1

A SUPER APPROACH TO A’LEVEL

MATHEMATICS
P425/2
Mechanics and probability theory
First Edition 2017

MUGERWA FRED
Bsc.edu M.U.S.T
fdmugerwa@gmail.com

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Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
• VECTORS
Representation of a vector
Magnitude and direction of a vector
Unit vectors
Scalar/dot product of vectors
Vector/cross product of vectors
Resolution of vectors

• GENERAL MOTION OF A BODY IN A STAIGHT LINE

• Vertical motion under gravity
• Freefall under gravity
• Variable velocity and variable acceleration
• FORCE, MOMENTUM AND NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Force
Laws of motion
Motion of connected particles
Related accelerations

• STATICS OF A PARTICLE
Particle subjected to two forces (parallelogram of forces)
Resolution of a force
Lami’s theorem
Particle subjected to more than three forces
Resultant force of a number of coplanar forces
Conditions for equilibrium of a particle subjected to a number of forces in a plane

• TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE (MOMENTS)

Moment of a force
Addition of moments
The principle of moments
Parallel forces in equilibrium
Non-parallel forces in equilibrium
Equivalent systems of forces
Moment of a system of coplanar forces
Forces reducing into a couple
Equation of line of action of a resultant force
• WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Definitions of work and power
Transmission of Power by belts
Energy
Principle of conservation of energy
• HOOKE’S LAW AND ELASTICITY
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Hooke’s law
Work done in stretching an elastic string
• PROJECTILES
Terms used: trajectory, angle of projection, time of flight,
Vertical motion: time to reach maximum height, maximum height, time of flight
Horizontal motion: maximum horizontal distance-range
Equation of trajectory
Worked examples
Projection up an inclined plane
Maximum range up the plane
Projection down an inclined plane
• FRICTION
Laws of friction
Particle on a rough horizontal surface
Particle on a rough horizontal plane
Worked examples
Exercise

• GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY

Introduction
Determination of reaction at hinge and tension in the string
Ladder problems
Jointed rods
Sliding and overturning

• CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Introduction
Uniform bodies
Centre of gravity of a compound body
Centre of gravity of a remainder
Centre of gravity of a solid body
Centre of gravity by integration
Equilibrium of a body hanging freely from a point or resting on a surface
Summary
• SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Introduction
Displacement at any instant
Period and frequency of simple harmonic motion
Forces that produce simple harmonic motion
The simple pendulum
• RELATIVE MOTION
Resultant velocity
Resolution of velocity
Relative velocity
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VECTORS
Vector and scalar quantities

Throughout this whole course of mechanics, we shall make use of vectors and scalars. Therefore, a
clear distinction must be made between the two classes of physical quantities.

Scalars are physical quantities that have only magnitude or size. In describing these quantities, no
reference is made to their directions. Mass, length, time, energy, work, temperature, are all scalar
quantities.

Vectors are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction. Force, acceleration,
displacement, momentum are some examples of vector quantities. Two vectors are therefore equal
only if they have the same magnitude and are in the same direction.

Examples;

1. Suppose a typist typed the first page of the work assigned to her by her boss in 5 minutes and
the second page in 3.5 minutes. The total time spent by the typist in typing the two pages =
5+3.5 = 8.5 minutes. We cannot talk about the direction of this time.
2. If a motorist covered 8 km in the eastern direction and a further 3 km in the same direction, the
total displacement from the starting point is (8+5) km in the eastern direction.

Representation of a vector and resultant vector

A vector can be represented by a straight line whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the
vector with an arrow pointing in the direction of the vector. Also, a vector in direction of AB can be
represented as⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB.

O A

In the diagram above, the two vectors in directions OA and AB can be represented by a single vector in
direction OB represented as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB.

In general, a number of vectors can be replaced by a single vector. We refer to this single vector as the
resultant vector of a number of vectors. It tends to produce the same effect as a number of vectors.

If V1, V2, V3, ..., Vn are vectors, their resultant V is given by V= ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑉𝑖

In the diagram above, the resultant vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

OB = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB

Addition and subtraction of vectors

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Vectors are added when they are in the same direction and subtracted if they are in different
directions. In adding or subtracting vectors, the following hold for any vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐

i) 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
ii) (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)

Examples;

1. Given 𝑎 = 3𝑖 + 4𝑗, 𝑏 = 4𝑖 + 2𝑗, 𝑐 = 5𝑖 − 19𝑗. Find i) 𝑎 + 𝑏 ii) 𝑎 + 𝑐 − 𝑏.

Solution;

i) 𝑎 + 𝑏 = (3 + 4)𝑖 + (4 + 2)𝑗 = 7𝑖 + 6𝑗.

ii) 𝑎 + 𝑐 − 𝑏 = (3 + 5)𝑖 + (4 − 19)𝑗 – (4𝑖 + 2𝑗) = (8 − 4)𝑖 + (– 15 − 2)𝑗 = 4𝑖 – 17𝑗

2. A yacht sails 5 km N30oE followed by 4 km due east. How far and in what direction is the yacht
from its original position?

Solution;

In order to solve this problem (and all other problems in mechanics) it is necessary to sketch a
diagram first.

Let O be the original position and B the final position of the yacht.

N A 4 km

5km 120o B

30o

W θ

O E

We can determine the required distance OB through a number of approaches.

i) By drawing an accurate scale diagram from the required distance and angle can be
measured.
ii) By calculation method

Considering geometry of triangle OAB with angle AOB = θ,

Using the cosine rule we have,

̅̅̅̅2 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐴2 + ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅.𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 2 – 2.𝑂𝐴 ̅̅̅̅ cos120o

̅̅̅̅2 = 52 + 42 – 2x5 x 4 cos 120O

𝑂𝐵

̅̅̅̅ = 7.81 km and this is the distance of the yatch from the starting point O.
𝑂𝐵
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Using the sine rule, we have
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐵
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝑜
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝑜
̅̅̅̅ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝑜
sin θ = ̅̅̅̅
=
𝑂𝐵 7.81

This gives θ = 26.33o

Therefore, the direction of the yatch from O is N56.33oE and the yatch is 7.81km from O.

Magnitude and direction of a vector

The magnitude also referred to as the modulus of any vector r is denoted by |𝑟|. 𝐺iven any two vectors
p = ai + bj and q = ai + bj + ck, then,

|𝑝| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑞| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

𝑏
The inclination of vector p to the horizontal, θ is given by; θ = tan-1(𝑎)

Unit vectors
𝑟
A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is one. A unit vector in direction of r is denoted by 𝑟̂ = |𝑟|

𝑎𝑖+𝑏𝑗+𝑐𝑘
Now, given any vector r = ai + bj + ck, then, the unit vector of r, 𝑟̂ = √𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2

From the result above, it follows that the vector r can be obtained if its unit vector and its magnitude
are given i.e. r = |𝑟|𝑟̂

A given vector and its unit vector are always parallel.

Note: i, j and k are always used to denote the unit vectors in the positive x, y and z directions
1 0 0
respectively. 𝑖 = (0) , 𝑗 = (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = (0)
0 0 1
Examples;

1. If a = 3i – 4j. b = -2i + 5j, and c = 2i + 3j, find

i) |𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐|
ii) |2𝑎 − 𝑏 − 3𝑐|

Solution;

i) a + b+ c = (3-2+2)i + (-4+5+3)j = 3i +4j

So, |𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐| = √32 + 42 = 5.
ii) 2a-b-3c = 2(3i-4j) – (-2i+5j) -3 (2i+3j) = (6+2-6)i + (-8-5+9)j = 2i -4j
|2𝑎 − 𝑏 − 3𝑐| = √22 + (−4)2 = √20
2. Given that b = 2i +4j, find a unit vector parallel to b.

Solution;

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|𝑏| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = √22 + 42 = √20.

𝑏 2𝑖+4𝑗 2 4
Now the unit vector of b, 𝑏̂ = |𝑏| = = 𝑖+ 𝑗
√20 √20 √20

3. Obtain a vector parallel to r = i-3j with magnitude 6.

Solution;

Let the required vector be v.

Since v is parallel to r, the unit vector r̂ is common to both r and v,

So, v = |v|r̂
r i−3j 1 3
Now |v| = 6 and r̂ = |r| = = i− j
√12 +(−3)2 √10 √10

1 3 6 18
Therefore, v = |v|r̂ = 6( i− j) = i− j and this is the required vector.
√10 √10 √10 √10

The dot/scalar product of vectors

Given any two vectors a and b, their scalar/dot product is denoted by 𝑎. 𝑏 and is defined as 𝑎. 𝑏 =
|𝑎||𝑏| cos 𝜃 where θ is the angle between the vectors.

When two vectors a and b are perpendicular, their dot product is zero and when the vectors are
parallel (i.e. when the angle between them is zero), then, a.b = |a||b|

Therefore, i.i = j.j = k.k =1 and i.j =i.k = j.k = 0.

For any two vectors a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k inclined at an angle θ, then

a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ. √𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2 . √𝑏1 2 + 𝑏2 2 + 𝑏3 2 .

The dot product (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3) is a scalar and hence the name scalar product.

Examples;

1. Given that a = -i -2j and b = 5i + 4j+10k, find a.b and hence find the angle between the vectors.

Solution;

a.b = (-1x5) + (-2x4) + (0x10) = -5-8 = -13.

Let the angle between the vectors a and b be θ

Now since a.b = |a||b|cos θ

|a| = √(−1)2 + (−2)2 = √5 and |b| = √ 55 + 42 + 102 = √141

So it implies that, -13 = √5. √141 cos θ

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13 −1 (−0.4896)
Cos θ = − , 𝑠𝑜 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = −60.68o.
√705

The angle between the vectors is therefore (180-60.68o) = 119.32o.

2. Find the value of λ if λi +2j –k and 5i – λj + k are perpendicular vectors.

Solution;

Since the vectors are perpendicular, their scalar/dot product is zero.

(λi +2j –k). (5i – λj +k) = 5λ -2 λ -1 = 0

1
Therefore, 3 λ = 1 and hence λ = 3.

The cross/vector product of vectors

For any two vectors A and B, their cross/ vector product is denoted by AxB and is defined as

|𝐴 𝑥𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 where θ is the angle between vectors A and B.

For any two vectors A = a1i + a2j + a3k and B = b1i + b2j + b3k, then

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑎 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
Ax B = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | = | 2 | 𝑖 − | | 𝑗 + |
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏2 | 𝑘
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Note that
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞
i) | | denotes the determinant of matrix ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 | | = (𝑝xs) − (qxr)
𝑟 𝑠 𝑟 𝑠 𝑟 𝑠
ii) |𝐴𝑥𝐵|denotes the magnitude of the scalar product of A and B.
iii) The cross product of any two vectors is also a vector hence the name vector product.
iv) i x i = j x j =k x k = 0 and i x j = i x k = j x k = 1

Examples;

1. Find the cross product of the vectors a = 2i + 3j and b = i + j, hence find the angle between the
vectors a and b. Prove your result for the angle by using the scalar product to find it.

Solution;

a = 2i + 3j + 0k, b = i + j + 0k

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
3 0 2 0 2 3
a x b = |2 3 0| = 𝑖 | |−𝑗| |+𝑘| | = 0𝑖 − 0𝑗 − 𝑘 = −𝑘
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0
Let θ be the angle between a and b. It implies that,

|𝑎𝑥𝑏| = |𝑎||𝑏|sin θ

|𝑎𝑥𝑏| = √0 + 0 + 1 = 1

|𝑎| = √22 + 32 = √13 , And |𝑏| = √12 + 12 = √2

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Therefore, 1 =√13.√2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ

1
Sin θ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = 11.31o.
√26

Proof;

a.b = (2i+3j). (i + j) = 2 +3 = 5

a.b = |𝑎||𝑏|cos θ

5 = √13.√2 cos θ
5
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ =
√26

5
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠-1( ) = 11.31o as before.
√26

Trial questions;

1. Find in the form ai + bj

a) A force of 13 N acting along the line from A(1,-3) to B(13,2)
b) A force of 2N parallel to the vector 24i-7j
c) The velocity vector of a boat moving in the direction 24i-7j with a speed of 15m/s.
2. Find unit vectors in the direction of
a) 8i – 4j – k
b) 16i – 8j – 2k
c) – 8i +4j + k
3. If a = λi – 3j + 3λk and |𝑎| = 7, find the possible values of λ.
4. Given that a and b are two non-zero vectors which are not parallel, prove that if pa = qb, then p
= q =0. Deduce that if λa + μb = sa + tb then λ = s and μ = t.
5. Two forces, (4i – 5j) N and (pi + qj) N, act on a particle P of mass m kg. the resultant of the two
forces is R. given that R acts in a direction which is parallel to the vector (i – 2j),
a) Find the angle between R and the vector j.
b) Show that 2p + q + 3 = 0.

Given also that q =1 and that P moves with an acceleration of magnitude 8√5 m s-2 ,

c) Find the value of m.

6. A particle is acted upon by two forces F1 and F2, given by
F1 = (i-3j)N, F2 = (pi + 2pj)N, where p is a positive constant.
a) Find the angle between F2 and j

the resultant of F1 and F2 is R. given that R is parallel to i,

b) Find the value of p.

