it is what allows us to express detailed
and complicated thoughts clearly.
9. (1.3.1) Word Order
Word order is a very important part of syntax. It tells us how different parts of a sentence are
arranged. In English, the basic word order is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), as in "Ali sent the letter."
This means that the person doing the action (the subject) comes first, followed by the action (the
verb), and then the thing being acted on (the object). But not all languages follow this pattern. Maggie
Tallerman shows that Japanese, for example, uses Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order, where the
verb comes at the end, such as in "Ali the letter sent." Word order helps us know who is doing what in
a sentence, and different languages have different rules for this.
Even though the word order rules are different, every language has some sort of pattern. Maggie
explains that some languages even start sentences with the verb, like Welsh, which often uses Verb-
Subject-Object (VSO) order. In a Welsh sentence meaning "Wrote the teacher the letter," the verb
"wrote" comes first. These differences show that word order is one of the ways syntax varies across
languages. But no language puts words together randomly. Each language has its own rules that
speakers follow without even realizing it. These rules help keep communication clear.
Understanding word order is also important for asking questions, showing emphasis, or giving
commands. For example, in English, we change word order to ask a question: "You are going"
becomes "Are you going?" In some languages, word order is used to show what information is new or
important. Maggie shows that syntax gives us the tools to express these meanings by rearranging
words in specific ways. So, while word order can be very different from one language to another, it
always plays a central role in how sentences are built and understood.
10. (1.3.2) Promotion and Demotion Processes
Languages use promotion and demotion processes to highlight or hide certain parts of a sentence.
Promotion means moving a part of the sentence, like the object or recipient, into a more important
position, such as the subject. Demotion is the opposite — moving something into a less central role.
Maggie Tallerman gives clear examples of this in both English and Indonesian. In English, we can
say "Ali sent the letter to Hasan" or "Ali sent Hasan the letter." In the second sentence, Hasan is
promoted — he comes earlier in the sentence and seems more important. This change doesn’t affect
the overall meaning much, but it changes how the sentence feels.
Promotion becomes even more obvious in passive sentences. For example, "Ali sent Hasan the letter"
can change into "Hasan was sent the letter by Ali." Here, Hasan has been promoted all the way to the
subject of the sentence. Maggie explains that English only allows this promotion if the word (Hasan)
has already been moved once — meaning from the position in "Ali sent the letter to Hasan" to the
earlier position in "Ali sent Hasan the letter." If we try to jump straight from the original sentence to
the passive, like "*Hasan was sent the letter to by Ali," it becomes ungrammatical. This shows that
promotion in English must happen in steps, not all at once.
Interestingly, Indonesian works in a very similar way. In that language, adding the suffix "-kan" to the
verb shows that promotion has happened. Maggie shows that only if the suffix is used can a sentence
like "Hasan was sent the letter by Ali" be formed. If the suffix is missing, the sentence becomes
incorrect, just like in English. This shows that even languages that are not related can follow the same
syntactic rules. Promotion and demotion are important because they help speakers focus on different
parts of a sentence, and syntax gives each language the tools to do this in its own way.
11. (1.3.3) All Languages Have Structure
All human languages have structure — this is one of the key messages of syntax. Maggie Tallerman
explains that even though languages may look different on the surface, they are all organized in
systematic ways. Every language has rules about how words go together to make phrases and
sentences. These rules might be different in each language, but they all follow a kind of hidden
system. For example, while English says "the beautiful waterfall" and Spanish says "the waterfall
beautiful," both languages have clear rules for where words like "the" and "beautiful" go. The exact
positions are different, but the structure is still there.
Maggie shows that the structure of sentences is often something speakers are not aware of, yet they
follow the rules perfectly. Even children who are never taught grammar rules grow up using complex
sentence structures correctly. They know without being told that "Do wrong didn’t anything I" is not a
possible English sentence. This shows that people carry an internal mental grammar, and this
grammar includes structured rules for how to build sentences. Syntax is what helps us discover and
understand these hidden rules. Without structure, language would be just a list of words, and it would
be very hard to know what someone means.
Another proof that all languages have structure is that even when rules are broken, they are broken in
specific and predictable ways. Maggie gives the example of non-standard dialects of English, like
those where people say "I ain’t done nothing" or use "init" as a tag question for everything. These
forms may not follow the standard rules, but they still follow their own set of rules. Speakers of these
dialects still speak in structured, rule-governed ways. This shows that structure is not just for formal
or "correct" language — it is part of all natural language. Every language, no matter how different,
has its own internal logic and structure, and that is what syntax aims to study.

Chapter 2: Words belong to different classes

1. Introduction to Chapter Two – "Words Belong to Different Classes"
Chapter Two begins by introducing the idea that every language divides words into different classes,
or categories, based on their function in a sentence. These classes are called word classes or parts of
speech. Common word classes in English include nouns (like book), verbs (like run), adjectives (like
blue), and others such as adverbs and prepositions. Maggie Tallerman explains that these categories
are not just labels we use in school grammar, but are actually part of the way languages work. These
word classes help us understand what a word is doing in a sentence — for example, whether it is
naming something, describing something, or showing an action.
Languages often divide words into similar classes, even if the words themselves or their order in a
sentence may be different. Every language has some way of showing which words are nouns or verbs,
though the exact rules can vary. For example, in English, we can usually recognize a verb by looking
at how it changes with tense, like walk becomes walked. Nouns can be made plural with -s, like cat
becomes cats. These changes help us identify the word class. Some words can even belong to more
than one class depending on how they’re used. For instance, paint can be a noun (a can of paint) or a
verb (I will paint).
Tallerman makes it clear that understanding word classes is important for learning syntax because
syntax depends on how different classes of words fit together. For example, a noun might come
before a verb to make a sentence like "The dog barked," or an adjective might come before a noun
like "big house." Knowing what class a word belongs to helps us figure out what kind of phrases and
sentences it can be part of. So, this chapter focuses on how to recognize word classes and starts to
explain the basic differences between nouns, verbs, and adjectives in English and in other languages
too.
2. (2.1) Identifying Word Classes
Identifying word classes means figuring out what category a word belongs to, such as noun, verb, or
adjective. Maggie Tallerman explains that one way to do this is by looking at how the word behaves
in sentences — in other words, by examining its morphology (how the word changes form) and its
syntax (how the word is used in sentence structure). For example, in English, nouns can usually be
made plural by adding -s, like book to books, while verbs can change depending on tense, like walk
becomes walked. These changes give us important clues about a word’s class.
Another way to identify word classes is by using tests. For example, we can try to replace a word
with another word from a known class and see if the sentence still makes sense. If we can replace a
word with another noun, then we can be confident the original word was also a noun. Maggie uses
this kind of substitution test to show how we can group words based on how they work in a sentence.
So if we have a sentence like "The teacher arrived," and we can change it to "The student arrived,"
then we know that teacher and student are both nouns because they fit in the same place in the
sentence.
Tallerman also explains that while English has clear endings and patterns to help us recognize word
classes, not all languages work the same way. Some languages might use different word endings, or
might rely more on word position to show what class a word belongs to. Still, all languages have
ways to distinguish between nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other classes. The challenge is just figuring
out how those systems work in each language. Identifying word classes is the first big step in
understanding syntax because it tells us what kinds of jobs words can do and how they fit together in
a sentence.
