UNIT- 1

The term computer is INTRODUCTION

Initially computer was assignedderived
to
fromn the term
'compute. Tocompute means to calculate.
much of the computer'swork is perfomarithmetic calculations at avery
related to fast speed. But nowa days
to definea non-mathematical non-numerical nature. So, it is difficult
compute only as acalculating machine. or
Computers are used for avariety of
lishing, word processing scientific applications such as banking applications, desktop pub
A Computer can be research work<weather forecasting, ticket reservations etc.
appliesá predefined set of defined as an electronic device that operates on data, analyze it
instructions to produce some kind of output. In case of and then
applications, when the operator to it
already existing in the bank then feeds your request to enter
that much amount of moneysome
banking
money in your account which is
output generated by the computer. is added. The new bank
balance the
is
In case of computer data is
such as wire, switches and transferred from one part toanother through electronic
circuits. The circuits
computer through one circuit and processcircuits are so arranged such that it lets the
the raw data as per our data enter in a
Tosum up,a compater is an
electronic device that
requirements using another circuit.
data and stores it asper user's enters the data as the input, processes the
and accuracy. It can perform requirement and provides the required instructions with high speed
us
nmathematical as well as
non-mathematical
like sum, divide, subtract andoperations.
can not only perform arithmetic This means that it
operations
decisions like whether a number is greater than l0ornot. multiply etc. but take logical
through an input device like standardkeyboard and output is The input is entered into the computer
monitor etc.)) received through output device (printer,

Keyboard CPU Printer

Monitor
INPUT
OUTPUT
PROCESSING
Simple Processes of Computer
Fundamentals of Information Technology
1
 Computer have made arapid process. Now almost every person is familiar with the word
computer. Earlier, 30 years back it use was limited onlyto technical people such as engineers and
osearcn scientists, The comnuters used bad a specific purpose and Were assignca some specifie
tasks to perform. Then started the computerrevolution whichresultedlin lowering of prices lesser
space consumption,! lesserlearming skills required, easy plug and play, more numberofprocessing
of per
made it apart of our daily life.
Soond, multimedia tools available. These qualities thinking power unl1ke humans. It onlv no
Computer is an electronic machine which has no
instructions vary from program to program
forms the instructions suppliedto it bythe user. The actual
generally instruct the computer to perform the operations of Input, Output and Processing.
and the data as the input from its use, stores it
So, a Computer is an electronic device that enters
generates the required output as per the processing instructions given by the
processes the data and
user with high speed and accuracy.

AComputer
CHARACTERISTICS OFA COMPUTER
A
computer is aelectronic machine that performs auseful work with high speed and accuracy
which cannot be performed by anormal user due to following characteristics.

1. Speed
Acomputer perform operations with very high speed. Acomputer can perform millions of
instructions per second thus carrying out even the complex tasks in afraction ofseconds. The speed of
the computers is basically measured in nanoseconds (10° seconds) and picoseconds (10 seconds).
The speed ofa computer varies from computer to computer, In case of Super Computer, the speed of
executing the instructions in acomputer is very fast. With the introduction ofvery fast processing units
and otherdeyices connected to computer the speed ofthe computer is increasing day by day.

2. Accuracy
Acomputer is adevice which always produce accurate results when valid data and instruc
tions are added to it. With the cvent ofnew tiechnology the complex instructions can also be perforned
with high degreeofaccuracy. Someimes acomputermay give us inaccurate results, but this is not due
toerrorin computer, itisTechnology
due to naccUrate data entry which leads to inaccurate results. Eg, ifyou try
Fundamentals of Information 2
 to dividea
number by 0, then it
depends on its would give inaccurate results. The degree of accuracy in computer
design. Earlier
happened. With
the computers were emore pronc to errors and system failures which usually
improvements technology
in many of these errors were removed.
Versatility
Acomputer is a
tions fed to it: and versatile machine. It ca do anumber of ijobs
their hardware
popular machine. A
computer charact
can be eristics. ThisS Wonderfut feature ofdepending
computer
upon tne instu
has made it a very
same time
listen to various songs usedto write aletter to afriend ina word processor and at the
complex arithmetical through media player. This
technology in computer.operations but also performing a ability of computer not only handling
of
number ofjobs simultaneously has led to better
4.
Never gets tired
Unlike human beings, the
concntration theyto behelp us incomputer
lack of
millions
can work çontinuously
doing anumber without getting ttired. Without the
speed andofinstructions ofjobs that require great accuracy. If there are
accuracy as the lastperformed then a Computer will performthe first
instruction. instruction with same
5.
Large storage capacity
A computer has
large storage capacity, it can
either letter, picture, sound store huge
sively asked to do so. It retainsetc.itsThe data stored in acomputer is notamount of data. This data can be
in a computer is value even after several years of subject to change unless exten
enormous. We can store several
(Registers, RAM etc.)and secondary memory MB's of data
the storage.
Moreover, data stored
into computer using
a
(Magnetic disk etc.) primary memory
No Intelligence
Acomputer has no
instructions with high speed intelligence of its own. It only
and accuracy. For performs the tasks that are given to it as
tionwhich isnot
predefined then it may not Example,
be
ifyou ask a computer to
perform an instruc
publishing program it becomes a able to doso. Thus, if a
desktop publisher and ifit runs a word computer runs a desktop
comes a word processor.
Besides, having no intelligence it deesn't has processing software it be
any feelings. It is devoid of
7.
Automatic any emotions.
A
machine which works itself without any itoyaronee
machine.without
finished Computer
any human
are human
automatic maçhines, ajob when started participation
on a
is said to be an
automatic
to acomputer and it intervention. Aset
ofinstructions which conputer carries out till it gets
one is executed processes hese instructions acts as a program code are given
because they areautomatic ally ."The computers automatically.
perform the
When the job is completed,the next
automatically performed without any humaninstructions with high speed and accuracy
Fundamentals of Information Technology intervention.
3
1.2 HISTORY OF COMPUTER
eevolution of the bumon beings there was the need to earn money. Some started
business of cloth, other of paper etc. Doing trade requireda needfor acalculating device. An early
onsetUlating device called abacus was developed for this purpose. It is one of the earliest
ginstruments, It nsed sliding heads in columns that were divided into two by a centre bar.
Simple addition and subtraction were carriedout rapidly and eficiently by positioning the beads ap
POprately.The abacus that w2s 118ed more than 2000 years ago and is still in use in many countries in
the Far East such as China and
Japan.