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Resolution of vectors

Two vectors can be combined into one single vector. This vector is what we called the resultant of the
two vectors. Likewise, a single resultant vector can be broken down into two other vectors. This
process is called resolution of a vector and the individual vectors are called the components of the
single vector.

Resolution of a vector is therefore the splitting up of a vector into the individual vectors for which this
vector forms a resultant.

Consider a vector r represented by OB. suppose we wish to resolve r into its components, one along
OX and the other along OY. If r makes an angle β with OX, then

Y B

β y

O x A X

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA= x and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB =y are the required components of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB = r

From triangle OAB,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB y
𝑠𝑖𝑛 β = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = , therefore ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ sin β i. e y = r sin β
AB = OB
OB r

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= 𝑟 , thefore ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ cos β i. e. x = r cos β.
OA = OB

Assigning directions in form of unit vectors we have, y = r sin β j, x = r cos β i hence r = xi + yj

And |𝑟| = [x2 + y2] ½

Therefore, a vector r is equivalent to a vector r cos β along a line making an angle β with its own
direction, and a vector r sin β perpendicular to the direction of the first component.

All vectors, say, velocities, displacement, forces, acceleration, etc. can be resolved in a similar way.

UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION;

VERTICAL MOTION;

Consider a particle projected vertically upwards from a point A with initial velocity u.

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Taking downwards to be positive, acceleration of the particle = -g.

Initial velocity = u

From v = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡, v = 𝑢 – 𝑔𝑡 and is the velocity attained after time t.

Suppose that the particle reaches maximum height H.

From v2 = u2 + 2as,

02 = U2 – 2 g H since at maximum height the velocity is zero.

So H = u2/2g

Time taken to reach maximum height

From V = u + at,

0 = u – gT2

𝑢
T2 = 𝑔

Suppose that we are interested in the time of flight,

From s = ut + ½ gt2,

0 = ut – ½ gt2, since the total vertical distance covered is zero.

t (u – ½ gt) = 0

2𝑢
So, t =0, or t = 𝑔

Examples

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1. A body is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 17.5 ms-1.

i) Find how high it will go
ii) What time elapses before it is at height of 10m.

Solution;

i) Given u = 17.5m/s,

Using v2 = u2 + 2as,

Where v =0 at s = H.

02 = 17.52 -2gH.

H = 15.3m

ii) Using s = ut + ½ at2

10 = 17.5t – ½ gt2

T2 – 3.5t + 2 = 0

Giving t = 24 s.

2. A particle is projected up wards with a uniform velocity of 35 m/s. find;

i) How long it takes to reach its highest point.
ii) The distance it ascends during the third second of its motion.
Ans; 3.5 sec. , 10.5 m

3. A particle projected upwards with a velocity of u m/s and after t seconds another
particle is projected upwards from the same point with the same initial velocity.
𝑡 𝑢
Prove that the particles will meet after an elapse of ( 2 +𝑔) seconds from the

instant of projection.
Solution;
Let T be the time taken for the first particle to meet the second.
Using s = ut + ½ at2
1st particle;
h = uT – ½ gT2
2nd particle;
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the time time taken by this particle will be T-t

h2 = u(T –t) – ½ g(T –t)2
uT - ½ gT2 = u(T –t) – ½ g(T- t)2 Since h1 = h2,
From which;
𝑢 𝑡
T= ( + 2 ) seconds
𝑔

Falling bodies;

If a particle is released to fall freely from rest, a constant acceleration acts on it equal to
g. All the equations of motion hold depending on the problem in the question.

Examples;

1. A body falls freely from rest from the top of a tower and during the last second, it
9
falls 25 of the whole journey. Find the height of the tower.

2. A body falls past a window 2.45m high in 0.5 seconds. Find the height from
which it falls.
3. A body falls from top of a building with an acceleration of 2m/s2. During the last
second, it falls 8.8% of the whole journey and in the second last second it covers
8.4% of the whole journey
i) Find the initial velocity
ii) Find the distance travelled in 10 seconds

VARIABLE VELOCITY AND VARIABLE ACCELERATION

From the definition, velocity is the rate of change of displacement i.e.

𝑑𝑠
Velocity, V = 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝑑𝑟
If s= r then, v =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑟
In addition, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. I.e. a = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑑𝑡 )

𝑑2 𝑟
a = 𝑑𝑡 2

POSITION VECTOR
Suppose after time t¸ a particle is located at a point R(x, y, z), as shown below.

Z k

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R(x, y, z)

i Yj

The position vector of point R is xi + yj +zk. The distance of vector OR is given by

OR = |OR| = √( x2 + y2+z2)

Generally, the position vector of a point R at any time t is given by;

r (t) = x(t)I + y(t)j + z(t)k

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
From v (t) = 𝑑𝑡 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑥(𝑡)𝒊 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗 + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘 ) = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑥(𝑡)𝒊 + 𝑑𝑡 (𝑦(𝑡))𝒋 +
𝑑
( 𝑧(𝑡))𝒌
𝑑𝑡

Speed is the modulus of v (t) =√(x2 + y2 + z2)

Acceleration at any time t is given by;

𝑑𝑣
a (t) = 𝑑𝑡 = d2x/dt2 + d2y/dt2 + d2z/dt2.

Thus, a (t) = x’’ (t) i + y’’ (t) j + z’’ (t) k.

The magnitude of a (t) can also be taken.

EXAMPLES;

1. A particle p has a position vector r at time t given by

R = 2(1+cost) i + 2(t-sint) j + 3k. Show that the speed of the particle at time t is
4(sint/2) and that the acceleration of the particle has a constant magnitude.
Solution;
From v (t) = dr/dt = (-2sint)I + 2(1-cost)j
Speed = magnitude of v (t) = √ [(-2sint) 2 + (2(1-cost)) 2]
= √ [4sin2t + 4(1-cost)2]
=2√ [sin2t + (1-cost) 2]
= 2√ [sin2t + cos2t + 1- 2cost]
= 2√ [2-cost]
But cos2x = cos2x – sin2x, cos t = 1 – 2 sin2t/2

A SUPER APPROACH TO A’ LEVEL MATHEMATICS 465/2.

 15

b) From v (t) = -2sinti + 2(1-cost)j,

a (t) = dv/dt = -2cost I + 2 sint j
Magnitude of acceleration, =√ [(-2cost) 2 + (2sint) 2]
= √ [4cos2t +4sin2t]
=2√ [cos2t+ sin2t]
=2
2. The velocity of a particle p at time t is (3t2i + 10tj). Given that the position vector
of the particle is (9i – 12j) when t=0, find;
a) Acceleration when t = 2 seconds
b) The position vector of the particle when t= 6 seconds.
Solution;
Given v (t) = 3t2i + 10tj
At t = 0, r = 9i – 12j
From a (t) = dv/dt, a (t) = 6ti + 10j
At t= 2 s, a= 12i + 10j
To find the position vector of p at any time t,
From v (t) = dr/dt,
∫V (t) dt = r (t)
r (t) = 3t2i + 10tj +c
At t=0, r = 9i – 12j so c = 9i – 12j
It implies that,
r (t) = (t3+9)I + (5t2-12)j
Position at t = 6seconds,
r (6) = 225i + 168j

VARIABLE FORCE;

If a variable force F acts on a body of mass m produces a variable acceleration a, then

from Newton’s law of motion,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑟
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 =𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2

𝐹
a=𝑚

Examples;

1. An object of mass 5kg is initially at rest at a point whose position vector is (-2i + j).
If it is acted upon by a force F = (2i + 3j – 4k). find;
i) The acceleration
ii) Its velocity at t= 3 seconds.
iii) Its distance from the origin after 3 seconds.

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 2

2. A particle moves in the x-y plane such that its position vector at any time t is given
by
r = (3t2-1) i + (4t3 +t -1) j
Find;
i) Its speed at t=2
ii) Magnitude of its acceleration at t=2.
2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡
3. A particle of mass 2 kg moves such that r= ( )
6𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
a) Show that the particle never crosses the y-axis.
b) Find the force acting on the particle at t =∏ seconds.
4. A particle moving with an acceleration given by a = e-3t i + 12sin t j – 7cos t k, is
located at the point (5,-6,2) and has a velocity v =(11i – 8j + 8k) at time t =0, find;
i) The magnitude of the acceleration when t =0.
ii) Velocity of the particle at any time t.
iii) Displacement at any time t.
c) a) A particle p is a unit mass moving under gravity has position vector r at time t
where d2r/dt2 =g, if the particle is at the origin with velocity u when t=0, show
𝑑𝑟 1
that 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔𝑡 + 𝑢 and that r= ut +2 gt2. A particle moves so that its position

vector a time t seconds is given as r (m), where r= 2t3i- 9tj. Find the speed of the
particle in m/s when t=1.
5. If a particle of ms 20kg moves under the action of gravity and the force which varies
with time given by F = 80sin(2∏t) I + 80cos(∏t) j +( 240t +80)k at time t=0.
Particles start from rest at O, 5m above the ground. Show that taking g =10m/s2,
dr/dt = 4/∏ [1-cos∏t]I + 4/∏sin∏t j + (6t2+6t) k.
a) Obtain the corresponding expression for the position vector, v(t).
b) Find the time at which the particle is at its lowest point A.
6. A moving particle P travels in a straight line. At time t seconds after starting from
the point O on the line, the velocity of P is Vm/s where
V = t2(6 – t)
Show that the acceleration of P is zero when t = 4 .
After a certain time, P comes instantaneously to rest at the point A on the line. State
the time taken for the motion from O to A, and find the distance OA.
` (t=6, dist = 108m)
7.

A SUPER APPROACH TO A’ LEVEL MATHEMATICS 465/2.

 17

FORCE, MOMENTUM AND LAWS OF MOTION

Force is any cause that produces or tends to produce a change in the existing state of
rest of a body, or of its uniform motion in a straight line.

Newton’s laws of motion;

i. A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.
ii. The change of momentum per unit time is proportional to the impressed force,
and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts.
i.e. F = k( rate of change of momentum) where k is a constant.
Therefore, F = k x(rate of change of mv)
=k m x rate of change of v (assuming m is a
constant independent of t)
= k ma
By definition of a Newton, m =1, a= 1,F=1 so k= 1
Thus F = ma
iii. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction or the mutual actions of
any two bodies are always equal and oppositely directed.

The force implied in the second law is the resultant force on the body. This can be a
tructive force or friction or any other force.

Friction.

This is a force, which opposes motion between two bodies one sliding over the other.
For example;

i) When the body is moving on a horizontal rough surface;

mg

F = μ R where μ is the coefficient of friction.

ii) A particle on an inclined plane;

R
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 2

R Ym

mg sinα α mg cosα mg

xm

F = μR

Where R = mg cosα

F = μ mg cosα

X/mg = cos α, y/mg = sinα

x = mg cosα, y = mg sinα

Examples;

1. What force will give a mass of 9 kg a velocity of 25 kmh-1 in one minute?

Solution;

25000
25 km/h = m/s
3600
Using v = u + at, where u = 0, t = 1 minute = 60 seconds,
25000
= 60a
3600
25
a= 216 m/s2
Using F = ma,
25
Force, F, =9 x 216 N = 1.04 N

2. A train travelling uniformly in a level ground at a rate of 48km/h begins an ascent

of 1 in 75. The tractive force that the engine exerts during the ascent is the same
as that exerted on the level. How far up the incline, will the train go before coming
to rest? Assume that the resistance due to friction, etc., is the same on the incline
as on the level.

A SUPER APPROACH TO A’ LEVEL MATHEMATICS 465/2.

 19

Solution;

F T Fα

CASE 1 CASE II

Case I

U = 48kph =40/3 m/s

On the level ground;

T –F = ma

But at constant velocity, a = 0 m/s2

So T = -F.

Case II

T- (mg sinα + F) = ma

Since T = F, -mg sinα = ma

1 1
a= -g sinα = -g𝑥 75 since sin α = 75

𝑔
a = -75 m/s2

Now up the incline, final velocity v

=0m/s

Using v2 = u2 + 2as,
40 𝑔
0 = ( 3 )2 – 2 x 75 x s

So s = 680m.

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 20

3. An engine and train weigh 2.03 x105 kg and the engine can exert a pull equal to the weight
1
of 3.77 x103 kg. The resistance to the motion of the train is 100 of its weight and the brake

power equals to one- fifth of its weight. The train starts from rest and moves uniformly until
it acquires a velocity of 40 kph; steam is then shut off and the brakes are put hard on. Find
the whole distance the train will have run before it comes to rest and the whole time taken.

Solution;

While the engine is pulling, the Tractive force = 3.77 x 103g

1
The resistance to motion = 100 x 2.03 x 105g = 2.03 x103g

Net accelerating force, ma = T – R

2.03 x103 x a = (3770 – 2030)g

1740𝑔
a= = 0.084 ms-2
2030

100
Now distance travelled in acquiring a velocity of 40kph = m/s is using v2 = u2 + 2as
9

(100/9)2 = 02 + 2x0.084 S

s = 734.7 m.
100/9
To find the time taken; use v = u + at; i.e. t = = 132.3 s
0.084

1 1
The retarding force = Braking force+ resistance = (100 + 5) 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Using F =ma, the retardation is 0.21g ms-2

100
To find the distance travelled in losing the velocity m/s , we have;
9

100 2
V2 = u2 + 2as i.e. 02 = ( ) + 2x -0.21 x9.8 x S
9

s = 30.0 m
100
From v = u + at, 0 = - 0.21x9.8 t and so t = 5.4 seconds
9

Whole distance = 764.7 m

Whole time = 137.7 s.