3. (2.1.1) How Can We Tell That Words Belong to Different Classes?
We can tell that words belong to different classes by looking at their behavior — how they change
form and how they appear in sentences. Maggie Tallerman explains that one important clue is
inflection, which means the endings or changes that are added to a word. For instance, in English, if
we add -ed to a word and it becomes past tense, like walked, then we know it is a verb. If we add -s
and it becomes plural, like cats, then it is a noun. These small changes show us what kind of role the
word plays in the sentence. Words that take the same types of changes usually belong to the same
word class.
Another important way to tell word classes apart is by looking at where the word appears in a
sentence. For example, in "She quickly ran," the word quickly comes before the verb and adds detail
about how the action happened. This tells us that quickly is an adverb. In "She wore a red dress," the
word red describes the noun dress, so we know it’s an adjective. By comparing sentences and
replacing words with others that fit in the same position, we can figure out what class a word belongs
to. So, word position is another strong clue that helps us decide on word class.
Tallerman also shows that we can group words by what other words they combine with. For instance,
adjectives can go with nouns, as in "happy child," while verbs usually go with subjects, as in "The cat
sleeps." If a word fits naturally with a certain kind of partner (like adjectives with nouns), that helps
confirm what class it belongs to. These methods — looking at word endings, position in the sentence,
and combination with other words — all work together to help us recognize and separate word
classes. This process is important for understanding how sentences are built and why certain word
orders are correct or incorrect.
4. (2.1.2) Starting to Identify Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs
To begin identifying nouns, adjectives, and verbs, Maggie Tallerman suggests starting with examples
and patterns in English. Nouns are usually words that name people, places, things, or ideas. Examples
include teacher, apple, city, and happiness. In English, many nouns can be made plural by adding -s,
such as cat/cats or student/students. Nouns often come after a word like the or a, as in the house or a
game. These clues help us recognize a word as a noun. Also, in sentences, nouns usually play the role
of subject or object, like in "The student read the book."
Adjectives are words that describe nouns. They tell us more about the thing the noun names, such as
its color, size, or quality. Examples include happy, blue, big, and boring. In English, adjectives
usually come before nouns, like in blue sky or big house. Some adjectives can also be used after the
verb be, as in The sky is blue. This pattern helps us identify adjectives. Maggie also explains that
some languages may put adjectives after nouns instead of before them. For example, in Spanish, we
say la cascada hermosa which means the waterfall beautiful, showing that not all languages follow
the same adjective order as English.
Verbs are action words or words that describe what someone or something does. Examples include
run, eat, think, and sleep. In English, verbs often change form depending on tense and subject. For
example, walk becomes walks in "He walks" and walked in "She walked." Verbs usually come after
the subject in a sentence, like in "The dog barks." Verbs can also be recognized by how they combine
with helping verbs, like is, was, or can, as in "She is running" or "He can swim." These patterns help
us learn to recognize verbs and tell them apart from other word classes like nouns and adjectives.
5. (2.1.3) An Illustration: How Do Speakers of a Language Identify Word Classes
Maggie Tallerman gives a helpful example from a real language to show how speakers can recognize
different word classes, even if they have never learned grammar in school. The language in this
example is Tagalog, spoken in the Philippines. A speaker of Tagalog was asked how they could tell
which words are verbs and which are not. The speaker explained that Tagalog verbs begin with
certain markers or particles. For instance, nag- is a marker that appears at the beginning of verbs. A
word like naglakad, meaning "walked," starts with nag-, so it is clearly a verb to a Tagalog speaker.
This shows that native speakers can identify verbs by patterns they naturally recognize.
The Tagalog speaker also pointed out that some words are nouns because they follow different
patterns. For example, nouns might appear with ang or ng, which are markers used in noun phrases in
Tagalog. So, even though the speaker did not use technical grammar words, they still knew exactly
how to tell nouns from verbs in their own language. They had learned these patterns just by growing
up with the language, not by studying it in school. This supports Tallerman's point that people have
unconscious knowledge of their language’s structure and can tell the difference between word classes
without being formally taught.
This illustration helps us understand how word classes are recognized across different languages. In
English, we often rely on word endings or sentence position to figure out if something is a noun or a
verb. In Tagalog, speakers rely on word markers or prefixes. So, each language has its own methods,
but the idea is the same: people recognize patterns in how words behave and use those patterns to
decide what type of word it is. This example shows that the ability to identify word classes is
something natural and automatic for native speakers, and it is a key part of what makes syntax work.
6. (2.2) Verb
Verbs are one of the most important word classes in any language because they tell us what is
happening in a sentence. Maggie Tallerman explains that verbs describe actions, like run, eat, or
sleep, or states, like know, seem, or be. Verbs usually play the central role in sentences because they
connect with other parts like the subject (who is doing the action) and the object (what is affected by
the action). In the sentence "The cat chased the mouse," the verb chased shows what action took
place and links the cat to the mouse. This makes verbs essential for sentence structure.
In English, verbs can change form depending on tense (past, present), person (I, you, she), or number
(singular or plural). For example, walk becomes walked in the past and walks with a third-person
singular subject like "He walks." These changes are called verb inflections. Verbs can also be used
with helper words, like can, will, or is, such as in "She can swim" or "He is talking." These helping
verbs are called auxiliaries, and they give extra meaning to the main verb. Recognizing these patterns
helps us understand how verbs work and how they are different from other word classes.
Another feature of verbs is that they control how many other words need to appear in the sentence.
Some verbs only need a subject, like sleep in "She sleeps." Others need a subject and an object, like
eat in "He eats pizza." Some verbs need even more parts, like give in "She gave him a book," which
has a subject (she), a recipient (him), and a thing given (a book). Tallerman shows that understanding
how many parts a verb needs — called its argument structure — is an important part of studying
syntax. It helps explain why some sentences are complete and others are not, depending on what the
verb requires.
7. (2.2.1) An Introduction to Verb Classes
Maggie Tallerman explains that not all verbs behave the same way. In fact, verbs can be grouped into
different classes based on how many arguments they need and what kind of sentence structures they
form. The simplest type of verb is called an intransitive verb. These verbs only need one argument,
which is usually the subject. For example, in "The baby cried," the verb cried only needs the subject
the baby. Nothing else is required for the sentence to make sense. Other examples include sleep,
arrive, and exist. These verbs do not take an object, and they form complete sentences on their own.
Another class of verbs is called transitive verbs. These verbs need two arguments: a subject and an
object. For instance, in "The girl kicked the ball," kicked is a transitive verb because it requires both
the girl (subject) and the ball (object). If you say "The girl kicked," it sounds incomplete — you
expect to hear what she kicked. This is what makes kick a transitive verb. Maggie explains that the
difference between transitive and intransitive verbs is very important in syntax because it affects how
sentences are built and how words can be moved or changed in different constructions.
There are also more complex verbs called ditransitive verbs. These verbs need three arguments: a
subject, an object, and a second object that is often a recipient. For example, in "Ali gave Hasan the
book," the verb gave connects Ali (subject), Hasan (recipient), and the book (thing given). These
kinds of verbs have more complicated sentence structures, and they can also be used in different
ways, such as in passive sentences. Understanding verb classes helps us see how verbs control
sentence structure, and how they work with other words to express meaning. Maggie uses this
classification system to build a deeper understanding of sentence construction in different languages.