Abacus
Cardboard Multi
Then, another manual calculating device Napier's Bones or Rods or The
plication calculator was used toaid the calculations. It was made by John Napier in 1617.
"bones' consisted ofa set ofrectangular rods,each marked with a counting number at the top, and the
multiples ofthat number down their lengths. When aligned against the row ofmultiples, any multiple of
the top number could be read offright to left by adding the digits in cach parallelogram in the appropri
ate row. Muliplication was thus reduced to addition.
The French mathematician Blaise Pascal improved this concept in 1645 and produced
Pascaline. This device could only add andsubtract, while multiplicaion and division operation were
implemented by aseries of additions and subtractions.In fact, the Arithmetic Machine could rarely
only add, therefore subtractions were perfomed using complement techniques, in which (the mmber
to be subtracied was first converted into its complement which was then added to the first
number). Modem computers still employ this technique. The Pascaline was made ofchain, wheel and
gear. There were dials like atelephone'srotary dial and the dial had number from 0to 9. Fromright to
left each dial was representing unit, tens, hundreds and so on.
In 1671A.D., German Mathematician Gottfried Von Leibnitz invented acalculating ma
chine called Stepped Reckoner. Thisiachine coüld add, 'subtract, multiply, divide andevaluate
sguare roots byseries of stepped additions. Until 1800, nearly twocenturies later, all attempts to
produce acalculator capable ofperfoming all four arithmetic operations and producing mathematical
tables failed. Then in 1833, Professor Charles Babbage f CambridgeUniversity, England who is
considered the father ofthemodern digital computer, propòsed amachine. He named this machine as
the analytical engine. However, he could not actually produce it because the technology of that time
was not so advanced. Babbage's analytical engine had agreat significance in the history of
because it had all the fundamental concepts ofthe modern digital computers. computers
In the early nineteenth century, Joseph Jaquardinvented a loop that used
punched cards to
automatically do calculations. His idea of storingasequence of instructions on the cards is conceptu
ally similar to operation of the modern computer.
Fundamentals of Information Technology
4
 Then a major success of the
further research and Herman Hollerith's Tabulating machine opened Ithe route for
Census in 1890. His development. It was used by
the Census BureauofUSAto tabulate the American
ielectrical Voltagesmachine
used
dependable.
opened anew class of
to represent computing devices - Analog Computers which
physical quantities. They werce extremely fast but not exact and
Most of work of
development
The Mark-lcomputer
was done after 1940"'s.
also called the AutomaticSequence
first fullly satomatic
calculating Controlled calculator was
machine
Aiken of HawardUniversity in collaborating developed 1937. It was developed by Professor Howard
in
was an electromagnetic computer which was used JBM
with (International Business Machines Corp.). It
to perform five basic arithmetic
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division andtable operations, like
very complex,but was very reference, It was huge in size and its design was
reliable.