Exercise;

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 1) A train is running at 48 km/hr when it is a distance of 0.4 km from a station. Steam is
1
then shut off and the train runs against a uniform resistance equal to 100 of its weight.

If the uniform braking force that can be exerted on the train provides a resistance equal
1
to 10 of the weight of the train in addition to the above resistance. Find how far from the

station the brakes must be applied so that the train may be brought to rest at the station.
2) What force acting on a mass of 12 kg will generate a velocity of 15km/h in 5 minutes?
3) A ship of 1000Mg slows with an engine stopped from 12 km/hr to 10km/hr in a
distance of 90m. Assuming the resistance to be uniform, calculate its value in newtons.
4) A body of mass 100 kg is acted on by a force of 7 N. How long will it take the body to
acquire a velocity of 15 km/hr ?
5) Find in newtons per kg the force which when exerted by the brakes of a train travelling
at 60 km/ hr will bring it to rest and find the distance travelled during which the brakes
act.
1
6) The resistance to motion of a train due to friction is equal to 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡. if the
60

train is travelling on the level ground at 72kph and comes to the foot of an incline of 1
in 50 and steam is then turned off, how far will the train go up the incline before it comes
to rest.
7) A 100g bullet traveling at 150m/s penetrates 8 cm of a fixed block of wood. Find the
velocity with which it would emerge if it were forced through the fixed board of 4cm
thick. Assume the resistance being uniform and to have the same value in each case.

MOTION OF CONNECTED PARTICLES;

We shall consider some simple cases of the motion of particles connected by a light
inextensible string. In such cases, we apply Newton’s second law of motion to each of the
masses. The string connecting the particles is in a state of tension, and that the string exerts
forces on the masses equal to the tensions at its ends. If the string is light, i.e. if its weight is
neglected, the tension is the same throughout its length. For simplicity, we shall usually
consider a light, inextensible string passing round a smooth pulley or peg. In such an ideal
case, the tension throughout the string will be constant.

Example 1; Consider two un equal masses connected by a light in extensible string passing over
a small smooth pulley. Find the resulting motion of the system and the tension in the string.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 22

Suppose m1>m2

R The tension is the same throughout. Let this be T N. M1 will move

downwards and m2 upwards, and, since the string is in extensible, the
upward acceleration of m2 is equal to the downward acceleration of m1. Let
this be a m/s2.

T m2

m2g

M1g
Now, the forces acting on m1 are m1g downwards and T upwards. Therefore, the resultant
force on m1 is m1g – T downwards.

Hence using F =ma we get,

m1g- T = m1a ……………………………. (1)

The resultant force on m2 is T-m2g upwards,

Therefore, T – m2g = m2a ……………………….. (2)

Adding, the two equations, (m1-m2)g = (m1+m2)a

m1−m2
Therefore, a = ( m1+m2) g

From 1, T = m1(g-a)
𝑚1 −𝑚2
= m1(1 − )g
𝑚1 +𝑚2

2𝑚1 𝑚2
= 𝑚1 +𝑚2

If the parts of the string not in contact with the pulley hang vertically, the force R on the
4𝑚1 𝑚2
pulley is given by R= 2T = 𝑚 +𝑚
1 2

Example 2; consider a mass m2 kg placed on a smooth horizontal table and connected by a light
in extensible string passing over a small smooth pulley at the edge to a mass m1 kg hanging
freely. Find the resulting motion and the tension in the string.

M2 T

M2g M1
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 M1g

The mass m1 will move downwards and m2 along the table. Since the string is in extensible,
the accelerations of m1 and m2 are equal; let this acceleration be a m/s2. Let T N is the tension
in the string. The forces acting on m1 are m1gand T upwards,

Therefore the resultant force on m1 is m1g-T.

Using F = ma, m1g –T = m1a (1)

Since m2 is resting on a smooth horizontal surface, its weight has no effect as far as motion
along the surface is concerned. The weight is balanced by the reaction R of the plane.
(R=m1g, according to Newton’s third law). The resultant force tending to produce motion
horizontally is therefore the tension T. Hence for m2 we have,

T= M2g (2)

Adding the two equations;

m1g = (m1 + m2) a

𝑚1
a= 𝑔
𝑚1 +𝑚2

Substituting in (2)
𝑚1 𝑚2
T= 𝑔
𝑚1 +𝑚2

In this case the force on the pulley, p N, is the resultant of two equal forces T N at right angles,

Therefore, P = √ (T2 + T2) = T√2\

√2𝑚1𝑚2
=𝑚1+𝑚2 𝑔

EXAMPLE 3; A particle of mass m2 kg rests on the surface of a smooth plane inclined at an

angle α to the horizontal, and is connected by a light in extensible string, passing over a small
smooth pulley at the top of the plane, to a mass m1kg hanging freely. Find the resulting motion
and the tension in the string.

R T T

m2sinα M2cosα m1g

α
Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss
 24

The tension in the string is the same throughout. Let it be T. the accelerations of the masses
are the same. Let it be a ms-2. The forces acting on m1 are its weight m1g and T. If m1 moves
upwards.

M1g – T = m1a (1)

The forces acting on m2 parallel to the surface of the plane are m2g down the plane and T up
the plane; their resultant force tending to produce motion up the plane is therefore T-m2g
sinα. Therefore,

T – m2gsinα = m2a (2)

Also since m2 does not move perpendicular to the plane, R – m2gcosα = 0

Adding equations 1, and 2 gives, g(m1 -m2sinα) = (m1 + m2)a

𝑚1−𝑚2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
And thus, a = 𝑚1+𝑚2
𝑔

NOTE:

a > 0, that is, m1 moves downwards, if m1 > m2sin α. T is obtained by substituting for a in
equation 1.

Example 4.

A particle slides down a rough inclined plane of inclination α. If μ is the coefficient of friction,
find the motion.

μR

mg sin α mg cos α

let m be the mass of the particle, and R the normal reaction of the plane; then the friction is
μR.

Now; R = mg cos α ; since there is no motion perpendicular to the plane.

Parallel to the plane; mg sin α – μR = mg sin α – μ mg cos α

𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼− 𝜇𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛼
The acceleration down the plane is = 𝑔(sin 𝛼 − 𝜇 cos 𝛼)
𝑚

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

This is positive and hence sin α > μ cos α, or tan α > μ. If tan α < μ, the particle will remain at
rest since it cannot move up and there is no acceleration down the plane.

If the particle is projected up the plane, the resultant retarding force down the plane is
mg sin α + μ mg cos α.

Example 5.

Two particles of masses m1 and m2 rest on the rough faces of a double inclined plane and are
connected by a light in extensible string passing over a small frictionless pulley at the vertex
of the plane. If the faces of the plane are equally rough, find the resulting motion.

Solution;

Let the inclinations of the faces of the plane on which m1 and m2 rest be α and β respectively,
and suppose that m1 moves downwards. Let T be the tension in the string.

R1 T T

R2

μR1 mg sin β

mg sinα mg cos α mg cos β μR2

α β

R1 = m1 cos α and R2 = m2g cos β since there is no motion of the bodies perpendicular to the
plane.

Now since m1 moves down, the friction on it acts up the plane. Hence the total downward
force on m1 is

m1 sin α – T = μ m1g cos α

and the total upward force on m2 is

T – m2g sin β – μ m2g cos α

Hence if a is the common acceleration,

m1g sin α – T – μ m1g cos α = m1a (1)

T – m2g sin β – μ m2g cos β = m2a (2)

Adding the two equations;

a( m1 + m2) = g(m1 sin α – m2 sin β- μ m1cos α – μ m2 cos β) giving a.

T is obtained by substituting for a in either equations.

Example 6.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 26

Two masses 10kg and 3 kg are connected by a fine string, which passes over a smooth pulley
fixed at the head of a smooth inclined plane 5 m long and 1 m high. This heavier particle is on
the plane and the lighter particle just hangs over the pulley, the string being 5m long. Find the
acceleration on the masses and the tension of the string. How long will it be after the 3 kg
mass reaches the ground before the string is again taut?

Solution;
1
Sin α = 5

Let T N be the tension of the string, a ms-2 the common acceleration.

The resultant force downwards in N acting on the 3 kg mass is 3g – T and the resultant force
on the 10 kg mass acting up the plane is

T -10x ½ g = T – 2g

The equations of motion are;

3g – T = 3a

And T – 2g = 10a

Adding gives; 13a = g

𝑔
Therefore; a = 13

10 36
Hence; T = 2g + 10a = 2g + 12g = 13g

When the 3 kg mass reaches the ground the masses will have moved 1 m from rest with
𝑔 9.8
acceleration 13 = 13 ms-2.

Therefore, their common velocity v ms-1 is given by

9.8 19.6
V2= 2x 13 x1 = 13

V = 1.22 m/s

Now the 3 kg mass is stopped by the ground, the string becomes slack and the 10 kg mass
𝑔 9.8
moves on with velocity v, and subject to a retardation 5 = 5 ms-2.

5m

R T

2g T 1m

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 α 10gcosα

3g

The time t s taken to go up the plane and return to the point from which it began to move
freely is given by;

0 = 1.22 t – ½ (1.96t2)
1.22
t = 0.98

=1.25 s.

After this interval, this sting again becomes taut.

Qu. A mass of 2kg lies at the bottom of an inclined plane 9m and 3m high. It is attached by
a light cod 9m long, which lies along the line of greatest slo9pe of the plane to a mass
of 1 kg which hangs just over the top of the plane. The system is allowed to move.
Assuming the hanging mass comes to rest when it reaches the ground, find the
distance that the mass of 2 kg will travel before it first comes to rest.

8. A string 1.5 m long lying on a smooth table 0.75 m high connects two masses of 0.25 kg
and 7.75 kg. The string being straight and perpendicular to edge of table, a lighter mass is
drawn gently just over the edge of the table and released. Find the time taken before the
first mass strikes the ground.

Example 8.

A mass of M kg rests on a smooth horizontal table and is attached by two inelastic string to
masses m, m’ kg (m’>m), which hang over smooth pulleys at opposite edges of the table. Find
the acceleration of the system and the tension in the strings.

T R T’

T Mg T’

mg M’g

If T N be the tension ins the string connecting M and m, T’ N that in the other string, and a
m/s2, we have

For m’, m’g – T = m’a i

For m, T- mg = ma ii

for M; T’ – T = Ma iii

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 28

adding the three equations,

m’ –m)g = ( m’ + m + M)a
𝑚′ −𝑚
a =𝑚′ + 𝑚+𝑀 𝑔

the values of T’ and T are obtained by substituting in (I) and (I).

Further examples;

1.

A (5m) B(km)

Two particles A and B have masses 5m and k m respectively, where k > 5. The particles are
connected by a light inextensible string that passes over a smooth light fixed pulley. The
system is held at rest with the string taut, the hanging parts of the string vertical and with A
and B at the same height about a horizontal plane, as shown in the figure. The system is
released from rest. After release, A descends with acceleration ¼ g.

15
(a) Show that the tension in the string as A descends is 𝑚𝑔
4

(b) Find the value of k.

(c) State how you have used the information that the pulley is smooth.

After descending for 1.2s, the particle A reaches the plane. It is immediately brought to rest
by the impact with the plane. The initial distance between B and the pulley is such that, in the
subsequent motion, B does not reach the pulley.

(d) Find the greatest height reached by B above the plane.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 2. Two particles of masses 6 kg and 10 kg are connected by a light inextensible string
passing over a smooth pulley. Find;
i) Their common acceleration
ii) The tension in the string
iii) The force on the pulley.
3. Two particles of masses 5 and 7 kg are connected by a light string passing over a
smooth pulley. Find their common acceleration and the tension in the string.
4. A mass of 9 kg resting on a smooth horizontal table is connected by a light string,
passing over a smooth pulley at the edge of the table, to a mass of 7 kg hanging freely.
Find the common acceleration, the tension in the string and the force on the pulley.
5. Two masses of ¼ kg and 7 ¾ kg connected by an inextensible string 1.5 m long, lie on
a smooth table 0.75 m high. The string being straight and perpendicular to the edge of
the table, the lighter mass is drawn gently just over the edge and released. find;
i) The time that elapses before the first mass strikes the floor , and
ii) The time that elapses before the second mass reaches the edge of the table.
6.

P
5 Kg

Q
R
α

One end of a light inextensible string is attached to a block P of mass 5 kg. the block P is held
at rest on a smooth fixed plane which is inclined to the horizontal at an angle α,
3
where 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 5. The string lies along a line of greatest slope pf the plane and passes over a

smooth light pulley which is fixed at the top of the plane. The other end of the string is
attached to a light scale pan which carries two blocks Q, R, with block Q on top of block R, as
shown in the figure above. The mass of block Q is 5kg and the mass of block R is 10kg. the
scale pan hangs at rest and the system is released from rest. By modeling the blocks as
particles, ignoring air resistance and assuming the motion is uninterrupted, find

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 30

(a) I) the acceleration of the scale pan

ii) the tension in the string.
(b) The magnitude of the force exerted on block Q by block R.
(c) The magnitude of the force exerted on the pulley by the string.