8. (2.2.2) Verbs and Their Grammatical Categories
Verbs are not only important because they show actions or states, but also because they carry a lot of
grammatical information. Maggie Tallerman explains that verbs in many languages include markers
that show things like tense (when something happens), aspect (how an action happens), mood (the
speaker’s attitude), and agreement (matching the subject or object in number or person). These
categories help give the full meaning of the verb in a sentence. For example, in "She walks," the verb
walks not only tells us the action but also tells us it's happening now and that the subject is third
person singular.
Languages show these grammatical categories in different ways. English uses changes in verb
endings, like -s or -ed, and sometimes helping verbs, like will or have. In other languages, like French
or Kwamera (a language from Vanuatu), verbs may change form more dramatically depending on the
subject or object. Maggie includes a chart showing how the French verb parler ("to speak") changes
depending on who is doing the action — je parle (I speak), tu parles (you speak), and so on. These
changes are part of the verb’s inflection and show person and number as well as tense.
Understanding these grammatical categories is important because they affect how a verb is used and
how it interacts with other parts of the sentence. For example, a verb might require different endings
depending on who is doing the action or whether the action is happening now, in the past, or in the
future. By analyzing these categories, we learn how verbs form the backbone of the sentence’s
meaning. Maggie shows that even though the exact markers are different in each language, the
categories themselves — tense, aspect, mood, and agreement — are universal parts of human
language.
9. (2.2.2.1) Tense and Aspect
Tense and aspect are two key grammatical categories that help us understand more about the timing
and structure of an action. Tense tells us when something happens — for example, the past, present,
or future. In English, we mark tense by changing the verb, like talk becomes talked for the past, or by
adding helper verbs, like will talk for the future. Maggie explains that tense is a very common feature
across languages, although not every language marks tense the same way. Some may mark future and
past with different endings, while others might not mark tense at all.
Aspect is about how the action unfolds over time, rather than when it happens. For example, in
English, "She walked" is different from "She was walking." Both are in the past, but the second one
(was walking) shows that the action continued for a while — this is called progressive aspect.
Another example is "She has walked," which shows that the action was completed but is still relevant
now — this is perfect aspect. Maggie points out that languages can have many kinds of aspect, and
some languages even mark aspect more clearly than tense.
The combination of tense and aspect gives us a fuller picture of the action. For instance, saying "He is
eating" tells us that the action is happening now (present tense) and that it is ongoing (progressive
aspect). Other languages, like Rapa Nui, may use small separate words to show these ideas. In Rapa
Nui, a word for "nonpast" might be used to show it’s not in the past, and another word might show
that the action is still happening. These examples show that while the way languages express tense
and aspect varies, all languages have ways to talk about time and how actions unfold.
10. (2.2.2.2) Mood
Mood is a grammatical category that shows the speaker’s attitude toward what they are saying.
Maggie Tallerman explains that mood can indicate whether a sentence is a statement, a command, a
question, or even a wish or possibility. In English, we sometimes show mood by changing the word
order or by using helping verbs. For example, the sentence "He goes to school" is a statement, but
"Does he go to school?" is a question — this is a different mood. Similarly, "Go to school!" is a
command and uses the imperative mood.
Other moods that appear in many languages include the subjunctive and conditional moods. The
subjunctive is used to talk about things that are not real or certain, like hopes, doubts, or imaginary
situations. In English, we might say, "If I were rich…" instead of "If I was rich" — the word were is
the subjunctive form. The conditional mood is used for things that depend on a condition, like "I
would go if I had time." These moods help express more complex meanings and show how speakers
feel about the truth or reality of what they’re saying.
Different languages mark mood in different ways. Some change the verb ending, others add special
particles or helper words. For instance, in many languages, commands have special verb forms.
Maggie’s explanation shows that mood is an important part of verb grammar because it allows
speakers to express ideas beyond just simple facts. Mood connects syntax to meaning by showing
whether the speaker is stating something, requesting something, or imagining something. It plays a
key role in shaping the sentence’s purpose.
11. (2.2.2.3) Valency Changing Process
Valency refers to how many participants a verb needs in a sentence — this is similar to what was
earlier called "verb classes." Some verbs need only one participant (intransitive), some need two
(transitive), and some need three (ditransitive). Maggie Tallerman explains that languages often have
special processes to change the valency of a verb. This means we can make a verb that usually needs
two participants act like it only needs one, or the other way around. One common process is the
passive voice. For example, "Ali sent the letter" becomes "The letter was sent (by Ali)." The verb still
describes the same action, but now the focus is on the letter, and the agent (Ali) is left out or added
optionally.
Another example of a valency-changing process is causatives. These change a verb to add a causer to
the sentence. For instance, in English, we can say "The girl broke the window" or "The wind broke
the window." But with causatives, we can also say "The man made the girl break the window" — now
there is a new participant, the one who caused the action. Some languages use special verb endings or
helper verbs to show this change. In Indonesian, Maggie shows that adding -kan to a verb can change
its valency, just like adding "make" or "cause" can in English.
Languages can also reduce valency with processes like the antipassive, where the object is removed
or hidden, focusing instead on the subject. This is common in ergative languages, which have
different ways of marking the subject and object compared to English. The point Maggie makes is
that valency-changing processes are a natural part of language and help speakers highlight or hide
certain parts of an event. These processes are important for understanding how sentences can be
shaped for different meanings or focuses.
12. (2.2.2.4) Agreement
Agreement is when the verb changes to match other parts of the sentence, like the subject or object. In
English, we see a small example of this in present tense: we say "I walk" but "He walks" — the -s is
agreement for third person singular. Maggie Tallerman explains that in many languages, agreement is
much more common and complex. Verbs can show who is doing the action, how many people are
involved, and sometimes even who is receiving the action, all through changes in the verb form. This
kind of agreement is very helpful for understanding who is doing what in a sentence.
In French, for example, the verb parler ("to speak") changes based on the subject. Je parle means "I
speak," and nous parlons means "we speak." The verb endings change to match the person and
number of the subject. In some languages like Kwamera, agreement is even more detailed. The verb
may include parts that show not just singular or plural, but also whether the group includes the
speaker, the listener, or someone else entirely. These fine details help the listener understand the
sentence even without repeating the subject or object.
Agreement can happen with subjects, as in English, but in some languages, verbs also agree with the
object. This means the verb tells us something about the object’s number or person too. Maggie
shows that agreement helps hold a sentence together and keeps it clear who is doing what. It is an
important part of syntax because it links the verb to the rest of the sentence. While English uses
agreement in a limited way, many languages rely heavily on it to show meaning without needing
extra words. Agreement is part of what makes a sentence well-formed in the grammar of a language.
13. (2.3) Noun
Nouns are one of the most basic and important word classes in all languages. Maggie Tallerman
explains that nouns are words that name people, animals, places, things, or ideas. Examples include
words like cat, house, Ali, or happiness. In English, nouns can usually be made plural by adding -s,
like book to books, and they can often appear after words like the, a, or some. For instance, we say
the book, a dog, or some friends. These clues help us recognize when a word is acting as a noun in a
sentence.