Ruke

The Atanasoff -Berry Computer (1939-42) was an electronic machine developed by Dr.
John Atanasoffand his assistant Cufford Berry using certain mathematical equations. It used vacuum
tubes and capacitors for internal logic and storage respectively.
The ENIAC(Electronic, Numerical, Integrator, Analyzer and Computer) was the first
electronic computer. It was developed in 1943 by the teanm ofProfessor led by Prof. J. Presper Eckert
and Prof. John Mauchly at the Moore School ofEngineering of the University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Itused more number of vacuum tubes (approx. 19000) and was housed in a big room. It could
perform about 300 multiplications per second. It was basically used to meet the military needs. The
two limitations ofthis machine which led to its failure were thatit could storeonly very limited amount
ofinfersnatfion and its prograns were wired on boards.
The EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was the first project to
buitacomputer that could storeinstructions. This Model was basically designedto remove.the pro
lems of the above Model.
The design conçeptsof this Model were based on Dr. John von Neumann's idea that both
data and instructions can be stored in the binary form (a system that uses only two digits0& to
represent all characters) instead of decimal number used by human being.
5
Fundamentals of Information Technology
 In i947,eam of scientists led by Professor Maurice Wilkes
Delay Storage Automatic Calculator). The developed EDSAC (Electronic
chine could perform the arithmetic operations atmachine executed its first program in 1949. This ma-
a verv high speed in order of nanoseconds.
Computer were not available for use in commercial oroanizations until 1951. They were basi
cally use tor research bythegovemment. In 1951. the first
was built by RAND Corporation which became oneraional UniversalÁutomatic Computer (UNIVAC)
at Census Bureau, USA. The GE (Gen
eral Electronic Corporation) acquired UNIVAC-I in 1954
for commercial usage.
More Developments were made further, Computer were becoming smaller, faster and more
powertul and were being applied in anumber oftasks. Within two decades after 1954 thousands of
computerS were broughtln commercial usage with faster speed and more storage capacities.

1.3 ETASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS 3 1yES

Computer Systems that are used are available in various sizes. These computers also use a
variety of support devices which help them to satisfy their processing needs. Due to this, computers
can be classified on the basis of purpose, sizes and generations and data processing techniques.
1.3.1 CLASSIFICATION ON BASIS OF DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Computer can be classified on the basis of typeof data theyneed to beprocessed. Though
now adays most of ourcomputers perform digital operations we can basically classify them into three
classes on basis of data processing techniques.
1. Analog Computers
2. Digital Computers
3.Hybrid Computers
1.3.1.1 Analog Computers
The analogsignal is usually represented by aseriesof sine waves.These signals are of
varyingfrequency or amplitude. Analog technology is used by broadcastand phone transmission
conventionally. The representation of the flow of data can be shown as

Analog Signal
The analog computers recognizes data as acontinuous measurement ofaphysical prep
erty such as length, weight, presure, temperature, current ete. Analog computer examples in
clude an automobilespeedometer, afurmace thermostat and a mechanicalwatch. A<so flowing of
electric current andvotage eic. are common cxamples of Analog computer. Theyare basically
used in process industry and instruments that can directly measure.

Fundamnentals of Information Technology 6

13.1.2 Digital Computers
Digital Computers are high-specd, programmable. electronic devices that perform may
ematical calculation_
compare values and the resuls. They recognjze data by counting
iscrete signals representing cithera high("on'storeorlow(ofT")
hers and special symbols can bo reduced to representation byvoltage
state ofelectricity, Num
1's ("on") and 0's("off"). In
case of digitaftechnologythe signals that travel can be represented in term of two
()and rnon-positive(0).Each ofthese state digits is referred to as biThe digital states-positive
computers are
used for measuring deta in the dËgitalform The real lifc example of digitalcomputer is adigital
Watch. Now adays,gomputer used for th¿ putposeof business and education are also example
of digitalcomputers,n digitalcomputers data flows in the form of pulses as shown

Digital Signals
Example :
A 01000001
B01000010
C01000011

This example shows how the capital letter A, Band Ccan be reduced to representation by a number
system of l's and 0s.

Digital computers can be further classified into two categories on the basis of their purpose as

1. Special Purpose Computer

2. General Purpose Computer
that are deahned to meet
Special purpose or dedicatd computers are those computers So they execute their
single job,
the need ofa special application. They are assigned to perfom onlya
or instructions are permanently stored.
tasks quicklyand efficiently. In these computers programsdesigning, clectrical appliances are some
Computers used in missile technology, furnaces, weapon
example ofspecial purpose computers. which are designedto performavariety
General purpose computers are those computers same time they are less efficient and
applicaions at the
ofjobs or applications, As they run countless the same task. The general purpose comput
slower than special purpose computers whén applied on
analysis, personal usage etc.
ers can be used in banking, manufacturing, sales
1.3.1.3 Hybrid Computer knownas
computers which employ both the features of analog and digital computer are ofareas
Those increasing day by day as there are number
ofhybrid computers are
hybrid computer. The use analog and digital computers. Consider an example ofan hospi
in the real world where we nced both 7
Fundamentals of Information Technology

- rraO IIUSLIY Us
tal. In a
hospital there may be number
the person' of devices like E.C.G. machine etc. which aree usedto measure
s heart beat,
information temperature and other information. This is done by analog computerThe
Thus,this received from these devices is then supplied to digital computersto generate r¿ports.
which youwhole system uses hybriddcomputers. In addition to itthe example of STD/PCO phone with
communicate with aperson is another example ofhybrid computer. The person who com-
municates
help of
uses analog computersswhich connects on telephoneline and pulse rate is meausred with the
digital computers,
CLASSIFICATIONS OFCOMPUTER ON THE BASIS OF SIZES
On thebasis of sizes
1. computers scan be classified into different categories.
Super Computers
2.
3.
Mainframe Computers
Mini Computers
4.
Micro Computers or Personal Computers (PC)
5.
Laptop and Handheld Computers.