RELATED ACCELERATION;

1. To one end of a light string passing over a fixed pulley is attached a particle of mass 8
kg and to the other end a light pulley. Over this pulley passes a light string to the ends
of which attached to a mass 5 kg and 3 kg respectively.
Find the acceleration of the 8 kg mass and the tension in
the string attached to it.

Let the acceleration of the 3g weight be A and that of the

5 kg mass be f.

Equations;

For the 5 kg mass;

8g – T1 = 8A ……………………………………….i

Movable pulley;

T1 - 2T2 = mA but since m =0, pulley is light, it has no mass i.e.

T1 – 2T2 = 0 xa

T1 = 2T2 ………………………………………………….ii

For the 3 kg mass

T2 – 3g = 3(f + A) ………………….iii

For the 5 kg mass

5g – T1 = 5(f +A) ……………………iv

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
Solving the equations gives;

𝑔
A = 81, T1 = 76 N , T2 = 38 N

Further examples;

1. To one end of a light string passing over a smooth pulley is attached a mass M and
another end carries a light pulley over which passes a light string carrying masses m1
4𝑚1𝑚2
and m2. Find the acceleration of the particles. Show that if M= 𝑚1+𝑚2 the mass M will

remain at rest or move with uniform velocity.

2. A1 and A2 are two fixed pulleys in the same horizontal line. a light string is placed over
A1 and A2 and carries weights W1 and W2 at its free ends. Another pulley B carrying a
weight W3 is placed on the part of the string between A1 and A2. If A1 and A2 are so
close together that all the portions of the string not in contact with the pulleys are
vertical, prove that when all the weights are in motion, the tension in the string is
4
1 1 4 . Prove also that the condition that W3 shall remain at rest while W1 and W2
+ +
𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3

are in motion is 4W1W2 = W2(W1 + W2)

SOLUTION;

STATICS OF A PARTICLE

Under this part of mechanics, we shall consider the stability and equilibrium of a particle
subject to a number of forces. Note that a particle is said to be in equilibrium if the resultant
force on it is zero.

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 32

A force is a vector quantity and can best be described basing on two dimensions i.e. its
magnitude and its direction.

Parallelogram of forces

Consider a body under influence of two forces inclined at one another. The resultant is zero if
the two forces are equal in magnitude and act in opposite directions. In this case, the particle
will remain at rest or move with a uniform velocity if already in motion.

Forces like all other vector quantities can be compounded by the parallelogram law. The
parallelogram law of forces can be stated as;

Two forces acting on a particle at any point O are equivalent to a single force, which is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram thus formed.

The idea of the parallelogram of forces is the fundamental idea to the study of statics.

Illustration;

Consider two forces OA and OB acting at O on a particle as show in the figure below. The two
forces are known to be equivalent to a single force represented by the diagonal OC of the
parallelogram OACB. The single force represented by OC is known as the resultant of the
forces OA and OB and the forces OB and OA are known as the components of the force OC.
The magnitude and direction of the resultant can be determined by calculation as illustrated
below.

Let the angle between the directions of P and Q be θ. Dropping a perpendicular from C to
meet produced OA creates angle C𝐴̂D = θ.

B C

Θ 180o-θ Θ

O P A D

Now; OC2 = OD 2 + DC2

= (OA+ AD) 2 + DC2

= (OA + AC cos θ) 2 + (AC sin θ) 2

Therefore; R 2 = (P + Q cos θ) 2 + (Q sin θ) 2

= P2 + Q2 (cos2 θ + sin2θ) + 2PQ cos θ

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ
1
R = (𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 + 2𝑃𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2

Note: Application of the cosine rule of triangles to triangle OAC gives

R2 = P2 + Q2 – 2PQCos (180o-θ)

But cos (180-θ) = -cos θ

R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ
1
R = (𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 + 2𝑃𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)2 which is the same result as in (a)

To find the direction of OC we have;

𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑄 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
tan COD = = =
𝑂𝐷 𝑂𝐴+𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃 𝑃+𝑄 cos 𝜃

𝑅 𝑄
We can as well use the sine rule to find <COD i.e. sin(180−𝜃) = sin 𝐶𝑂𝐷

𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
<COD = sin-1( )
𝑅

Points to note;

1. If the forces are at right angles, θ =90O and R = √ (P2 + Q2), and tan COA = Q/P. This
is a direct application of Pythagoras theorem.

Example

Determine the resultant of the forces below.

20 N

40 N

Solution;

Let R be the resultant making an angle β to the horizontal.

40 N R

20 N

R2 = 202 + 402

R = √202 + 402 = √2000 = 44.72 N

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 34

40
𝑡𝑎𝑛 β = (20); β = 63.43o

Hence the resultant force is 44.72 N at an angle 63.43o to the 20 N force.

2. If the forces are equal, say each equal to Q, then, R=√

[Q2 (1 + 1+ 2cos θ)] = Q√ [2(1 +cos θ) =Q√ (cos2 ½ θ) = 2Q cos ½ θ.
1 1
𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
2 2
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 COA = 𝑃+𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 = tan ½ θ.
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
2

Examples;

1. Find the resultant of two forces below;

10 N 30o 20 N

Solution;

Let R be the resultant force.

10N 30o β 20 N

Now R2 = 102 + 202 – 2x 10x 20cos 30o

R2 = 500 – 346.41

R = 12.39 N.

Using the sine rule,

10 12.39
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 β sin 30𝑜

½ x10 = 12.39 sin β

β = 23.8o.
Therefore, the resultant is 12.39 N at an angle 23.8o to the 20 N force.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 2. Two equal weights of mass 10 kg are attached to the ends of a thin string which passes
over three smooth pegs in a wall arranged in the form of an equilateral triangle with
on side horizontal. Find the thrust on each peg.

Solution;

60O

98 98

B 600 C

98 98

The pegs are smooth and the tension is the same throughout the string and this is equal to
10g = 98N.

The thrust on A is the resultant of the two tensions of 98 N inclined at an angle of 60o. If R is
the magnitude of this resultant, then from the proof above it follows that,

R2 = 982 + 982 + 2x 98 x98 x cos 60o = 3x 982

Which yields R = 98√3 = 170 N.

The thrust on B or C is the resultant of the two tensions of 98 N inclined at an angle of 150o. If
S is the magnitude of this resultant, then;

S2 = 982 + 982 + 2 x 982 x cos 150o

Which yields S = 50.8 N.

Exercise

1. Two forces, of magnitudes 1N and 3N, act on a particle in the directions shown in the
diagram. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force on the particle and the angle
between this resultant force and the force of magnitude 3N.

1N

40o

3N

2. Find the angle between the lines of action of two forces of magnitudes 7N and 11N,
given that their resultant is of magnitude 8N.

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 36

3. Two forces of magnitudes 7N and 9N act at an angle θ where sin θ = 0.4. find the
magnitudes of the two possible resultants.

Resolution of a force;

The separation of a force into its components is called the resolution of a force.

A given force may be split up (resolved) into an infinite number of pairs of components
creating an infinite number of parallelograms on a given line as a diagonal. For simplicity and
for practical purposes we shall consider a case where the directions of the components are
known and are at right angles to each other.

Consider a force F represented in the diagram below making an angle α to the horizontal OX.
Suppose we want to resolve it into two components one along OX and the other along OY.

α
X

O A

In this case we have OA = F cos α and OB = F sin α. Therefore F is equivalent to a force F cos
α along line OX making an angle α with its own direction together with a force F sin α
perpendicular to the direction of the first component.

Equilibrium of a Particle subject to three forces in a plane

Consider three forces P, Q and R acting on a particle at O. The resultant of two of the forces,
say P and Q, can be represented by a diagonal of a parallelogram (as suggested by the
parallelogram of forces seen above).

B C

R O P A

The diagonal of parallelogram OACB represents the resultant of P and Q.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Now if CO can represent R in magnitude and direction, it will balance the resultant of P and Q,
and the three forces will be in equilibrium. The forces P, Q and R can therefore be
represented by OA, AC and CO which are sides of a triangle in that order and they are in
equilibrium.

The result above is known as the triangle of forces and it is usually stated;

If three forces acting at a point can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of
a triangle taken in order, the forces will be in equilibrium.

Example;

Forces equal to 7P, 8P and 5P acting on a particle are in equilibrium; find the angle between
the forces 8P and 5P.

Solution;

8P

α 7P 5P θ 8P

5P B

A 7P

The corresponding forces and their triangle of forces are shown above.

from the triangle of forces, if angle ACB = θ, then,

72 = 52 + 82 – 2 x 8 x 5 x cos θ

cos θ= ½

θ = 60o.

Since the vectors representing the forces are drawn parallel to the corresponding sides of
triangle ABC, it follows from geometry that the angle between 8P and 5P, α =180o – 60o
=120o.

LAMI’S THEOREM

Consider three forces P, Q, and R that are in equilibrium and their corresponding triangle of
forces ABC.

P
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 38

C γ

β γ P Q

α Q β α A

R B R

If the angles between P, Q and R are α, β and γ, then, α, β and γ are exterior angles of triangle
ABC.

Applying the sine rule to the vector triangle ABC, we have,

𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
= = sin(180𝑜 − 𝛾)
sin(180𝑜 − 𝛼) sin(180𝑜 −𝛽)

Now, since sin (180o – α) = sin α, it follows that,

𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
= =
sin 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛾

This is Lami’s theorem. It can be stated as;

If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, each is proportional to the sine of the angle
between the other two.

Example;

A particle of mass 2 kg is suspended at the lower end of a light inelastic string. A horizontal
force applied to the particle maintains equilibrium of the particle when the string makes an
angle of 60o with the vertical. Find the magnitude of the horizontal force and the tension in
the string.

Solution;

Note that the particle is under influence of three forces which are in equilibrium; its weight,
the tension, T and the horizontal force P.

60o T 150o

P 120o P

90o

2g 2g

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 a) General diagram

Applying Lami’s theorem,

2𝑔 𝑃 𝑇
= =
sin 150𝑜 sin 120𝑜 sin 90𝑜

2𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝑜
Thus; P = = 2𝑔√3 𝑁
𝑠𝑖𝑛 150𝑜

2𝑔 𝑥 1
Also; T = 1 = 4g N. Where sin90o =1 and sin 150o = ½
2

Method of Resolution of forces

This method of solving problems involving three forces in equilibrium acting on a particle
depends upon the following theorem;

If two forces act on a particle, the sum of their components in a given direction is equal to the
component of the resultant of the forces in that direction.

Example;

A particle of mass 50 kg is suspended by two strings 3m and 4 m attached to two points at

the same level, whose distance apart is 5 m. Find the tensions in the strings

Solution;

Let T1 and T2 be the tensions in the strings.

A θ D B

T1 θ T2

E 50g

AC = 3 m, BC = 4 m, AB = 5 m and ABC is a right angle.

Let CD be perpendicular to AB. AB is horizontal and CD is a vertical and the weight of the
particle acts along DC produced.

Let angle DCB = θ, and cos θ = 3/5, sin θ = 4/5

Resolving horizontally; T1 cos θ = T2 sin θ

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 40

Resolving vertically; T1 sin θ + T2 cos θ = 50g = 490 where g = 9.8

3 4
From (i), 5 T1 = 5 T2

Substituting the above result in (ii)

4 3 3
T1 + 5 𝑥 4 T1 = 490
5

T1 = 392 N and therefore T2 = 294 N

Note that the above problem could as well be solved using Lami’s theorem.

1 𝑇 𝑇2 50𝑔
Where; 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝐶̂𝐸
= =
sin 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐸 sin 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐵

sin B𝐶̂ E = sin θ, sin A𝐶̂ E = sin (90 – θ) = cos θ, and angle A𝐶̂ B = 90o.

𝑇1 𝑇2 490
Hence; 4 = 3 = 1
5 5

Therefore; T1 = 392 N and T2 = 294 N.

Remarks;

a) The resultant of two forces acting on a particle can be calculated using the
parallelogram of forces and if the angle between the two forces is 90o, it is a direct
application of Pythagoras theorem.
b) Problems involving three forces in equilibrium can be solved using the methods seen
above as the case may require. These are;
i) The triangle of forces.
ii) Lami’s theorem. This should be used whenever the angles between the forces
are known.
iii) Resolution of the forces into its components.
c) In all the cases a) and b), the directions of all the forces are known. In case the
direction of one of the forces in equilibrium is not known, an important property must
be considered. This is the concurrence property.

The concurrence property;

If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three forces in a plane, the lines of action of
these forces must all be parallel or all meet in a common point i.e. their lines of action must
be concurrent.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

P S

A Q

Consider three forces P, Q and R in equilibrium. If P and Q meet at A, then their resultant, S
must also pass through A

The original 3 forces have now reduced to two. S and R are also in equilibrium and will have
zero resultant and zero turning effect only when the two forces are collinear and in opposite
directions i.e. when R passes through A.

Thus in order P, Q and R to be in equilibrium, they must be concurrent

Examples;

1. A uniform rod AB of weight 12 N is hinged to a vertical wall at A. the end B is pulled

aside by a horizontal force until it is in equilibrium inclined at 60o to the wall. Find the
magnitude of the horizontal force and the direction of the force acting at the hinge.