Nouns also have important roles in sentences. Most often, they act as subjects (the ones doing the
action) or as objects (the ones receiving the action). For example, in the sentence "The cat chased the
mouse," the cat is the subject and the mouse is the object. Tallerman points out that many languages
mark nouns differently depending on whether they are subjects or objects, but all languages use nouns
to fill these important roles. Nouns can also sometimes act as possessors, like in Ali’s book, where Ali
is showing ownership of the book.
Another important thing about nouns is that they can be very flexible. They can be simple things you
can touch, like apple or chair, or abstract ideas you can’t touch, like freedom or sadness. In many
languages, including English, nouns can combine with adjectives to form noun phrases, like the big
dog or the cold water. Maggie explains that nouns are a core part of building sentences because they
are the names for the participants or things involved in actions, and almost every sentence needs at
least one noun to make sense.
14. Agent, Theme, Recipient
In syntax, words like agent, theme, and recipient help us understand the different roles nouns can
have in a sentence. Maggie Tallerman explains that the agent is the person or thing that does the
action. For example, in "The boy kicked the ball," the boy is the agent because he is doing the
kicking. The theme is the thing that the action happens to — in this case, the ball is the theme because
it is being kicked. So, while both the agent and theme are nouns, they have different jobs in the action
of the sentence.
The recipient is the one who receives something in a sentence. For example, in "Ali gave Hasan a
book," Ali is the agent (the giver), the book is the theme (the thing given), and Hasan is the recipient
(the one who gets the book). In sentences involving giving, sending, or telling, the recipient is very
important because the action affects them directly. Maggie shows that these roles help explain why
some verbs need more than one noun — because different participants are involved, like giver,
receiver, and object.
Recognizing these roles makes it easier to understand sentence structures across languages. Even
when the word order changes, the agent is still the one doing the action, the theme is what the action
is done to, and the recipient is who receives something. Maggie uses these examples to show that
even though languages can look very different on the surface, they often share these deep patterns of
meaning. Syntax studies these patterns to understand how all human languages organize ideas like
doing, receiving, and affecting.
15. Experience, Stimulus, Patient, and Instrument
Besides agent, theme, and recipient, other important roles in sentences are experiencer, stimulus,
patient, and instrument. Maggie Tallerman explains that the experiencer is the one who feels or
senses something, but not by choice. For example, in "Ali saw the cat," Ali is the experiencer because
he is the one who experiences the sight of the cat. He is not acting by force, but is sensing something
happening. The stimulus is what causes the experience — in this case, the cat is the stimulus because
it caused Ali’s seeing experience.
The patient is very close to the theme but often shows something that undergoes a change because of
the action. In "The girl broke the vase," the vase is the patient because it is affected and changed by
the action (it gets broken). Maggie points out that recognizing patients helps us understand which part
of the sentence is undergoing the main effect of the verb’s action. Not every sentence has a patient,
but when something changes because of an action, that noun is the patient.
An instrument is the tool used to carry out an action. For example, in "He cut the paper with scissors,"
the scissors are the instrument. The instrument is not the agent (it doesn’t act by itself) but it is the
thing the agent uses to perform the action. Tallerman shows that different languages mark instruments
in different ways, sometimes by adding a word like with, and sometimes by changing the form of the
noun itself. These roles — experiencer, stimulus, patient, and instrument — are key for understanding
the deeper meaning inside sentences.
17. (2.3.1) Semantic Roles of Noun Phrases
Semantic roles are the meanings that noun phrases have in relation to the verb of the sentence.
Maggie Tallerman explains that these roles tell us what part each noun phrase plays in the action or
event that the sentence describes. For example, in "Ali broke the window," Ali is the agent because he
performs the action, and the window is the patient because it is affected by the action. These roles are
not about where the noun appears in the sentence but about what it means in connection to the verb.
Different verbs require different types of noun phrases with different roles. For instance, the verb see
usually involves an experiencer (the one who sees) and a stimulus (what is seen), like in "Sara saw
the rainbow." Here, Sara is the experiencer, and the rainbow is the stimulus. Maggie points out that
semantic roles such as agent, patient, experiencer, theme, and recipient help us understand how the
different parts of a sentence work together to build meaning. Even if a language changes the word
order, the roles of the nouns stay connected to the action they describe.
One important thing Maggie highlights is that the same noun phrase can have different semantic roles
depending on the verb. For example, in "Ali eats an apple," Ali is the agent. But in "Ali feels tired,"
Ali is the experiencer, not an agent, because feeling is not an action done on purpose. So, the semantic
role depends not only on the noun but also on the meaning of the verb. Learning about semantic roles
helps us look deeper into sentence meaning, beyond just surface grammar, and it shows how verbs
organize the information in a sentence through their relationship with noun phrases.
18. (2.3.2) Syntactic Role of Noun Phrases
The syntactic role of a noun phrase is about its position and function in the sentence structure, not
about its meaning. Maggie Tallerman explains that in English, noun phrases can be subjects, objects,
or sometimes indirect objects. For example, in "The dog bit the man," the dog is the subject (the noun
doing the action), and the man is the object (the noun receiving the action). These are syntactic roles
— they describe how a noun phrase fits into the sentence pattern.
Sometimes, the same noun phrase can have a different syntactic role without changing its meaning.
For instance, in the active sentence "Ali wrote the letter," Ali is the subject and the letter is the object.
In the passive sentence "The letter was written by Ali," the letter becomes the subject, but it still
refers to the same thing. Maggie shows that the syntactic role depends on the structure of the
sentence, not just on the action or meaning. Syntax organizes sentences by assigning these roles to
noun phrases according to grammatical rules.
It is important to understand that semantic roles (meaning) and syntactic roles (sentence structure) are
not the same. For example, an agent is usually the subject in active sentences but can become the
object in passive ones. Maggie stresses that recognizing the syntactic role of a noun phrase helps us
understand how sentences are built and how words are linked to each other by grammar, not just by
their meaning. This distinction is key for studying syntax because it shows how flexible and powerful
sentence structures can be in any language.
19. Summary of Properties of Subject in English
Maggie Tallerman gives a clear summary of what makes a subject in English. First, the subject
usually comes before the verb in normal sentences. For example, in "The boy runs fast," the boy
appears before runs. This is a basic property of English sentence structure. Even when the sentence is
passive, like "The cake was eaten," the subject (the cake) still comes before the verb. Position is a
strong clue that tells us which noun phrase is the subject.
Another important property is that the verb often agrees with the subject in number and person. For
instance, we say "She sings" but "They sing." The verb changes its form depending on the subject.
This agreement between subject and verb helps to identify the subject even more clearly. Maggie
explains that this agreement is not just a feature of English; many languages use agreement to show
the relationship between subject and verb.
Finally, the subject is the noun phrase that controls certain grammatical processes like forming
questions and tag questions. In a question like "Did Ali go to school?" the subject Ali is the one we
are asking about. In a tag question like "Ali went to school, didn’t he?" the tag "he" refers back to the
subject. Maggie highlights that all these properties — position, agreement, and grammatical control
— work together to define the subject in English. This understanding makes it easier to analyze
sentence structures and see how English grammar organizes information.