The Super Computer, Mainftrame Computers and Mini Computers are grouped under large
Szed computers. The minicomputers or PersonalComputer (PC) are small sized computer and
Laptop and Handheld Computers are grouped under very small sized computers.
The size and configurations ofa system depends on the processing requirements, necessary
functions and budget constraints.
1.3.2.1 Super Computers
Super Computers are the most powerful and the most expensive computers made. They are
physically some of the largest computers made. These computers have avery fast processing speeds
and can perform millions of processes in asecond. The speed and power of the Super Computers
make them ideal for handling large and highly complex problems that require large processing. More
over, Super Comzáters consume enough electricity that could provide electricity to anumber of houses.
Parallel Processing was used for processing of data in case of Super Computers. In Parallel
Procezsing, two or more CPU's or microprocessors work simultaneously on parts of the same prob
lem, so that more than one problem can be handled at one time. Computer speed was thus increased
by densely packing the circuits. This technique was very helpful in solving very large problems in very
less time.
Super Computers have very fast memory which help them to store and reterive data very
easily.and quickly. These devices have aprocessing speed of perfoming several million ofinstruction
per second (MIPS).
Super Computers are primarily used in weather forecasting, remote sensing, image processing
nuclear reactions, chemical reactions, study DNA structures by scientists and engincers. Super com
puters are often put in large rooms with specialcooling systems, power protection and other security
features.These computers are non-portable.Being costly they are relativelyrare and are used by large
organizations, government agencies who can afford them.
Fundamentals of Information Technology
8
 The first Super
Super Computer includeComputer
Cray-2, developed in 1976 iststhe Cray-1 Super Computer. Some other
Indiaa's first
Super ComputerCray-T90,
is PARAMFujitsu VP-200, HITACHI(S-Seires) etc.
andthe latest one is PARAM 10000.
13.2.2 Mainframe Computers
Mainframe Computers are basically usedinlarge organizations like banks, flight scheduling,
ticket reservations, large retail
frequent access totthe same data
chains and insurance companies where large number of people need
which is usually organized into one or more huge databases.
In a mainframe several
nlugged into asingle maintrame.computerteminals
These
which basically contains keyboard and Monitor are
Amainframe can house large terminals acts as ainputoutput device to the mainframe.
amount of datawhich may contains millions of records.
cheaper than Super Computers but still are very costly. They are
They occupy a lot of space and require air
conditioning and wiring to connect to each terminals. Now adays, with the
nology, atypical maintrame computer looks like arow, large number improvement in the tech
still requires controlled environment so that any offile cabinets. These mainframe
unauthorised user could not result in its malfunctioning.
Mainframes are non-portable computers. All the hardware devices can be attached to the
To operatemainframe highly skilled staffis required. Also mainframes.
requires sophisticated technology. Some common mainframes manufacturing assembling of mainframe
and
series are MEDHA, Superry, DEC,
ICL,PDP 370, IBM-40 etc.

1.3.2.3 Mini Computers

MiniComputers is asmall general purpose computer that are the next stepdown, being
and less expensive. Their capabilities lies somewhat between the mainframes and Personal smaller
Comput
ets. Theycontain less memory and processing capabilities than amainframe. Like mainframes, they
can handle much more input and output than personal
computers can.
They are commonly used as servers in the network environment that can satisfy data sharing
needs of other computers on the network. A large number of computers can be connected to a
network with aminicomputer acting as aserver. They are ideal for many organizations and companies
that cannot afford mainframes. Some common Mini Computers are PDP-I and PDP-45.