Solution;

θ R

60o G

θ (θ+ 90o)

D C B P (180o- θ) P

12 12

The rod is in equilibrium under the action of three forces so these three forces must be
concurrent. The weight and the horizontal force meet at C so the hinge force must also pass
through C but the hinge force acts at A so its direction must be CA produced.

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 42

G is the midpoint of AB and GC is parallel to AD so C is the midpoint of DB.

1
𝐷𝐶 𝐷𝐵 1 √3
Now, tan θ =𝐴𝐷 = 2𝐴𝐷 = 2 tan 60o = , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = 40.9o
2

Applying Lami’s theorem,

12 𝑃 𝑅
𝑜
= 𝑜
=
sin(𝜃 + 90 ) sin(180 − 𝜃) sin 90𝑜
12 sin 139.1𝑜
Therefore; P = = 10.4𝑁
𝑠𝑖𝑛130.9𝑜

Therefore, the horizontal force is of magnitude 10.4 N and the hinge force is inclined at 40.9o
to the wall.

Further examples;

1.A light inextensible string from a light ring suspends a particle of weight 24 N. The ring can
slid along a rough horizontal rod. The coefficient of friction between the rod and the rod is
1/3. A force of P Newtons acting upwards on a particle at 45o to the horizontal keeps the
system in equilibrium with the ring at a point of sliding. Find the
i) Value of P.
ii) Tension in the string.

Solution

Let T be the tension in the string.

F T

T P

θ 45o

24

Considering equilibrium of the particle;

Resolving the forces vertically; P sin 45o + T sin θ = 24

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 𝑃√2
T sin θ = 24 - ……………………………………… equation (1)
2

Resolving the forces horizontally; P cos 45o = T cos θ

𝑃√2
T cos θ = ………………………………………….. Equation (2)
2

Considering equilibrium of the ring

Resolving the forces vertically; R = T sin θ ……………… equation (3)

Horizontally; F = T cos θ Where F = µR ………………………….. Equation (4)

Equation (4) divided by (3).

3 3 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = µ = 1/3 i.e. tan θ = 1 and thus by Pythagoras theorem, sin θ = √10 and cos θ = √10

Substituting these results in equations 1 and 2 yields;

𝑇 √2 √20
=𝑃 From which T = P which when substituted in (1) gives
√10 2 2

√20 3 𝑃√2
P x √10 = 24 -
2 2

2P√2 + P√2 = 48

P√2 = 16

So P = 11.3 N

√2 16
And therefore T = x √10 x = 8√10 N.
2 √2

2. A string ABCD is suspended from two points A and D at the same level. A weight of 10N
is hung from a string knotted to ABCD at B, and a weight w N from a string knotted to
ABCD at C. if AB and CD make angles of 45o and 60o to the horizontal, and if BC is
horizontal, find the tension in the string BC and the weight W.

Solution;

Let the tensions in the strings AB, BC, CD be T1, T2, T3 N respectively.

A 45o 60o D

T1 T3

B T2 T2 C

10 W

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 44

Consider the three forces acting at B, and resolving horizontally and vertically, we get

T1 cos 45o = T2

And T1 sin 45o = 10

Hence T1 = 10√2 and T2 = 10.

Similarly, considering the three forces acting at C, and resolving horizontally and vertically,
we get

T3 cos 60o = T2

And T3 sin 60o = w

Hence; T3 = 2T2 = 20 and w =10√3.

3. A particle of mass 10 kg is placed on a smooth plane of inclination 60o. What force

applied (i) parallel to the surface of the plane, (ii) horizontally, will keep the particle at rest?
Solution;
i)
R1

F fig. 1(a)
10g
60O
Resolving forces parallel and perpendicular to the plane respectively yields;
10g sin 60o = F
R1 = 10g cos 60o
Therefore the force required in case (i), F = 5g√3 N.

R2

F2 10g
60O fig.1 (b)

Resolving vertically and horizontal to the plane respectively yields;

R2 = 10g cos 60o + F2 sin 60o
F2 cos 60o = 10g sin 60o

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

So F2 = 10g tan 60o = 10g √3 N as the required force.
Note: From the figures above, force diagrams may be somehow improved and Lami’s
theorem used as below.

i)
R1 F

(30+90o) (90o+ 60o) fig. 2(a)

10g

𝐹 𝑅 10𝑔
Using lamis theorem, sin 120 = =
sin 150 sin 90𝑜
10gsin120o
F= = 5𝑔√3𝑁
sin90o
10gsin150o
R= = 5𝑔𝑁 as before.
sin900

ii)
R2 150o

120o 90o F2 fig. 2(b)

10g
Applying lami’s theorem gives
R2 F2 10g
= =
sin 90o sin 120o sin 150o
10gsin120o
F2 = = 10𝑔√3𝑁 as before.
sin1500
1
4. A particle of mass 5kg is placed on a smooth plane inclined at tan-1( ) to the horizontal.
√3

Find the magnitude of the force acting horizontally, required to keep the particle in
equilibrium and the normal reaction to the plane. (UNEB 2001, 5)
5.

A B

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 46

30O 60O

A particle of mass m kg is attached at C to two light inextensible strings AC and BC. The other
ends of the strings are attached to fixed points A and B on a horizontal ceiling. The particle
hangs in equilibrium with AC and BC inclined to the horizontal at 30o and 60o respectively, as
shown in the figure.

Given that the tension in AC is 20N, find

(a) The tension in BC,

(b) The value of m.

6.

Trial questions;
1. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon of centre O. forces 2, 4, p and q act from O along OA, OC,
OE, OG respectively, where G is the midpoint of AB, and are in equilibrium. Find the
values of p and q.
2. A force XY of a N makes and angle α with the horizontal. Another force YZ beginning
from the end Y inclined at an angle β to the horizontal axis is of magnitude b N. If θ is
the angle between the positive direction of the 2 forces where θ = β-α, show that the
resultant force XZ has magnitude XZ = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 N and is inclined at an
𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
angle α + sin-1( ) to the horizontal. Hence or otherwise calculate the magnitude
𝑋𝑍

and direction of the resultant force of the forces XY and YZ inclined at 30o and 75o to
the horizontal and of magnitudes 9 and 6 N respectively.
3. A small body of mass 10 kg is suspended from two points A and B, 12 m part, and in
the same horizontal line, by strings of lengths 7m and 10 m attached to the same point
in the body. Find the tension in each string.
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 4. The figure below represents a weight W attached to two strings which pass over two
smooth pegs at the same level and support weights P, Q at their free ends. Prove that,
in the position of equilibrium, sin θ =(W2 + P2 – Q2)/2W

A B

θ φ

5. Three forces act on a particle as shown below;

P
30O

8N

5N

Find the value of;

i) The resultant if P =10N

ii) P if the resultant is 10 N due North.

Particle subject to more than three forces

We can now extend ideas on how to deal with three force problems to solving problems with
more than three forces.

Like for a particle subject to three forces, a number of forces acting on a particle can be
represented by a single force –the resultant of these forces. If these forces are not in
equilibrium, the particle will tend to move in the direction of the resultant. A number of
forces can be represented in a polygon- polygon of forces.

The polygon of forces;

If any number of forces, acting on a particle, can be represented in magnitude and direction
by the sides of a polygon taken in order, the forces will be in equilibrium.

Consider forces P, Q, R, S and T acting on a particle at O as shown below;

R Q D

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 48

E R

S T P T Q C

A p B

The sides AB, BC, CD, DE and EA of the polygon ABCDE represents the forces acting on the
particle in their order. AC represents the resultant of AB and BC and the resultant of AC, CD is
represented by AD, and similarly the resultant of AD and DE is represented by AE. Hence
resultant of P,Q,R,S is equal and opposite to T, and opposite to T and since all forces act at a
point, this resultant and T balance and the system of forces is in equilibrium.

Resultant of a number of coplanar forces acting on a particle

The more general method of determining the resultant of any number of forces is to resolve
the forces into their components in directions perpendicular to each other usually in the
horizontal and vertical directions.

Consider forces A, B, C… acting on a particle at O in the x-y plane. Let the forces make angles
α, β, γ ….with OX as shown below

Y B

A γ A

β α X

Resolving vertically (in direction OY) and horizontally (in direction OX), the components of A
are A sin α and A cos α, for B, we have B sin β and B cos β, and so on.

Let the components of these forces in the OX and OY directions be X and Y. It implies;

X = A cos α + B cos β + C cos γ …

Y = A sin α + B sin β + C sin γ …

If F is the resultant and θ its inclination to OX, then,

F cos θ = X and F sin θ = Y

Therefore; F2 = X2 + Y2
𝑌
And tan θ = 𝑋

Examples;
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 1. Forces of 4, 3, 2 and 1N act as a point A in directions AB, AC, AD, and AE where < BAC
= 30O ; < CAD = 30O; <DAE = 90O. Find the magnitude of their resultant, and the
inclination of its direction to AB.

Solution;

E Y D

1N 2N C

90O 30o 3N

A 30o B

4N

Let X and Y be the components of the resultant of the forces along AB and AY respectively,

X = 4 cos 0o + 3 cos 30o + 2 cos 60o -1 cos 30o (since cos 150o = - cos 30o)

X = (5 + √3) N = 6.732 N

Y = 4 sin 0o + 3 sin 30o + 2 sin 60o + 1 sin 30o = 3.732 N

The resultant, R = √(X2 + Y2) = √ (6.7322 + 3.7322) = 7.7 N.

If θ is the resultant made by R with AB,

3.732

6.732
𝑌 3.732
tan θ = 𝑋 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝜃 = 29.0o
6.732

Therefore the resultant of the forces above is 7.7 N and acts at an angle of 29.0o to AB.

2. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. Forces of 2, 4√3, 8, 2√3, and 4N act at A in direction AB, AC,
AD, AE, and AF respectively. Find the magnitude of their resultant and the inclination of
its direction to AB.

Solution;

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 50

from geometry; <BAC = <CAD = <DAE = 30O

Also the external angle of a hexagon = 60o

E D

F 2√3N 8N C

4N 30o 30o 4√3

60o A B

2N
Let the resultant force be F at an inclination β to AB.

Resolving perpendicular to AB (direction along AE)

Y= 2 sin 0o + 4√3 sin 30o + 8 sin 60o + 2√3 sin90o + 4 sin 60o

Y = 10√3 N.

Resolving along AB

X = 2 cos 0o + 4√3 cos 30o + 8 cos 60o + 2√3 cos 90o – 4 cos 60o

X = 10N

F2 = X2 + Y2 = (10√3)2 + 102

F2 = 400

F = √400 = 20 N.

If β is the angle the resultant, F makes with the horizontal AB,

10√3N

10N
𝑌
tan β = 𝑋

10√3
= = √3,
10
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
thus β = tan-1√3 = 60o.

The resultant force is 20 N inclined at an angle of 60o to AB.

Conditions for equilibrium of any number of forces acting on a particle

From the results above, the resultant force F is obtained from F2 = X2 + Y2. Now, if the forces
are in equilibrium the resultant F must be zero. This is only possible when X = 0 and Y= 0
since the sum of squares cannot be zero unless each quantity is zero.

It follows that, if any number of forces is in equilibrium, the algebraic sums of their
components in two directions perpendicular to each other must separately be zero.

Likewise, if the sums of the components of any number of forces in two directions at right
angles are both zero, then the forces are in equilibrium.

Example;

A string of length 31 cm has its ends tied to two points in a horizontal line at a distance 25 cm
apart. A small ring from which is suspended a weight of mass 98 g can slide on the string, and
is acted on by a horizontal force of such magnitude that in position of equilibrium the ring is
at a distance of 7 cm from the nearer end of the string. Show that the force is approximately
equal to a weight of mass 50 g, and find the tension in the string.

Solution;

Let A and B be the points where the string is tied. AB = 25 cm, AC = 24 cm, BC =7 cm. from
90
W=mg, the weight of 90g mass = 100 𝑔 𝑁 = 0.09𝑔 N 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐷 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑.

A 25 cm D B

T θ T

C P

0.09g

Assuming the string is light and the ring is smooth, the tension in the string is the same
throughout.
24 7
Angle ACB is a right angle. Let <DAC = θ, then <DBC = θ, and sin θ = 25 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos θ = 25

Resolving vertically; T sin θ + T cos θ = 0.09g

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 52

T (cos θ + sin θ) = 0.09g

7 24
T (25 + 25) = 0.09𝑔

25 𝑥 0.09𝑔
T= = 0.0726𝑔 𝑁.
31

Resolving horizontally; T cos θ + P = T sin θ

24 7
P = T (sin θ – cos θ) = T (25 − )
25

17
P = 0.0726g x 25 = 0.04937𝑔 𝑁.

50
Note that the weight of a 50g mass is 1000 𝑔 = 0.05𝑔𝑁. Therefore the magnitude of P =
0.04937g N is approximately equal to the weight of mass 50g.

Trial questions;

1. A string of length 0.6 m is attached to two points A and B at the same level and at a
distance of 0.3 m apart. A ring of weight 50 N slung on to the string is acted on by a
horizontal force P which holds it in equilibrium vertically below B. find the tension in
the string and the magnitude of P.
2. A string is tied to two points at the same level, and a smooth ring of weight W that can
slide freely along the string is pulled by a horizontal force P. If in the position of
equilibrium the portions of the string are inclined at angles 60o and 30o to the vertical,
find the value of P and the tension in the string.
3. Forces of 3, √3, 5, 2√3, 6N respectively act at a vertex of a regular hexagon towards
the other five vertices. Find the additional force that must be applied at the vertex to
maintain these forces in equilibrium.
4.