20. (2.3.3.1) Number
Number is a grammatical feature that tells us whether a noun phrase (or sometimes a verb) is singular
(one) or plural (more than one). In English, most nouns show number by adding -s for plurals, like
book/books or cat/cats. Maggie Tallerman explains that number is important because it affects not
only nouns but also verbs and other parts of the sentence through agreement. For example, we say
"The boy runs" (singular) but "The boys run" (plural). The verb changes to match the number of the
subject.
Not all languages mark number the same way. Some languages have different systems for singular,
dual (two), and plural (more than two), while others might not mark number at all on nouns. Maggie
points out that even in English, not all nouns form their plurals in a regular way. For example, child
becomes children, and mouse becomes mice. These irregular forms show that number marking can
sometimes be complicated and is learned naturally by speakers from a young age.
Number is important for syntax because it affects sentence structure and verb forms. For example, if
the subject is plural, the verb must also be in the plural form. Sentences like "The boys runs" are
wrong because the subject and verb do not match in number. Maggie explains that recognizing
number helps us build grammatically correct sentences and that number agreement between subjects
and verbs is one of the basic rules that keeps sentences clear and understandable in English and many
other languages.
21. (2.3.3.2) Gender or Noun Class
Gender in language refers to a way of classifying nouns, often into categories like masculine,
feminine, or sometimes neuter. Maggie Tallerman explains that many languages, like French or
Spanish, have grammatical gender. In French, for example, le livre (the book) is masculine, and la
table (the table) is feminine, even though there is nothing "male" about a book or "female" about a
table. In these languages, gender affects other parts of the sentence too, like adjectives and articles,
which must agree with the noun’s gender.
However, not all languages have gender systems. English used to have grammatical gender long ago,
but today it doesn’t really use it for most nouns. Instead, English only uses natural gender — we say
he for males, she for females, and it for objects and animals (unless we are speaking poetically, like
calling a ship "she"). Maggie also explains that some languages go beyond masculine and feminine
and have larger noun class systems. For example, in languages like Swahili, there are many noun
classes for things like humans, animals, objects, and abstract ideas, and each class affects how words
like adjectives or verbs are formed.
Noun classes and gender systems help organize nouns and show connections between words in a
sentence. They often require agreement — for example, adjectives and verbs may change form
depending on the gender or class of the noun. Maggie points out that while grammatical gender can
seem complicated, speakers of these languages learn the patterns naturally as children. Gender and
noun classes are important features of syntax because they show how nouns influence the words
around them and create consistent grammatical patterns across a language.
22. (2.3.3.3) Possession
Possession is the grammatical way to show that something belongs to someone or something. Maggie
Tallerman explains that in English, possession is often shown by adding -’s to a noun, like Ali’s book
or the girl’s bag. Another way is by using the word of, as in the color of the sky. These structures
show ownership, relationships, or connections between nouns. The way we mark possession tells us
which noun owns or is related to the other noun.
Different languages mark possession in different ways. Some use special possessive words, some
attach endings to nouns, and others change the structure of the sentence. For example, in English, we
can say my book, using a possessive pronoun (my). Maggie shows that languages often have
possessive forms that change depending on who the owner is — first person (my), second person
(your), or third person (his, her, their). Some languages even mark possession differently depending
on whether the thing possessed is alienable (something you can lose, like a car) or inalienable
(something you cannot lose easily, like your arm).
Possession is important in syntax because it affects how noun phrases are built. In English, the
possessive form usually comes before the noun, like Ali’s book. In other languages, the possessor
might come after the noun, or special linking words might be needed. Maggie explains that
understanding possession structures helps us see how different languages organize relationships
between nouns, and it shows how flexible noun phrases can be when built using syntactic rules.
23. (2.3.3.4) Case
Case is a grammatical system that shows the role of a noun or pronoun in a sentence. Maggie
Tallerman explains that English uses case mostly in pronouns, like he/him, she/her, they/them. In
sentences, he is used as a subject ("He runs fast") and him as an object ("I see him"). Case markings
help identify who is doing the action and who is receiving it, even if the word order changes. In
English, word order is very important, but in some languages, case markings allow freer word order
because the role of each noun is already clear from its case ending.
In languages like Latin, Russian, or Turkish, case endings are added to nouns to show their role in the
sentence. For example, Latin has a special ending for subjects (nominative case) and a different
ending for objects (accusative case). This makes it possible to move words around without causing
confusion about who is doing what. Maggie explains that cases can mark many roles: subject, object,
possession, location, direction, and more. Each case adds information about the noun’s relationship to
the verb or other nouns.
Even though modern English has lost most of its case system, we still see traces of it, especially in
personal pronouns. Knowing about case systems helps us understand why some languages allow
much freer sentence patterns and why English sentences need careful word order to be clear. Maggie
points out that studying case helps us see another tool languages use to organize information in
sentences, showing again that different languages solve the same communication problems in
different ways.
24. Nouns, Definiteness, and Determiners
Definiteness is about whether the speaker and listener both know exactly which thing is being talked
about. Maggie Tallerman explains that in English, we use the to show definiteness (the book — a
specific book we know) and a or an to show indefiniteness (a book — any book, not a particular one).
This is very important for making clear and precise communication. Definiteness affects how noun
phrases are built, and determiners like the, a, some, this, and that are used to mark it.
Determiners are special words that come before nouns to give information like definiteness, quantity,
or possession. For example, in "this dog," this is a determiner showing that the dog is specific and
near. In "some water," some shows that we are talking about an indefinite amount. Maggie explains
that determiners are a key part of noun phrases in English and many other languages. They work
closely with nouns to show whether something is known, new, specific, general, singular, or plural.
Not all languages use determiners the same way. Some languages have no definite articles like the at
all, and speakers rely on context to understand whether something is definite or indefinite. Others
might use different markers or word orders to show definiteness. Maggie points out that by studying
determiners and definiteness, we can better understand how different languages organize information
and help listeners know exactly what the speaker means. Determiners are a small but essential part of
building complete and meaningful noun phrases.
25. (2.4) Adjectives
Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns. Maggie Tallerman explains that adjectives give
extra information about the noun they accompany, such as its size, color, shape, or other qualities.
Examples of adjectives in English are happy, small, blue, and clever. For instance, in "the small dog,"
small is an adjective that tells us more about dog. Adjectives help to make our communication clearer
and more detailed by adding useful descriptions to basic nouns.
In many languages, adjectives form a separate class of words, just like nouns and verbs. However,
Maggie points out that in some languages, adjectives behave differently and might be grouped
together with other word types, such as verbs or nouns. In English, adjectives usually have a simple
form and don’t change much. They might be made comparative (small → smaller) or superlative
(smallest), but otherwise, they stay the same when describing different nouns. This simplicity makes
English adjectives easy to recognize.
Tallerman also mentions that not every language treats adjectives as a totally separate word class. In
some languages, describing something (like saying "the house is big") uses structures more like verbs.
Still, in English and many other languages, adjectives have a clear role — to describe nouns and add
more detail. Knowing how adjectives work helps us understand how sentences are built and how
information about things and people is shared clearly in language.