L.3.2.4 'Miero Computers or PC

The Micro Computer or Personal Computer (PC) as they are so called, are designed to meet
the requirements of an individual. With the major changes in technology and cheaper hardware we
could group the various hardware components like microprocesors, microchips and storage devices
into asingle machine called Micro Computers. As they were basically used for Personal usage they
came better to be known as Personal Computer.
With the fallin prices and gains in speed and capacity the price of PC is falling. APC with
more storage capacity and processing speed could be available now-a-days then 10 years ago with
the same amount of money. Therefore, their usage has increased. These are portable computers and
can casily be transported.
Fundamentals of Information Technolory
 Unlike large computers like mainframes, PC can handle only one person at atime:and have
more chances of failure therefore they are not used by large organizations.
The grown tremendouslyin the past few years. THhe
microcomputer
category has
computers,towercase computers, notebook computers and handheld computers all fall under this desktop
category. The Micro ComputerToriginatedin late 1970's. The first Micro Computer were builttwith &-bit
g Z80, MSO 6502, Intel 8080and MC 6809 are few 8-bit Microproces-
sorMicroprocessor
chips. chips. Zilog.
The famous Micro( Computer available now-a-days have 32-bit microprocessor chips. Some
common PC's suppliers are } HP, Zenith, Dell, Compaq, HCL etc. Mostly usedI Micro Computers arce
rAl(Personal Computer of ExterndedTechnology) and PC-AT (Personal Computer of Advanced
technology)
1.3.2.5 Laptop and Hand held Computer
PersonalComputers which are very small in sizes and can easily carried oul in our lap or hand
are called laptop computers. They are portable computers and can be easily carried from one place to
another. They are very light in weight and small in sizes. These computers do not require any external
power source. These computers are costlier than PC's. The storage capacity of these computer is also
less in comparison to Personal Computer. They are portable computers an can eas1ly be transported.
In someclassification of computers on basis of sizes they group this category with that of
Personal Computers.

1.3.3 eLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ON THE BASIS OF GENERATIONS

The computer can be classified according to the major changes in the development of the
computer industry. These significant changes in the hardware technologies and now software tech
nologies also which is also included isa 'Generation'. Thus Generation' is astep in technology,. There is
noclear-cut separating line between the Generations. Two generations may overlap each oher in their
technologies. With each new generation the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the
previous generations before it. As aresult of this the speed, power and memory of computers has
proportionally increased.
Each generation of computer is characterized by amajor technological devélopment that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Basically, we would be discussing only five genera
tions of the computer but ifwe visit some latest sites and collect information from there we would see
that computer have been classified in five generations where the fourth generations ends up in 1990.
We would be discussing each generations one by one.
1.3.3:1 First Generation of Computers(1942-55)- Vacuum Tubes
The early computers -ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC-Ietc. were built by using
thousands of vacuumtubes. Vacuum tube is afragile glass device that used filaments as asource of
Fundamentals of Information Technology 10
electrons that
tcould control and amplify
ere theiproduceda
bulb and
lotof These electronic signals. They were about the size of asmall electric
only available highheat.
spced vacuum tubes could performncomputations in milliseconds and
The computers of the first clectronic switching device in those
referred to assa drum, is a
metal generation used magnetic drums for days.
programs can be stored. memory.
cylinder coated with magnctic iron-oxide .Amagnetic drum, also
material on which data and
Íhe first generation
computers
in the memory ofthe computer soworked on the principle off storing program instructions along with data
thatinstructions
intervention. First generation computers relied oncould bcautomatically
a executed without any human
could only solve one problem at atime. machine language to perform operations and they

A Vacuum Tube

Characteristics of Pirst Generation Computers :

These computers used vacuum tubes which was orly
These computers made use ofelectronic digital circuitsavailable technology those days.
oftheir time. They could perforn the instructions in and were the fastest calculating device
vacuum tubes was accepted. miliseconds. This is why the technology of
They are too big in size and required large rooms for
As a large number of vacuum tubes were installation.
connected,
these computes required continuous maintenance they generated lot of heat. Therefore,
and cooling with the help of large AC's.
They had poor reliability as they could produce ináccurate results sometimes.
They used batch processing techniques and use punched-card and
storage. T'hus allproblems faced in batch processing were also facd.paper-tape as secondary
They performed slow nputOutput operations.
These computers were programmed by machine language which was difficult to design.
These computers had limited commerçial use.