30o

TN

A heavy ring of mass 5 kg is threaded on a fixed rough horizontal rod. The coefficient
of friction between the rod and the ring is ½ . a light string is attached to the ring and
is pulled downwards with a force of magnitude T newtons acting at an angle 30o to the
horizontal.(see diagram). Given that the ring is about to slip along the rod, find the
value of T. (T = 39.8N)

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 THE TURNING EFFECT (MOMENT) OF A FORCE

Consider the equal and opposite forces each of magnitude F acting at the centre of a rod AB.

A F B

Now the rod will not move since the forces are equal and opposite. This is consistent with the
result of resolving the forces in directions parallel and perpendicular to the rod. i.e.

Horizontally; x = 0 and vertically; y =0

Note that the two equal forces in this case will not cause any rotation but if a single force acts
on this body fixed at one point then, unless the force acts through the fixed point, the body
will tend to rotate in the clockwise or anticlockwise sense depending on the direction of the
force. Thus, there tends to be a turning effect of a force on the body. This is called its moment.

The moment of a force about a point is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force
and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the point.
A B

d F

Moment of the force F about A = F x d. in Newton metres.

Moment of a force also called turning effect of the force or torque can be either clockwise like
in the example above or anticlockwise.

Addition of moments

To find the overall sum of moments in a given system, the anticlockwise moments are
assigned a positive sign while the clockwise moments are assigned a negative sign. i.e.
subtract moments in opposite directions while those in the same direction are added.

Examples

1. In the diagram below, find the sum of moments of the following forces about point A.

10N 2N

30O A

10m 2m 3m 5N

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 54

Solution;

10sin30o 10N 2N

30O A

10m 2m 3m 5N

∑ Clockwise moments about A = -10Sin 30O x10 - 5 x 5 = -75NM

∑ Anticlockwise moments about A = 2 x2 = 4 NM.

Sum of moments = -75 + 4 = -71 NM. Thus the resultant moment is 71NM in the clockwise
sense.

2. D 4N C

3N 5N

A B

2N

ABCD is a square of side 2m and O is its centre. Forces act along the sides as shown in the
diagram. Calculate the moment of each force about;

i) An axis through A.
ii) An axis through O.

Principle of moments;

If any number of coplanar forces acting on a rigid body has a resultant, the algebraic sum of
their moments about any point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about
that point.

If a system of coplanar forces is in equilibrium, their resultant is zero, and its moment about
any point must therefore be zero.

Hence, when a system of coplanar forces is in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of their
moments about any point in their plane is zero.

Parallel forces in equilibrium

For a system of parallel forces to be in equilibrium,

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 i) The total moment about a given point must be zero i.e. the sum of clockwise
moments must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same
point.
ii) The sum of the forces in one direction must be equal to the sum of forces in the
opposite direction for example, the upward forces = downward forces, forces in
positive x direction = forces in the negative x direction etc.

Examples;

1. A light rod AB rests on two sharp supports at points A and B. the rod is in equilibrium when
masses of 5 kg and 2 kg are place at 0.6 m and 0.5m from ends A and B respectively. Given
that the length of the rod is 2m, find the reactions at the supports.

Solution;

R1 R2

A 0.6 m 0.4 m 0.5 m 0.5 m B

5g W 2g

Resolving forces vertically gives; R1 + R2 = (5g + 2g) = 7g

Taking moments about A; 2 x R1 = 0.6 x 5g + 1.5 x 2g

This implies; R2 = 3g = 29.4 N.

Substituting in the equation 1 yields R2 = 7g – 29.29 = 39.2 N.

Note that the weight of the rod has been ignored since the rod is light i.e. considered
weightless.

2. A uniform beam AB of mass 10 kg and length 4m rests horizontally on two

supports one at A and another 1m from B. Where a mass of 50kg should be placed on the
beam to make the reactions at the two supports equal?

Solution;

R1 2m R2

d 1m

50g 10g

R1 = R2

R1 + R2 = 10g + 50g

But since R1 = R2 = R, 2R = 60g, thus R1 = R2 = R = 30g.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 56

Taking moments about A;

50g x d + 10g x2 = R2 x 3.

Since R2 = 30g, substitution gives d = 1.4 m.

Thus the mass should be attached at a distance of 1.4m from end A of the rod.

3. Masses of 1 kg, 2kg, 3 kg, 4 kg and 5 kg are suspended from a uniform rod AB 1.8m long,
of mass 3 kg and supported at its ends, at distances of 0.3 m, 0.6m, 0.9 m, 1.2 m and 1.5 m
from A. find the pressures on the supports.

Solution;

RA 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 RB

A g 2g 3g + 3g 4g 5g B

Resolving forces; RA + RB = 18g ………………………… 1 I

Taking moments about A;

g x 0.3 + 2g x 0.6 +6g x 0.9 + 4g x 1.2 +5g x1.5 =1.8 x RB

19.2 g =1.8 RB

RB = 10.67 g N.

Substituting 9.17g for RB in (1) yields RA = 7.33 g N.

Trial questions;

1.

1.8 m

A C B

3m

A pole has length 3m and weight W newtons. The pole is held in a horizontal position in
equilibrium by two vertical ropes attached to the pole at the points A and C where AC =
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 1.8 m, as shown in the figure above. A load of weight 20N is attached to the rod at B. the
pole is modeled as a uniform rod, the ropes as light inextensible strings and the load as a
particle.
5 100
(a) Show that the tension in the rope attached to the pole at C is (6 𝑊 + ) N.
3
(b) Find, in terms of W, the tension in the rope attached to the pole at A.

© Given that the tension in the rope attached to the pole at C is eight times the tension in
the rope attached to the pole at A, find the value of W.

2. A uniform rod AB rests horizontally on two supports at points A and B 3m apart. The
rod is in equilibrium with weights of 50N and 20 N at distances 0.8 m and 0.2 m fro
ends A and B respectively. Find the
i) Reactions at the supports.
ii) The mass of the rod.
3. A non-uniform rod of length 6 m and mass 8 kg has a mass of 10kg attached at one end
and a mass of 3 kg attached to the other end. Find the position of the support if the
beam rests in a horizontal position. (Ans; 2m from 10 kg mass)
4. A non-uniform beam AB has a length of 4m and its weight of 5N can be considered to
act at a point 1.8 m from end A. The beam rests horizontally on smooth supports at A
and B. Find the reactions at the supports. (2¾ , 2¼ )

Non parallel forces in equilibrium;

In a system of non parallel forces acting on a body, in addition to resolving the forces in
directions perpendicular to each other, some forces can be eliminated by taking moments
through their lines of action.

Example;

1. A pendulum bob of mass 5 kg is attached to one end of an elastic string of length 2m.
The other end of the string is fixed onto a vertical wall. The bob is held in equilibrium
with the string making an angle of 300 with the downward vertical by a horizontal
force F. find;

i) The value of F.

ii) The tension in the string.

Solution;

A 2 cos 60o

30o

T T sin 60o
Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss
 58

2 sin 60o T

60o F

5g

Taking moments about A; F x 2 sin 60o = 5g x 2 cos 60o

5 𝑥 9.8 𝑥2 cos 60
F= = 28.9 𝑁
2 sin 60

Resolving forces vertically; T sin 60o = 5g

5 𝑋 9.8
Therefore T = = 56.58 𝑁.
𝑆𝑖𝑛 60

Thus F = 28.9 N and T = 56.58 N.

One can prove these results by using the methods discussed in the preceding chapter for
instance use of Lami’s theorem by considering equilibrium of the bob.

2. A uniform rod AB , 3.6m long and of mass 25 kg, is pivoted at a point 0.9 m from A. a
mass of 100 kg is suspended from A. what force applied at B, in a direction
perpendicular to the rod, will keep in equilibrium with A below B and inclined at 60o
to the horizontal?

Solution;

1.8 m F

R G

0.9sin 30o c 0.9m 25g

A 60o

100g

G is the midpoint of the rod AG = GB=1.8 m, C is the pivot, R is the reaction at the pivot. Now
the rod will be in equilibrium about C when the algebraic sum of moments is zero.

Taking moments about C;

2.7 x F + 25g x 0.9 cos 60o = 100g x 0.9 sin 30o

2.7F = 90g sin 30o – 22.5g cos 60o

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
Therefore F = 122.5 N.

EQUIVALENT SYSTEM OF FORCES

A system of coplanar forces is either equivalent to a couple or can be replaced by a single

force called the resultant of these forces. To find the single force equivalent to the system of
forces, we resolve as in the previous cases.

Example: Find the direction and magnitude of a single force which is equivalent to the given
system of forces.

4N
5N 2N

3N

Single force F = √ (FX 2 + FY 2)

Fx = -3cos0o + 5 cos 90o + 4 cos 0o + 2cos 0o = 1

Fy = -3 sin 0 + 5 sin 90o +4 sin0o- 2 sin90o = 3

F = √ (12 + 32) = √ 10 N.

If θ is the angle F makes to the horizontal, then, tan θ = 3/1 hence θ = 71.57o

Moment of a system of coplanar forces:

This can be obtained by choosing a point where moments can easily be taken i.e. where
distances can easily be determined.

Examples;

1. Find the moment of the system of forces in the figure below given that the square ABCD is
of side 10 cm.

A 2N B

5N 4N
3√2
D C

2N

Moments of forces about O = -4x10 -2 x 10 = - 60 NM.

Note that forces of magnitude 3√2N and 5N have no moments about D since they go through
D.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 60

Therefore, the total moment of the forces in the system above about D is 60NM in the
clockwise sense.

3. ABCD is a regular hexagon of side 2a. Find the resultant moment about A.

B 2N C

4N
A D

F E 3N

Forces reducing to a couple

A system of forces is said to reduce to a couple if the resultant is zero and the moment of the
forces exists i.e. the moment of the system does not vanish to zero.

A couple is made up of two equal but opposite forces.

Example;

1. Show that the forces in the diagram below reduce to a couple and find the moment of the
couple.

10 N 2 sin 60o 10 N

60o
60o 60
A 2m 10 N B

In this case we need to show that the resultant force is zero and that the moment is not zero.

Now; FX = 10 cos 0o – 10 cos 60o – 10 cos 10o = 0

Also; FY = 10 sin 0o – 10 sin60o + 10 sin 60o = 0

Since FX = FY = 0, the resultant force R = 0 N.

Taking moments about A; m = 2 sin60o x 10 = 17.32 NM (anticlockwise)

Thus since the resultant is zero and the sum of the moments in the system is not zero, the
forces constitute a couple.

Trial questions;
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
1. Forces given by 4i + 3j and -4i -3j act at points 6i + 3j and 3i-j respectively. Show that the
forces reduce to a couple and find the moment of the couple.
Ans; m = 7 NM clockwise.
3 −3
2. Forces F1 = and F2 = act at points (6, 1) and (4, 1) respectively. Show that the
−5 3
forces reduce to a couple and find the moment of the couple.
Ans; m = 10NM clockwise.

Equation of line of action of the resultant force

Consider a resultant force of a system of coplanar forces with components X and Y. if this
resultant acts at a point (x, y) from a given point, say, (0,0), then the moment of the resultant
is obtained as follows;

x=0 x Y R

y X

(0, 0) y =0

M = - yX + xY

M – xY + yX = 0. This is the equation of action of the resultant force. X and Y can be obtained
by resolving individual forces and finding the sum of the components as previously
explained. M can be obtained by taking moments about a common point. x and y are the
constants representing distances where the resultant cuts the x and y axes.

Examples

1. Forces P, 4P, 2P, 6P act along the sides AB, BC, CD, DA of a square ABCD of side a. Find
the magnitude of their resultant and prove that the equation of its line of action
referred to AB and AD as coordinate axes is 2x – y + 6a =0.

Solution; D 2P C

4P

6P a

A P B

Horizontally; X = P cos 0o + 4P cos 90o – 2P cos 0o – 6P cos 90o = -P

Vertically (along AD); Y = P sin 0o + 4P sin 90o -2P sin0o – 6P sin90o = -2P
Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss
 62

Resultant force, R = √(X2 + Y2) = P√5 N.

Taking moments at A; Resultant moment, m = 4P x a + 2P x a = 6aP

The equation of the line of action of the resultant is obtained from m- xY + yX =0

i.e. 6a P +2P x – P y =0

Dividing through by P yields the required equation; 2x –y + 6a =0.

2. Forces act along the sides of a regular hexagon of side a m as shown in the figure
below.

E 6N D i) Find the resultant force.

5N 3N ii) Show that the resultant cuts AB produced at point

1
F C 𝑎 m from B.
8

10 N

A 6N B

Solution;

i) X = (-6 + 10 cos 60o – 3cos 60 + 6 – 5cos 60o) N = 1 N.

Y = (10 sin 60o + 3 sin60o – 5sin 60o) = 4√3 N.

The resultant force, R = √(X2 + Y2) = √ [12 + (4√3)2] = 7 N.