26. (2.4.1) Positions and Functions of Adjectives
Adjectives can appear in different places in a sentence, and their position affects their function.
Maggie Tallerman explains that in English, adjectives often come before the noun they describe. For
example, in "the red car," red comes before car. This position is called attributive. Attributive
adjectives directly modify the noun and are usually placed immediately in front of it, making it clear
which noun they are describing.
Adjectives can also appear after certain verbs, especially the verb to be, and still describe the noun.
This is called predicative position. For example, in "The car is red," the adjective red comes after the
verb is but still describes the car. Other verbs that allow this are seem, become, and appear. Maggie
points out that while some adjectives can appear both before the noun and after the verb (happy
child / The child is happy), a few adjectives in English can only appear in one position or the other.
The function of adjectives, whether before or after the noun, is always to add descriptive information
about the noun. However, the choice between attributive and predicative positions can sometimes
slightly change the meaning or focus. Maggie highlights that recognizing these positions is important
for understanding how sentences are put together and how information is organized within noun
phrases and clauses.
27. (2.4.2) Adjectives and Intensifiers
Adjectives often work together with intensifiers to make their meaning stronger. Maggie Tallerman
explains that intensifiers are words like very, extremely, so, and too that come before adjectives and
increase their strength. For example, very big, extremely tired, or so happy show a stronger degree of
the adjective's meaning. Without the intensifier, the adjectives still make sense, but the description is
less intense.
In English, intensifiers usually come directly before the adjective. For example, in "The movie was
very exciting," very is the intensifier and exciting is the adjective. Maggie points out that not all
adjectives work equally well with all intensifiers. Some combinations are natural, like very good,
while others sound odd, like very unique (because unique already means "one of a kind," so it cannot
logically be "very one of a kind"). This shows that language use is not only about grammar but also
about meaning.
Tallerman also shows that intensifiers help speakers express feelings, opinions, and emphasis more
clearly. They allow for greater flexibility in how strong or weak the description should be. In syntax,
the relationship between adjectives and intensifiers is important because it shows how words from
different classes (like intensifiers and adjectives) combine to form complex phrases that still follow
regular patterns.
28. (2.4.3) Adjectives and Their Grammatical Categories
Adjectives, like verbs and nouns, can have grammatical categories — meaning they can change form
or behave differently depending on their use. Maggie Tallerman explains that in English, adjectives
mainly show degree. This includes positive, comparative, and superlative forms. The positive form is
the basic form, like small. The comparative form compares two things, like smaller. The superlative
form shows the highest degree, like smallest.
In English, most one-syllable adjectives form the comparative and superlative by adding -er and -est
endings. For example, tall becomes taller and tallest. For longer adjectives, we usually add more and
most instead: more beautiful and most beautiful. Maggie points out that there are also irregular
adjectives like good, which becomes better (comparative) and best (superlative). Knowing these
patterns helps us recognize and use adjectives properly in sentences.
Tallerman also mentions that in some languages, adjectives agree with the nouns they describe in
number, gender, or case. For example, in French, the adjective changes form depending on whether
the noun is masculine or feminine, singular or plural. Although English adjectives do not usually
change for gender or number, understanding that adjectives have grammatical categories helps us see
how different languages organize and mark descriptive words.
29. (2.4.4) Are Adjectives Essential?
Maggie Tallerman raises an interesting point: not all languages have adjectives as a completely
separate class of words. Some languages use verbs or nouns instead of adjectives to describe things.
For example, in some languages, what English speakers would call an adjective might actually
behave like a verb — meaning that instead of saying "The man is tall," a language might say
something like "The man tall-s" or "The man exists tall." This shows that adjectives are not absolutely
necessary for a language to work.
Even languages that do have adjectives might use them differently. Some might have only a small set
of true adjectives, like big, small, good, and bad, and use other types of words for more complex
descriptions. Maggie points out that English has a rich class of adjectives, but many other languages
manage perfectly well with very few or by using verbs and nouns instead. This shows that there is no
single, "correct" way for a language to express qualities.
The main idea is that languages always find ways to describe things, even if they do not use
adjectives in the way English does. Whether through adjectives, verbs, or nouns, speakers are able to
express size, color, shape, and other qualities. Maggie highlights that this flexibility shows how
creative and adaptable human languages are, and that studying syntax helps us understand the many
different ways languages organize meaning.
30. (2.5) Adverbs
Adverbs are words that describe or modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or even whole sentences.
Maggie Tallerman explains that adverbs give extra information about how, when, where, or why
something happens. For example, in "She ran quickly," quickly is an adverb describing how she ran.
Adverbs are very flexible and can appear in many different places in a sentence, unlike adjectives,
which usually come next to the noun they modify.
In English, many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives. For example, quick becomes
quickly, happy becomes happily, and slow becomes slowly. However, not all adverbs end in -ly. Some
adverbs, like fast, hard, and late, have the same form as their adjective counterparts. Maggie points
out that adverbs can describe not just actions, but also other descriptions, like in "The very tall man"
(very modifies tall).
Adverbs are important because they give sentences more detail and depth. Without adverbs, our
sentences would be very basic and would not explain how actions happen or under what conditions.
Maggie highlights that adverbs add richness to communication by allowing speakers to express more
precise meanings. Adverbs are an essential part of building complex and informative sentences.
31. (2.5.1) Adverbs and Adjectives
Adverbs and adjectives are related, but they have different jobs in a sentence. Maggie Tallerman
explains that adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
For example, in "The fast car" fast is an adjective describing car. In "The car moves fast," fast is an
adverb describing how the car moves. So even though the word fast looks the same, its role changes
depending on what it modifies.
Many adverbs are created by taking an adjective and adding -ly. For example, happy becomes
happily and careful becomes carefully. This pattern helps us recognize adverbs in English. However,
some words like fast and hard do not change form between adjective and adverb. Maggie points out
that this can make it tricky to tell them apart sometimes, so it is important to look at what the word is
modifying in the sentence to know if it’s acting as an adjective or an adverb.
Understanding the difference between adjectives and adverbs is important because they fit into
different parts of the sentence structure. Adjectives modify nouns inside noun phrases, while adverbs
can modify whole verb phrases, adjectives, or even entire clauses. Maggie shows that recognizing
these patterns helps us understand how sentences are built and how each word contributes to the
overall meaning.
32. (2.5.2) The Adjunct Function
One of the main functions of adverbs is to act as adjuncts. Maggie Tallerman explains that adjuncts
are extra pieces of information that are not required to make a sentence grammatical, but that add
important details. For example, in "She sang beautifully," beautifully is an adjunct. If we remove it
("She sang"), the sentence is still correct, but we lose some important information about how she
sang.
Adjuncts can give information about many things: time (e.g., yesterday), place (e.g., here), manner
(e.g., quickly), reason (e.g., because of the rain), and more. They are very flexible in where they
appear in a sentence. For example, "Yesterday, I went to the park" or "I went to the park yesterday"
— both are correct. Maggie shows that this flexibility is one way we can recognize adjuncts: they can
move around without breaking the sentence.