L.3.3.2 Second Generation of Computers (1955-64)-Transistor

To overcome the difficulties in the first generation computers, a new electronic switching de
vice called'transistor' was made. The transistors which were made of semiconductormaterial were
highly reliable as compared to vacuum tubes since they had no filaments to bum. The transistors were
more faster, consumed leser power, were smaller in size and cheaper than vacuum tubes.
The mermory of these computers was composed of magneticcores. They were used to con
struct large random access menoriçs. With the introduction of magnetictapestheir capacity to store
data increased many folds. Amagnetic tape could store data ofapproximately 1000 punched cards.
Later magnetic disk storage was also developed. The higher reliability and large memory availability
led to the development ofhigh level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL and
Fundamentals of Information Technolory 11
undamentalsBASIC ment audiencecentral
interacted
operating generation,
terminals using are grated
directly compilation much nents(SSI).tainedplasticclectrical 1.3.3.3 ike
Characteristics applicationslSNOBOL.
the interconnected
The program access Insmaller, Later, only
on package,
etc. otherof
computer. a Circuits The technicians. onlAsthe
yby The dural They Ine They They anount
Lesser werce
They TheyManual computerirstne usagethe,In
Many
of combined
because system,conveyed wi th the this single about
components Third
Information
and
advancements third commerciallanguagescapacitywere Consumed were were
standardized third and
concept
generation, more circuitry second
that consumed chip. and Generation
or assembly of Payroll,
important they which
share ten inside generation much much
monitored simultaneously
generation Thi s reliable connections IC' s. to
highly about Second
Technology effect were gencration
wa s th e of This twentyto such was like store of Inventory
allowed time sizelesser the as An production casier smallerlesser reliable heatofindividual 10
on-line high smaller of resources
achieved technology
and were still data times
Generation ofthis
the sharing chi
transistors, p ICis of of FORTRAN, to power. was
level high computers ofrugged,components.
power made are Computers
computers complex program using in and computers,
genertion
systems memory, memory. and the to main to a gencrated
size faster control,
device the wa s welded form small of lesser
language cheaper by in second magnctic and components
main large such memory than less was and diodes, So
COBOL than
like through introduced. called was as silicon sa w proper and required prone
Computers markcting werc an
powerfulComputers computer. to number a circuits expensive s
Thielectronic to (1964-1975)-IC generation ha d still the increasing
integrated like than run way reached made external resistors the
Medium technology semiconductor knowledge were higher tapes air tofirst
into devcloped
FORTRANIV, CPU their keyboard many that Time wiring builtby emergence conditioning
lcsscr hardwarecomputers.
generation
for of possible
to available. and a : and
database processors.different Instead each circuit.
pi n s computers
and the independent, sharingabout produce, Scale and commercial space functioning Production
for
and user to
capacitors. was magnetic failures.
large first ofpunched towas form for the
anagement,
100 Integration The Crystal, of
a required.
wa s ofcomputers
atomic
timemonitors
applications hascomponents.
allows electronic
dissipated
Mb
integratenamed
chip newer required. was installation.
COBOL di sk
low-speed,
relatively
on-line a the usage dis k uni t planning
memories became illusion
(Megabytes). IC . is limited was inausUy
energy
aboutSmall Thecalled
technology increased.
and cards large mounted These due for
68, lesser(MSI). Initially, various requircd. wer e
airline accessibleinterfaced at and number that a and to various
PL/T, one hundred Scale chip, couldcostly. high
led printouts, no heat, The the on called developed.
reservation,
PASCAL, to tim e one of During Integration Components contain1ng
a be level
develop IC'
faster compo s IC' s commercial
towith with else users metal handled proce
mass user th is were con Inte
12 is to in or
a an
 user tems. networkLAN' number
s
Supercomputers computer provided
memories rapidly. those cuiting. plete arithmetic,
grouped progress wassingle it 13.3.4
ndamentals Charact
Comput
Generateeriirostnic dur
thinig
r
t h
di
interactives
friendly. The dayscomputer made chip, In Development They
. . " "access.
The
Development They fasterhad The TheirBeing They " .The .
A(Local ofThe In This was led
most of large was th is thFourth
e query
significant computer systems. were
computer logic possible th is had cost supported storage was were IC's
of computers spread called to fourth smaller
nformation Area randomreplaced
generation, with the le d of used third of generation etc.
Severalfamous were Apple and Generation much lesser more
development space PackageFlat emerged.
Network) of In Very
a control generation
to to preparation and in were
development and coulddeveloped microprocessor, came development
integrate wider of the heat reliable
size
new ones hig h addition access. by I , standardized IC
Technology Large introduction concept available more period.
distributed semiconductor th e TRS-80, dissaption, they
PC-based
MS-DOS, be
speed to circuits. The
and concept better computers,
about
scientific and
of required and
powerful
connected based toThe Scale of maintence of in development
inWAN'scomputerprocessing other a Computers
of lesser
knownmicroprocessor. This one new high
and timesharing. of these still
applications softwaresystems. on ofIC IBM-PC.Integrations few a
MS-WINDOWS majorThese
the memories. technology lakh
technology itcommercial minicomputers level air-conditioning lesserprone and
(Wide that technology as was computers
networking additional (1975-89) of smaller and
was principle Personal As or languages
these space to
could advancements and more possible errors. introduction
th e Area a for than
like communicate storage result (VLSD).
in