𝑌
If θ is the angle of inclination of the resultant to AB, then tan θ =𝑋 = 4√3, hence θ
=81.79o

Thus the resultant force is 7 N and acts at an angle of 81.79o to AB.

ii) Taking moments about A;

m = 10 x a sin 60o + 3 x 2a sin60o – 6x2a sin60O + 5x a sin60O

9a√3
= NM
2

Using the equation above; -xY + Xy + m = 0

9𝑎√3
-4√3 x + y + =0 is the equation of line of action of the resultant.
2

Note that on cutting AB, the horizontal, y = 0.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 9𝑎√3
Therefore; = 4. 𝑥. √3
2

9
x = 8 𝑎 as the distance from A where the resultant cuts AB produced which is equal to
a distance of a/8 m from B.

Therefore the resultant cuts AB at a distance a/8 m from B.

Trial questions;

1. Forces of magnitude 2N, 3N and 5N act along the sides AB, BC, DC and AD respectively.
The square ABCD is of side 1 m. What is the resultant moment about an axis through A?
2. Forces 9N, 5N, 3N, 1N and 4N along the sides PQ, QR, RS, ST, TU and UP of a regular
hexagon of side 2m their directions being
indicated by the order of the letters. Taking PQ as the reference axis, express each of the
forces in vector form hence find,
i) The magnitude of the resultant of the forces.
ii) Direction from P where the line of action of the resultant cuts PQ.
3. The centre of a regular hexagon ABCDEF of side 2a metres is O. forces of magnitude 4N, s
N, t N, 1N, 7N, and 3N act along the sides AB, BC,CD, DE, EF and FA respectively. Their
directions are in order of the letters.
a) Given that the resultant of these six forces is of magnitude 2√3 N acting in a
direction perpendicular to BC, determine the values of s and t.
b) i) Show that the sum of moments of the forces about O is 27a√3 Nm.

ii) If the midpoint of BC is M, find the equation of the line of action of the resultant; refer
to OM as x-axis and OD as y-axis.

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY;

A force is said to do work when it moves its point of application, otherwise, no work is done.
If the force is constant, the work done by the force is defined as the product of the force and
the distance through which the point of application moves in the direction of the force. Work
is a scalar quantity and its s I unit is the joule.

Consider a force below. If it moves its point of application from A to B, where distance AB=X,

A F

A x α B

Resolving; x = F cosα

Work done in direction AC = F cos𝛼 xX = F X cosα joules.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 64

Power is the work done per unit time i.e. the rate of doing work. The sI unit of power is a
Watt. And 1W= 1 J/s.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Power = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

In general, power is product of tractive force (engine force/pull) and the velocity at that
instant.

EXAMPLES;

1. The total mass of an engine and train is 200Mg. what is the power of the engine if it
can just keep the train moving at a uniform speed of 100 km/hr on the level ground,
1
the resistances due to friction etc amounting to 200 of the weight of the train?
Solution;
Mass of train + engine = 200Mg = 2.0 x 105kg
Uniform speed = 100 kph = 250/9 m/s

F mg

T- F = ma, but since its uniform velocity, i.e. accln = 0, T = F

1
F = μR = 200x 200x103g = 103g N.

250
Now, power = force x velocity = 103 x 9.8 x = 272.2 KW.
9

2. What power is required to take a train weighing 2.0x105 kg at uniform speed of 60

km/hr up an incline of 1 in 100, resistances due to friction being
1
𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛.
200
Solution; R
T

mg sinα
1
sinα = 100
F α mg cosα

Now; T – (mg sinα + F) = ma but a =0

So; T = mg sinα + F

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 1 1
= 200x103 g x 100 + 𝑥200𝑥 103g
200
T =3000g N
50
Velocity = 60 kph = m/s
3
50
And power = force x velocity = T x V =3000g x 3
So power = 30g KW = 490KW.
3. An engine of 280 kw is taking a train of mass 1.5x105 kg up an incline of 1 in 250 and
resistance is 350kg. What is the maximum uniform speed of the train in km/hr?

Hint; T = mg sinα + F = 9310N, v = 30 m/s = 108km/hr.

4. A motorcar whose mass is 750 kg starts from rest on level road and uniformly
accelerates for 10 seconds until its speed is 18km/hr. if resistances to motion are 5gN,
find the power on car 10 seconds after the start.
Solution;
R

F mg

Velocity attained = 18kph = 5 m/s in 10s where u =0 m/s,

𝑣−𝑢
Acceleration in 10 seconds; using a = 𝑡 , 𝑎 = 0.5𝑚/𝑠
T – F = ma
T – 5g = 750x 0.5, T = 375 +49 = 424 N

Therefore, when the speed is 5 m/s, the power of the engine = force x velocity

So P = 424 x 5 = 2.12 KW.

Exercise;

1. A man is cycling at 18 kph up a slope of 1 in 30. If the man and machine have a mass of
84 kg, and frictional resistances are equivalent to the weight of 1 kg., find the rate at
which the man is working.
2. A fast cruiser is propelled at a speed of 60km/hr by means of engines whose effective
power is 30 000kW. Calculate the resistance to the motion of the ship and assuming
that the resistance varies as the square of the speed, what power would be required for
a speed of 72km/hr?
3. A vessel of 3.0 x 107 kg whose engines are 22500 KW is steaming at a rate of 24 km/hr.
find the resistance per 1000kg of the vessels mass.
4. A crane lifts 72 packages each of mass 100 kg through a height of 5m. Find the work
done by the crane.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 66

5. A car is driven at uniform velocity of 40 kph up an incline of 1 in 8. If the total mass of

the car is 800 kg and the resistances are neglected, calculate the power at which the car
is moving.
6. Calculate the energy required to cycle 400m in at 20 kph on level road.
7. A train whose mass is 250Mg moves up an incline of 1 in 250 at a uniform rate of 32kph.
The resistance due to friction etc is equal to the weight of 3 Mg. at what power is the
engine working?
8. A vessel of 30000Mg whose engines are at 22500KW is steaming at a rate of 24kph.
Find the resistance per Mg of the vessel’s mass.
9. A motor car of total mass 1500kg is running on a level road at uniform speed of 48 kph.
On reaching a hill, which descends at uniform gradient of 1 in 20, it is allowed to force
wheel and the speed observed to remain the same as before. Calculate the resistance of
the road and the power exerted on the road?
10. A train of mass 250Mg is travelling up a slope of 1 in 140 at a constant speed of 48 kph.
1
Taking the frictional resistances to be 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, calculating the
160
power that is being expended.
11. A train of mass 100Mg acquires uniformly a speed of 48 kph from rest in 400m.
Assuming a constant resistance of 300g N, find the tension in the coupling between the
engine and the train and the maximum power at which the engine is working during
the 400m run. The mass of the engine may be neglected.
12. A locomotive of 700KW and mass 90Mg is dragging a train of mass 120Mg up a slope of
1 in 84. The frictional resistance amount to 36gN per Mg. find the maximum uniform
speed at which the train travels up the incline.
13. An engine working at 420KW draws a train of mass 250 Mg. If at certain instant the
total resistance is 175gN and speed is 48kph, what is the train’s acceleration
measured in km per hour or per second sq.
14. A load of mass 3Mg is being hauled by a rope up a railway line whose rise is 1 in 40.
There is a constant retarding force due to friction etc equal to 20gN per Mg of load. At
a certain instant the speed is 16 kph and acceleration is 0.6 m/s2, find the pull in the
rope and power at that instant.

Transmission of power by belts;

Suppose a belt passes round a pulley that turns without any slipping. Let T1 and T2 be the
tensions in the portions of the belt, which are receding from and approaching the pulley.
Assume T1> T2 . These tensions both act away from the pulley and the total work done by
them when the belt moves through any distance be the product of the difference of the
tensions and the distance.

T1

T2

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 Force = T1 -T2

For one round, distance travelled = circumference of the circle = 2∏r

Distance in n seconds = 2∏rn

Work done per second = (T1-T2)2∏r n

Power (expended in n sec) = (T1 – T2) 2∏r

Example; power is transmitted from one shaft to another by means of a single belt running at
20m/s . if the tensions in the straight parts of the belt are in a ratio of 5:2, and if the
greatest power that can be transmitted without breaking the belt is 15kw, what is the tension
that will just break the belt?

Solution;

Now T1: T2 = 5:2, I.e. T2 =5/2 T1

Power = force x velocity = (T2-T1) X 20 =15000W

5/2 T1- T1 = 750

T1 = 500N

T2= 1250 N

Therefore the tension that is slightly above 1250 N will just break the belt.

ENERGY;

This is the ability to do work. The sI unit is the joule.

A body may possess energy owing to a variety of causes e.g. Heat and electricity are forms of
energy, which can be converted into mechanical work (energy) in dynamics; we are
concerned only with mechanical energy that may be of two kinds i.e. kinetic energy and
potential energy.

The kinetic energy of a body is the energy it possesses by virtue of its motion.

Consider a person of mass m moving with velocity v and suppose it is brought to rest by a
constant force which produces retardation a.

Let x be the distance travelled in coming to rest.

From v2 = u2 + 2as, 0 = u2 – 2ax

U2/2 = ax

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 68

Work done = force x distance = ma.x = m. ax

Work done = m. v2/2

Therefore, k.e = ½ mv2

Potential energy of a body; is the work it can do in moving from its actual position to a
standard position.

Principle of conservation of energy;

It states that the total amount of energy in the universe is a constant energy and it cannot be
neither created nor destroyed although it may be converted into various forms e.g. sound,
light etc.

Example to justify the principle of conservation of energy;

The body of mass m falls from rest at a height h above the ground. Show that the sum of
potential energy and kinetic energy is constant through the motion.

Xm

h
m B

At A, potential energy =mgh

Kinetic energy = ½ mv2, but since v =0 at A, k.e =0 J

Sum of kinetic energy + potential energy at A

= 0 + mgh = mgh

Consider the particle at B

Let the velocity at B = v and let AB = x m

From v2 = u2 + 2as, therefore, v2 = 2gx since u = 0, a = g and s = x m

Kinetic energy = mgx

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
Potential energy at B = mg (h-x)

p.e + k.e = mgx +mg (h-x) = mgh

Consider the particle at C;

On reaching the ground, all potential energy has been changed into kinetic energy;

From v2 = u2 + 2as, v2 = 2gh

Kinetic energy = ½ mv2 = ½ m x 2gh = mgh

Sum of p.e + k.e = 0 + mgh = mgh

The results above show that the total energy of a body is constant throughout the motion.

Examples;

1. Find the power required to pump 4.5 m3 of water per minute from a depth of 15m and
deliver it through a pipe of 40 cm2 cross section( assume that 1m3 has a mass of
1000kg and neglect the effects of friction.)

Solution; given h =15m, A =40cm2 =0.004m2

Volume per minute = 4.5 m3 per minute

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Mass per minute = 4.5 x 103 kg since 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Work done in raising the water = Potential energy/min = mgh = 4.5x103 x 9.8 x 15 =
661500 J

Let the velocity of the water be v m/s.For every second, a column of v m long is covered
by water

Volume per second = area x velocity

= 0.004 x v

= 0.004v

Volume per minute = 0.004x v x 60

But volume per minute = 4.5 m3

So 4.5 = 0.004v x 60

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 70

Giving v = 18.75 m/s

Kinetic energy per minute = ½ mv2 = ½ x4.5x103 x (18.75)2 = 791015.625 J

(K.E + P.E) per minute = 661500 + 791015.625 = 142515.625 J

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝.𝑒+𝑘.𝑒 1432515.625

Power = = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 = = 24208.59 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 60

2. Show that the velocity of water in a pipe of cross section 10cm2 which delivers 0.1
m3/s is 10m/s. calculate the power of an engine which raises the water in the pipe to a
height of 12 m and then delivers that water at height of 2.1 m3/s.

Solution;

Volume = 0.1m3/s, density of water, δ = 1000kg/m3

Since δ = m/v, it implies mass per second = 1000 x 0.1 = 100kg

Potential energy = mgh = 100 x 9.8x 12 = 11760 J/s

Let the velocity per minute be v

For every second, a column of v m/s is covered

Volume per second = area x velocity

A = 100 cm2 = 0.01 m2

Volume per second = 0.01v

But volume per second = 0.1 m3/s

So 0.1 = 0.01v which gives v = 10m/s

k.e = ½ mv2 = ½ x 100 x (10)2 = 5000 J/s

Work done = k.e + p.e = 5000 + 11760 = 16760 J

Power = work done per unit time = 16760/1sec = 16760 watts.

3. Find the power required to pump 2m3 of water per minute from a depth of 30 m. the
water being delivered through a circular pipe 8cm in diameter (neglect friction.)
Solution;
Volume per minute = 2m3
Radius of pipe = 4cm, so cross sectional area = ∏r2 = 16∏ cm2 = 0.00016∏ m2
P.E= mgh, where mass = δ x volume/min = 1000 x 2 = 2000 kg/minute

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 P.E = 2000 x 9.8 x 30 = 588000 J
Now let the velocity of the water be v m/s for every second a column of v m is covered
by water.
Volume per second = Area x v
= 0.00016∏ x v x 60 = 2
This yields v = 6.6 m/s
K.E per minute = ½ mv2 = ½ x 2000 x 6.62 = 43560 J
Work done = P.E + K.E
= 588000 + 43560 = 102360 J
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 102360
Power = = = 1706 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 60

Trial question;

Find the power of an engine that can fill a cistern 60m above the level of driver with 140 m3
of water in 24 hour.