Understanding adjuncts is important because they show that not every part of a sentence is necessary
for its basic structure. The core of a sentence is usually subject + verb (and sometimes object), but
adjuncts add richness and extra layers of meaning. Maggie highlights that studying adjuncts helps us
see how sentences can grow and expand to express more detailed and complex ideas without
changing the core grammatical structure.
33. (2.6) Prepositions
Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other parts of the
sentence. Maggie Tallerman explains that prepositions often indicate direction, place, time, or
manner. Examples of prepositions include on, in, under, over, before, and after. For example, in "The
book is on the table," on shows the relationship between book and table — it tells us where the book
is.
In English, prepositions always come before their noun phrase, which is why they are called "pre-
positions." For instance, in "under the bed," under is the preposition and the bed is the noun phrase.
Maggie points out that some languages use postpositions, where the relationship word comes after the
noun phrase, but English uses prepositions.
Prepositions are very important because they link nouns to the rest of the sentence and give crucial
information about location, time, cause, and many other ideas. Without prepositions, sentences would
be very confusing because it would be hard to tell how things are related. Maggie shows that
prepositions are an essential part of building clear and complete sentences.
34. (2.6.1) Identifying Prepositions in English
Identifying prepositions in English involves recognizing certain features that Maggie Tallerman
explains clearly. First, prepositions are followed by a noun phrase — not by a verb or an adjective.
For example, in "She sat near the window," near is followed by the window, a noun phrase. If the
word is followed by a noun and shows a relationship, it’s very likely a preposition.
Another clue is that prepositions often tell us where something happens (place), when it happens
(time), or how it happens (manner). For example, at, by, during, through, and between are all
common English prepositions. Maggie shows that you can test if a word is a preposition by trying to
use it before a noun and seeing if the sentence still makes sense: "on the chair," "after lunch," "before
dinner," all work and clearly show the preposition-noun pattern.
Maggie also points out that some prepositions are made up of more than one word — these are called
complex prepositions. Examples are in front of, on top of, and in spite of. These act like single
prepositions even though they are made of several words. Understanding how to recognize
prepositions helps us identify how different parts of a sentence are linked together and how additional
information is added in English sentences.
35. (2.6.2) Postpositions
Postpositions are similar to prepositions, but instead of coming before the noun phrase, they come
after it. Maggie Tallerman explains that while English mainly uses prepositions, many other
languages use postpositions. In a postpositional phrase, the noun comes first and the relational word
comes second. For example, in some languages like Japanese, you might say "the house at" instead of
"at the house," where at follows the noun.
In English, true postpositions are very rare, but some old phrases like "the whole night through" show
a postposition-like structure, with through coming after the noun phrase the whole night. However,
these are exceptions. Most English relational words still come first. Maggie points out that studying
postpositions is important because it shows us that while all languages need to express relationships
between nouns and actions, they do it in different ways.
The choice between using prepositions or postpositions depends on the basic structure of the
language. Postpositions are very common in languages that use a lot of Subject-Object-Verb (SOV)
word order, like Japanese, Turkish, and Korean. Prepositions, on the other hand, are common in
Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) languages like English and French. Maggie highlights that understanding
the use of postpositions helps us appreciate the variety in how different languages structure their
phrases.
36. (2.6.3) Grammatical Categories for Adpositions
Adpositions — which include both prepositions and postpositions — can also show grammatical
categories, although not as richly as verbs or nouns. Maggie Tallerman explains that in some
languages, adpositions can show agreement, case, or number. For example, in some languages, the
adposition might change slightly depending on whether the noun it relates to is singular or plural.
In English, adpositions like in, on, under don’t really change their form. However, in some languages,
an adposition might have different forms to agree with masculine, feminine, or plural nouns. Maggie
points out that in languages like Hungarian and Finnish, adposition-like words can carry case endings
or inflections. This shows that adpositions, while usually simple in English, can behave more like full
grammatical words in other languages.
Even though adpositions in English are very simple and stable, Maggie reminds us that they still play
a vital grammatical role by linking phrases together and clarifying relationships. They don’t usually
carry tense or number in English, but they are essential for building clear and well-structured
sentences. Studying adpositions across languages shows that small words can have big roles in how
syntax works.
37. Conclusion (Chapter 2)
In the conclusion of Chapter Two, Maggie Tallerman brings together all the main points about word
classes. She explains that words in all languages are divided into classes like nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, and adpositions. Each class has its own job in the sentence and follows certain patterns for
how it behaves. Recognizing these classes is essential for understanding how sentences are built and
how languages organize meaning.
Maggie emphasizes that even though English has a clear separation between word classes, not all
languages do it the same way. Some languages might use verbs where English would use adjectives,
or have noun classes that English doesn’t have. The important thing is that every language has
systems for organizing words into meaningful structures. Word classes help speakers create complex
and clear communication out of simple building blocks.
Finally, the chapter shows that studying syntax means looking beyond just the words themselves —
we need to understand the jobs that words do and how they fit together. By learning about nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions, and by understanding roles like subject, object, agent,
and experiencer, we can see how sentences are carefully built. Maggie’s conclusion is that syntax is
about the hidden rules that shape the way we speak, think, and understand language across all
cultures.
38. Finite Verbs
Finite verbs are verbs that show tense, person, and number. Maggie Tallerman explains that finite
verbs carry important grammatical information — they tell us when the action happens (past, present,
future) and who is doing it (I, you, he, they, etc.). In English, every normal sentence must have a
finite verb to be complete. For example, in "She walks to school," walks is finite because it shows
present tense and agrees with the third-person singular subject she.
Finite verbs can be recognized because they change form depending on tense and the subject. For
example, walk becomes walked in the past tense, and is and are are different forms depending on who
the subject is. Maggie points out that even if a sentence has more than one verb, at least one verb
must be finite to anchor the sentence in time. Without a finite verb, the sentence would feel
incomplete or confusing.
In many languages, including English, finite verbs are the heart of the sentence — they control how
the sentence is put together. Finite verbs carry the "core" grammatical information that makes a
sentence meaningful. Maggie emphasizes that understanding finite verbs is crucial because they show
how verbs interact with subjects and how sentences get tied to specific times and events.
39. Infinite Verbs
Infinite verbs are verbs that do not show tense, person, or number. Maggie Tallerman explains that
infinite verbs are forms like the infinitive (to walk), participles (walking, walked), and gerunds
(walking as a noun). These forms cannot stand alone as the main verb of a complete sentence. For
example, to run is an infinite form — it does not tell you who is running or when.
Infinite verbs are often used together with finite verbs in sentences. For example, in "She likes to
sing," likes is the finite verb, and to sing is the infinite verb. Infinite verbs add extra meaning, like
describing actions, intentions, or ongoing activities, but they rely on finite verbs to complete the
sentence. Maggie points out that infinite verbs are important because they let speakers add more
complex ideas without changing the main tense or subject of the sentence.
Another important feature of infinite verbs is that they often look different from finite verbs. For
instance, walking (present participle) and walked (past participle) are infinite forms, used to build
progressive and perfect tenses like "She is walking" or "He has walked." Maggie shows that infinite
verbs are flexible tools in syntax that allow more detailed descriptions without needing to anchor
every verb separately in time.