electronic called computers
usage. was
development was Computer primary It to ok installation.
word etc. Network) ofParallel was contained
which Microprocessors to - like much was
Theysecond Package Dual in
memories applied th e integrate
Large place
alproperties
so PL/1, required. had of
processing The was cost storage Now components very was more generation
(PC). in low Mini
interface became processing. and done made in of it
large all Scale over PASCAL,
very t his
of had
memory was circuits
generation.
thanmaintenance
several theSome chips
Integration 30000 Computersalso
share in of invery
computers possible number less. earier computers.
packages, of popular. mainframe this the and on BASIC
interactionnewer generation. data. of needed to components
a
area fast also. theother
of single computers
This The access
timaned to cOst.
spreadoperating Magnetic
of PC's build
came support
circuits (LSI). et c. took
large-scale chip.
was gaveconcept computers, available perform place
A down com a Later, nto and
sheets, made were This
sy s
rise to large core cir a
13 of
 computer
damentals proved ance
tofeeling. or
humans.
capable occurred have though 1.3.3.5 Characteristics before.graphics nis u
interact
to
Natural-language only Currently, Robotics
ofphysical Neural
Natural
example, Expert Games
"like there
Artificial New Compáct
" Size.
Used
" " "
Computersusers.
and
Processing.
" " " " " " " " "
Pipeline Use Faster Consunmed
Increased More NoMuch generation.
These
beand with In in hurnans. Fi fith Availability Network No package
of th e the Fifth manual Air-conditioning
more talk of ar
generation e operating in ofhigh
nformation computers
area field Networks- access reliable smaller
very Language-
- Systems
some Playing
Intelligence
Atificial some
Generation application of of
Programming
ofgames no
connections level
assenbly costs less were
difficult ito t. limited of
computers computers
of to and Fourth
in
Technology
Unfortunately,proceSsing robotics, systems languages larger of power. size developed.
computers had
translate
than without
expert - applications,
-Programming computing languages lesser
tasks playing. SystemsProgramming Intelligence development sofware Generation
was than
originally Programming
that systems isComputers
a enabled memory. of
computer branch introduced like components prone required
needingoffers Robot s support computers occur
such
devices, allowed and
mainframes .Programming
programming The that to
thought.
Some have in help includes: as
Chelped sharing
lower commercial
higher
any the best full simulate computers computers of (Present that by hardware f Computer
or
are artificial animal to computers doctors computer voicebased Users. program was PC'softhird
specialized greatest greatcomputers
now see were to
intelligence recognization, be of required. costs
languages
computers potentialdificultywidely andbrains. diagnose to onand user used resources to failure.
of
Intelligence. hear to toplay science artificial generation
rudirientary chess understand make beyond) friendly.
knowledge. games System
in transterredbehardware. usage
than
inused and diseases concerned lik e like
torewards identifying programs react by decisions intelligence,
that computers.
understand in The attempting such - programm1ng disks, ADA,
translation You assembly to naturalbased areArtificial from any
because greatest as wit h printers C,
are other in still oner Ct+
could objects now human chess are one
natural it sensory to onreal making being Intelligence etc.computer computers were
systems simplywould plants,
advancement reproduce symptoms) life ands still
based capable used in languages. among e
languages languages. situations also
that is walk allow but stimuli. checkers.computers development
today. developed
on of to available
they the multinle anotha
up
people appear beating have types (For
14 has t0a are be
 1. enjoyment
medicine work sneot and selforganization:
1.4 aindg he. .omumberof
used expectations.
fcomputersand simtplhesey but from
damentals their
manage increase
projects essential human
technology,
or
they
ofc In There one
reports them,
APPLICATIONS
COMPUTERS almostecxulisevylThe There Today, produceandsystemslimitedd-youquite translatorS.
Jare a
Industryand
their part Business and transact computer A OF phumana
hne
dlp the do human arneot
appointments andAccounting, and languages goal carly not are
of law. computers are the
formation a on.
so of
in outputs.
Movies MusicPublishing Business
Industry
Sciençe
entertainment; disciplines helpful
only understand
business. Sports DeskTopEducation
Organizations
Govermment and and business medical
The
offifth-generation Several hotest 1980'sexpert in alsolanguage
sophisticated Many is experts
general. must voice
main now-a-days such
and OfficeInventory are case, programming for area speak
Technology individuals The to
contact Technology areascomputersusually as Al such special in in recognition
what
English,
applications. such To slowly another
manner. use
people Control, others Education, as of date,
artificial systems they
where voice
information. ofcomputers working used computing ficlds
also use are are Hindi, languagesrecognition situations. however,
they are
and systems are
This intelligence were
as distinctly. writing; in
have them Payroll computersfound used. Military wide in
The medicine
could behind French is believed existence,
to inand Somne
in aflairs,range tw o they that
have write
POWERhandledbusinesses
government develop
to that
Personal have the ofjobs and most and is have can
letters computers are neural to
a established scenes.sports, Chinesenatural-language engineering, represent
i not convert but
bettercomputers,
POINT common
devices known they:
create and etc. such networks, lived take
impact has industrythough operations personnel Even, ctc.) as the spoked
specifically are as that are Al a up dictation.
helped budgets, their business input future
on responsible when LIandSP
processing.
respondlanguages which theybuatre to sounds
their has
computers potential and use nearly
persons find you etc. and and are of Even
Clients. web helped professions go are Prolog. into as
information utility, Even
Industry,
to proving very artificial
because
enabled
in the have for to capablenatural writen good
yourschool, when successtul 1ntelligenee
expensive Many systems
presenting industriesbecome are language as
PDA'sto you of they expert wohuman
= about :suchleisure shop Science leam
as do are to are
15 of to an
 games. 5. collection
4. etc. computers dents conclusions.
3. tant 2.
undamentals interesting ofnow material
design.design. packages
threesystem days in programs
projects outside Theydicing Scientists the tasks
video other other
with dimensions of to
Computers Entertainment
Computers
Theuseofcomputers Itcan
Computer in
Computers computers. Engineering The activities givMoreover,
e Education p technological
heldamage Technology
ofScience and
games the used designing are ndComputers
acreates world. now-a-days
pecople Computers are
Informationof to area tests in gather to use
introduction
work check for available their simulateComputers various in
are Satellites th at through
making of of andevaluate work
of different an
are available
with. are the Aided an an engineering Several
are the infornation: interest have carthquake
also considered impact object.object, for development.
Computer l
Technolory used school for complex
helpt out
used The of Engineeringeach designing new brought
in
multimedia in in theirown subjects in deteninetop the
virtual
computer engineering of Thus,allows likresults
e
in varíance part. Computer
applications has about subject
Film as one preparing revolution a events would worid.
reality a It anything
the been in
profits. are techniques.
scientific commonly s
Industry systems. is device
it enables designer can notaughtvarious to detenine
now hashelped (CAE)
of easily benefiting time. study information
various
which and do,
technology that temperature, ike
Aided have
for an to results,
Computerized by topics in develop
Sound helps software
calculate view cars, to emerged This
computers. it
in the help used
providing interesting create Design
to from making saves from an field how themto
scientists
has and us make th e ships, interactive hypotheses.
in pressure gives
compatibility flows the (CAD). inthe all of pollution They
special helped animation
entertainment our machines tutorials a
electronicaircrafts, this use time-tables, lot PeoplearoundEducation.
education, and the in of use researches
collect and
area.
effects in designers design Thecomputers of time. from manner.
the It
change
could them data,
creatingadded more stress building and needed is is
Computers .Computer-aided possible also forexchange
in tool
research on of andmodel CAD in on-line all world
films. to prodxive a the weather
new them also. the part improve to application
byetc. ever
streams from Many
to. in
study library tests impor- condilions.
some
draw weather pertomingvarious
With types Different and particular with describingUsing
since are tstudents
he forccasting infomation
make andeficient. of t0
the work. rest the upon and also computers.help life Cxplore
of it the
software the now software
use video more types
Bul,
model oftype it. al CAD
early fohelnful
r the develop
16oi the of the the pre- wih
fe shu le
 7. hetter
in Animated 6. stage.the
9. do The
application chines different
geting, 8. which arputers e internal ited. particular their
n sivelytomize
audi e nce. quality.
eservation,
ndamentals used. television. services. quires
banking,
E-commerce They makingMarketing
computerizeanimationd.
etc.personal help record problems
Several ComputerS Medicine requests way.Now-a-days being eit
for Instead Computers Also,
Besides fieldsOther Use Many purposes Home Information An At product advertisements Moreover,
have helpto Al so a the
ofhousehold of increasing to the Animated specificused prescntations
ofat send common theatre
formation Internetmanagement,
study medical to by dto t
of
railways, this small data which and sittingvariousvirtual carry in
messages and by using last
various
the made diagnose can
of
cataloguescustomer. changes techniciansfacility
computers M-commerce computers common effect appliances are perform Health advertisementsback out
Technology at to
household daily shopping
servers through slides, few
shops, computer.Through chat available dificult the multimedia by
etc. family offeed, at can years any
with personal multipurpose
disease, Care home. and Laptop
presentations company a
have fitted item medicine oncomputers be number
at daily and to customers brochures have use
are the devices members, in which casily coordinated
hotels wide in the equipments
bydetect help presentation
computers
two relatives to business exercises the monitor altered
to of
number home on
machines. information to incorporated animation
etc. fields this run like a otherwise. tasks. effectively
can help are are its
micro including patient. customers business
management,
peopleeffectively.
and is the buycompanies used at have made computer
of through a and have patients, In locations
friends wave personal For the products can
application can other communicateis for further which
in be
entertainment the small field stored an practices.
about
which even promotion controlled made
reports
purpose at
to at already are
helped
throughout ovens, Webcomputer computers capture of
and any advertise some the
intermetinteract, medicine more in
in washing access can company no
the and access time the
and other prepared inlively Business lighting dtime
research (PC), be of their th is
field advertise is the healthfittedtransmit also usefulness ofmarketing place s
and feed information the and
of benefitting userto
shop, worldmachines, which product activity andprormotion
presentation and
defence, shopping. and into carethem. in their day. than interestingtheto to also
its brighten
and is education, can the alsophotographs uses They ofand ofthe arnd products witha
sell an selving be computers computers These are to product products.compary. are often
banks, important buy can services exten- to orbetter
products. used unlim send cus- and dim
com that ina re-
at ma bud for of
17 air