40. Affixation in Finite Verbs
Affixation means adding prefixes or suffixes to a word to change its form. Maggie Tallerman explains
that finite verbs in English and many other languages often use suffixes to show grammatical
information like tense, person, and number. For example, in English, we add -s to the base verb for
third-person singular in the present tense: he runs, she sings. The -ed ending is added to form the
simple past: walked, played.
In many languages, affixation on finite verbs is even more complex. Verbs may have different
endings depending on whether the subject is singular or plural, first person, second person, or third
person. Maggie gives examples from French, where the verb ending changes to match the subject: je
parle (I speak), tu parles (you speak). These endings are important because they show who is doing
the action and when it is happening.
Affixation in finite verbs plays a major role in making sure that all parts of a sentence agree properly.
Without these changes, it would be hard to tell who the subject is or what time the action takes place.
Maggie emphasizes that studying affixation helps us understand how finite verbs work to link
subjects, actions, and time together smoothly in a sentence’s structure.
41. Affixation in Infinite Verbs
Affixation also happens in infinite verb forms, but it serves different purposes. Maggie Tallerman
explains that infinite verbs use suffixes to create participles and gerunds, which have roles in phrases
rather than forming the core of sentences. For example, the present participle is formed by adding -
ing to the base verb: walk → walking, eat → eating. The past participle often adds -ed for regular
verbs: walked, played. However, many verbs are irregular, like swim → swum or go → gone.
The suffixes for infinite verbs do not show tense, person, or number by themselves. Instead, they are
used in combination with auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) to form different tenses and voices. For
example, "She is running" (present progressive) and "The letter was written" (passive voice). Maggie
shows that these affixes help create more complex verb phrases but do not act as the main tense
carriers themselves.
Infinite verb forms allow language to express ongoing actions, completed actions, or intentions
without constantly changing the main verb. Maggie emphasizes that affixation in infinite verbs is
essential for building richer and more precise meanings, even though these verbs don’t carry the
"core" sentence responsibilities like finite verbs do. They expand the ways we can express time,
action, and relationships between events.
42. Phrases and Clauses
Phrases and clauses are both groups of words, but they are different in what they do. Maggie
Tallerman explains that a phrase is a group of words that acts as a single unit in a sentence. It has a
main word, called the head, and sometimes other words that add meaning. For example, in "the tall
boy," boy is the head, and the tall are the extra words. A phrase does not have to be a full sentence
because it might not have a complete idea on its own.
A clause, on the other hand, usually has a subject and a verb, and it can often stand alone as a full
sentence. For example, "The boy runs fast" is a clause because it has a subject (the boy) and a verb
(runs). Some clauses are independent and can be sentences by themselves, while others are dependent
(subordinate) and need to be attached to another clause to make sense, like "because he was tired."
Maggie points out that understanding the difference between phrases and clauses is important because
sentences are built out of these parts. Clauses create the structure for full sentences, while phrases fit
inside clauses to add detail and meaning. Both are essential for making language flexible and
powerful. Recognizing them helps us see how simple words combine to express complex ideas.
43. Verb Phrases
A verb phrase is a phrase that has a verb as its main word, or head. Maggie Tallerman explains that a
verb phrase can be just a single verb or a verb plus other words like objects, complements, or adverbs.
For example, in "runs quickly," the verb runs is the head and quickly is an adverb that adds more
information. Together they form a verb phrase.
Sometimes verb phrases can be much longer. In a sentence like "has been running very fast," the
whole group is a verb phrase. It includes auxiliary verbs (has been), the main verb (running), and an
adverb phrase (very fast). Maggie shows that verb phrases can grow to include lots of information
about time, manner, and participants, but the main action always centers around the verb.
Verb phrases are very important because they form the core of clauses and sentences. They carry the
action or state and connect to the subject. Maggie emphasizes that by studying verb phrases, we learn
how sentences are organized around actions and how extra details like time, speed, or cause are added
naturally to make our speech richer and more precise.
44. Noun Phrases
A noun phrase has a noun as its main word, or head. Maggie Tallerman explains that noun phrases
can be simple, like just Ali or books, or they can be longer with extra words added. For example, in
"the old red book on the table," the head is book, and all the other words (the old red... on the table)
add detail to describe which book we are talking about.
Noun phrases can include determiners (like the, a, this), adjectives (like old, red), and even other
phrases, like prepositional phrases (on the table). Maggie shows that noun phrases are flexible and
can carry a lot of information. They are important because they act as subjects, objects, or other parts
of a sentence — basically, they are the "participants" that verbs talk about.
Understanding noun phrases is important because almost every sentence needs at least one noun
phrase to be complete. Without noun phrases, we would not know who is doing the action or what the
action is affecting. Maggie stresses that noun phrases are central in syntax because they allow simple
words (like boy) to grow into rich, detailed descriptions (like the boy with the blue hat).
45. Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and is followed by a noun
phrase. Maggie Tallerman explains that prepositional phrases show relationships like place, time, or
direction. For example, in "on the table," on is the preposition, and the table is the noun phrase.
Together they form a prepositional phrase that tells us where something is.
Prepositional phrases often act like adjectives or adverbs. They can describe a noun, like in "the book
on the table" (describing book), or they can describe a verb, like in "He sat on the chair" (describing
sat). Maggie shows that prepositional phrases are very useful because they add lots of details without
making the sentence too complicated.
Recognizing prepositional phrases helps us understand sentence structure better. Maggie points out
that prepositional phrases can sometimes be stacked, meaning we can have more than one in a row,
like "at the end of the street near the river." These chains of prepositions give very detailed
information, showing how flexible and descriptive prepositional phrases are in building sentences.
46. Adverbial Phrases
An adverbial phrase is a group of words that works together to act like an adverb — giving
information about how, when, where, or why something happens. Maggie Tallerman explains that an
adverbial phrase can be simple, like "very quickly," or more complex, like "in a few minutes" or
"with great excitement." The head of the phrase is usually an adverb or a prepositional phrase.
Adverbial phrases modify verbs, adjectives, or even entire sentences. For example, in "She danced
with great energy," the phrase with great energy is an adverbial phrase that tells us how she danced.
Maggie shows that adverbial phrases can move around in a sentence without changing the basic
meaning — for example, "With great energy, she danced."
Understanding adverbial phrases is important because they help add richness and detail to sentences.
Maggie highlights that these phrases allow speakers to answer questions like "How?", "When?",
"Where?", and "Why?" without needing full extra sentences. They are a key part of how we express
more than just the basic facts in communication.
47. Adjective Phrases
An adjective phrase is a group of words that works together to describe a noun, with an adjective as
the head. Maggie Tallerman explains that adjective phrases can be simple, like just one word (happy),
or they can include modifiers, like very happy or extremely tired. The main job of an adjective phrase
is to give more information about a noun.
Adjective phrases usually appear before a noun in English ("the very tired teacher") or after linking
verbs like be, seem, and become ("The teacher is very tired"). Maggie shows that adjective phrases
add shades of meaning by using intensifiers (like very, really, so) to make the description stronger or
weaker.
Studying adjective phrases is important because they show how words group together naturally in
language to build more detailed and interesting sentences. Maggie emphasizes that adjective phrases
help enrich noun phrases, making our communication more vivid and specific. By using adjective
phrases, speakers can create much more colorful and expressive descriptions.