Example 3;

A body of mass m is projected up a plane of inclination α with an initial velocity of V. Find

how far up the plane the body goes and the mechanical energy lost during this motion.
Assume coefficient of friction between body and plane is μ.

F=μ R

mg

The acceleration up the plane is given by

ma = -mg sin α – μR where R= mg cos α

Therefore a = -g (sinα + μ cosα)

Let s be the distance the body moves up the plane before coming to rest. Using v2 = u2+ 2as,

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 72

We have 0 = u2 + 2as since final velocity = 0.

Substituting for u, and a yields s = v2 /2g (sinα + μ cos α)

Now, the loss in kinetic energy = initial k.e - final k.e = ½ mv2

And the gain in potential energy = mgh = mg s sinα

The total loss in mechanical energy = ½ mv2 - mg s sinα

sin 𝛼
= ½ mv2 – ½ mv2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼+ 𝜇 cos 𝛼

𝜇 cos 𝛼
= ½ mv2sin 𝛼+ 𝜇 cos 𝛼

HOOKE’S LAW AND ELASTICITY

A body is said to be elastic if when deformed (compressed/stretched), the body can regain its
original shape and size after the deforming force has been removed. This is true provided a
certain load is not exceeded. This implies that when an elastic string/spring is stretched, it
develops a tension that tends to restore its original shape and size. This is called the restoring
tension.

The tension in a stretched string/spring is directly proportional to the extension produced

provided the elastic limit is not exceeded. This law was developed by Hooke and is known as
Hooke’s law.

Consider a string of natural (unstretched length) l. let T be the stretching force. Since the
system is in equilibrium, this is also equal to the restoring tension in the string. If e is the
extension produced in the string, then

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Tαe

T = k.e where k is the constant of proportionality.

𝜆
T = 𝑙 𝑒. This is Hooke’s law.

The constant λ is called the modulus of elasticity of the string.

Units of λ

Assuming in the example above the force is large enough to stretch the string to twice its
length (i.e. if e = l)
𝜆
Then, T = 𝑙 . 𝑙

T = λ.

Therefore λ has the units of force.

Note; Elastic strings and springs can both be stretched. However, springs can be compressed
while strings can not be compressed. Hooke’s law also applies to compression in exactly the
same way as it does for extension.

Examples;

1. An elastic spring has a natural length of 0.8 m and modulus of elasticity 10N.
a) What extension will be produced if a force of 4.8m stretches the spring?
b) An unknown force stretches the spring by 0.05 m. find the magnitude of the force.

Solution

a) Let the force be T.

𝜆
From Hooke’s law, T = 𝑒 T = 4.8N, λ=10N, l= 0.8m
𝑙

10𝑒
1.8 = 0.8

10e = 3.84

e = 0.384 m.
𝜆
b) T = 𝑙 𝑒 T =?, e = 0.05 m ,l = 0.8
10𝑥0.05
T= 0.8
T = 0.625 N.

2. A light spring of natural length l is fixed at one end to a point O on a smooth horizontal
table. The other end is attached to a point P of mass m which rests on a table. The particle

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 74

5
is pulled away from O until OP = 2 𝑙. If the modulus of elasticity of the spring is 2mg, find
the tension in the spring and the initial acceleration of the particle when released.

Solution;

O T T

P
5
l +e = 2 𝑙 =

5 3
e = 2𝑙 − 𝑙 = 2𝑙

𝜆𝑒 2𝑚𝑔 3
From Hooke’s law, T = = .2𝑙
𝑙 𝑙

T = 3mg N.

From Newton’s second law, F = ma

F = T = 3mg

3mg = ma

a = 3g units.

3. An elastic string of natural length l and modulus of elasticity λ hangs in equilibrium with
a mass m1 freely suspended at its free end. If an additional mass m2 is added gently to the
𝑚2 𝑔𝑙
free end, show that the new equilibrium position is at a distance from the previous
𝜆
one.

Solution;

Let T1 be the tension in the string when a mass m1 hangs

in equilibrium and e the extension produced.
𝜆
l+e T1 from Hooke’s law, T1 = 𝑙 𝑒

m1g Since the system is in equilibrium, T1 = m1g

𝜆
𝑒 = 𝑚1 𝑔 … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
𝑙

T2

l+e+x

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 T2

(m1 + m2) g

Let x be the extra extension in the string when a mass m2 is added and T2 the new tension in
the string.
𝜆
From Hooke’s law, T2 = 𝑖 (𝑥 + 𝑒)

But T2 = (m1 + m2) g

𝜆
So, (m1 + m2) g = (𝑥 + 𝑒)
𝑙

𝜆 𝜆
(m1 + m2) g = 𝑙 𝑥 + 𝑙 𝑒

𝜆 𝜆
m1g + m2g – 𝑙 𝑒 = 𝑥 ………………………. (2)
𝑙

Substituting equation (1) in (2), we get

𝜆
m1g + m2g – m1g = 𝑙 𝑥

𝜆
m2g = 𝑙 𝑥

𝑚2 𝑔𝑙
Therefore, x = as required.
𝜆

4. The end A of an elastic string AB of natural length a and modulus of elasticity 2mg is
fastened to one end of another string AC of natural length 2a and modulus of elasticity
3mg. the ends B and C are stretched between two points 6a apart in a horizontal line. Find
the length of AB.

Solution;

B T1 A T2 T2 C

(a + x) (3a+e)

6a

Let T1, and x be the tension and extension in AB and T2, e be the tension and extension in
string AC.

Now, (3a+e) + (a+ x) = 6a

e = (3a-x)
2𝑚𝑔𝑥 3𝑚𝑔𝑒 3𝑚𝑔(3𝑎−𝑥)
From Hooke’s law, T1 = and 𝑇2 = =
𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎

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 76

Since the system is in equilibrium, T1 = T2

2𝑚𝑔𝑥 3𝑚𝑔(3𝑎−𝑥)
=
𝑎 2𝑎

4𝑥 = 9𝑎 − 3𝑥
9
𝑥 = 7𝑎

9 16
AB = a + x = 7 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 𝑎.
7

5. The ends of an elastic string of natural length l are fixed in a horizontal line and at a
distance 2l apart. A particle of mass m attached to the string at its midpoint rests in
equilibrium. If each half of the string is inclined to the vertical at an angle θ, show that
mg
the modulus of elasticity of the string is 2(cot θ−cos θ).

Solution;

2a

A B

T T

θ θ

T T
C
mg

Let T be the tension in the string and λ.

Resolving forces at C vertically, 2T cos θ = mg

𝑚𝑔
T = 2 cos 𝜃 ………………………. (1)

Now the stretched length in portion AC of the string = a cosec θ

Extension in AC = a cosec θ – a

= a (cosec θ – 1)
λ
Using Hooke’s law, T= . a (cosec θ − 1)
a

T = λ (cosec θ – 1) …………………….. (2)

Equating (1) and (2), we get

𝑚𝑔
= λ (cosec θ – 1)
2 cos 𝜃
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 mg
λ = 2cos θ (cosec θ−1)

𝑚𝑔
Therefore, λ = 2 (cot 𝜃−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) hence shown as required.

Work done in stretching an elastic string/spring

Consider a string/spring of natural length l and modulus of elasticity λ. For any extension, x ,
𝜆
the force T = 𝑙 𝑥

Now the work done, dW, in increasing the extension of this spring/string from x by dx is so
small that the force is almost constant.

Work = force x distance

dW = Tdx

The work done increasing the extension from x1 to x2 is

2 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝜆
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫𝑥 𝑇𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑥 𝑙 𝑥𝑑𝑥
1 1

𝜆 𝜆
W = 𝑙 (𝑥22 − 𝑥12 ) = 𝑙 (𝑥2 + 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

𝜆
W = 𝑙 (𝑇2 + 𝑇1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

𝜆
If the work done in stretching an elastic string from its natural length by x, then, W = 𝑥2.
2𝑙
The work done in compressing a spring of modulus λ and natural length l by a distance x is
𝜆
also 2𝑙 𝑥 2 .

It is also worth noting that this work is stored in the string/spring in form of elastic potential
energy. If an object is attached to the string it can be moved when the string/spring is
stretched hence doing work. A very good example is the mode of action of a catapult.

Example;

1. A spring of natural length 4m and modulus of elasticity 9.8N is stretched to a length of

6.0m. Calculate the work done in stretching the spring.

Solution;
𝜆
Work done = 𝑙 𝑥 2

Extension = 6.0 – 4.0 = 2.0

9.8
Work done = . (2)2 = 9.8 J
4

Exercise:

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 78

1. Strings AC and BC are both of natural lengths of 3l. AC is inelastic and BC has a modulus
of elasticity

PROJECTILES

Consider the motion of a particle projected under gravity in any direction. Assuming that the
acceleration due to gravity is constant and neglecting air resistance to the motion, the
particle is called a projectile. The following terms will be used in connection to projectiles.

Angle of projection; This is the angle that the direction in which the particle is projected
makes with the horizontal plane through the point of projection. This angle can as well be
called the angle of elevation.

The trajectory; is the path described by the particle.

The range; is the horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point where the
projectile next meets the plane through the point of projection.

NOTE:

The vertical motion is subjected to the force of gravity. Since gravity acts downwards, it has
no effect on horizontal motion.

The horizontal velocity therefore remains constant throughout the motion since there is no
force acting horizontally.

In order to investigate the motion of the particle, consider the vertical and horizontal
components of motion separately.

Consider a particle projected with velocity u, at an elevation α to the horizontal. The

horizontal and vertical components of initial velocity are u cosα and u sin α respectively.

The horizontal velocity throughout the motion is u cosα, the vertical motion is subject to
gravity downwards and therefore at any time t after the instant of projection, the vertical
velocity is u sinα – gt (using v = u + at)

U H

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 α Q x

Let A be the highest point of the path, and Q the point where it again meets the horizontal
plane through P.

Vertical motion.

To find the greatest height

At the maximum height, the vertical velocity is zero,
Using v2 = u2 + 2as, where u = u sinα, s =h, a = g
This implies, 0 = u2sin2α – 2gh
Therefore,
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
h = as the maximum height reached (at A )
2𝑔

To find time taken to reach maximum height

Using V = U – at,
v = u sin α – gt
At the maximum height, the vertical velocity is zero,
Therefore, 0 = u sinα – gt
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Giving t= as the time needed to reach maximum height.
𝑔

To find the time of flight i.e. the time taken to return to the same horizontal level at P.

Using s = ut - ½gt2

Putting s = 0, when t = T

We get, 0 = u sinα x T - ½gt2

2𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Therefore, T = 𝑔

This is twice the time taken to reach the highest point, as we should expect from symmetry.

HORIZONTAL MOTION;

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 80

As noted earlier, the horizontal direction is constant throughout. The maximum horizontal
distance covered in time T (time of flight) is the range.

To find the range on the horizontal plane through P.

The horizontal velocity for the particle is u cos α. This is uniform throughout T.

Therefore the horizontal distance moved throughout T,

R = average velocity x time of flight

2𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

= u cosα xT = u cos α x =
𝑔 𝑔

To determine the equation of the motion / equation of the trajectory.

The vertical and horizontal distances at any time t are given as;

y = u sinα x t - ½gt2

𝑥
x = u cosα x t t = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

Substituting for t in y gives,

𝑥 𝑔𝑥 2
y = u sin𝛼 ∗ 𝑢 cos 𝛼 - (xx)
2𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼

Giving y = x tan α - ½g (1 + tan2α) x2 as the equation of the motion. This represents a

parabola.

2𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

In (xx) when y =0, x= 0 or x = 𝑔

The first of these values corresponds to P and the second corresponds to Q.

Note; for a given velocity of projection, there are, in general, two possible angles of projection
to obtain a given horizontal range.
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛼
Since R = 𝑔

𝑔𝑅
If R and u are given, sin 2α = 𝑢2

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Now for a given value of sin 2α, there are two values of the angle less than 1800. If 2Ѳ is one
value, the other is 90 – Ѳ. Therefore Ѳ and 90 – Ѳ two possible angles of projection. The two
directions are equally inclined to the horizontal and vertical respectively so that one
direction for maximum range bisects the angle between them.

Examples.

1. A particle is projected with a velocity of 19.6 ms-1; find the maximum range on a
horizontal plane through the point of projection and the two direction of projection to
give a range of 12 m.
Solution;
Sketch

19.6 m/s

α
Rmax
If the angle of projection is α, the horizontal and vertical components of the initial
velocity are 19.6cosα and 19.6 sin α ms-1.
The time of flight t s is given by
0 = 19.6 sin α x t - ½gt2
19.6𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Therefore, t= = 44𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
4.9

In this time, the horizontal range is R = 19.6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 ∗ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

= 39.2 sin2α m.
This is maximum when, 2α = 90o, or α = 45o, and then the value is 39.2m.
When the range is 12m, we have;
39.2 sin 2α = 12
Sin 2α = = 0.306
2α = 18o or 162o
α = 9o or 81o
2. A projectile is fired from a point on a cliff to hit a mark 60m horizontally from the
point and 60m vertically below it. The velocity of projection is that due to falling freely

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 82

under gravity through 30 m from rest. Show that the two possible directions of
projection at right angles, and that the times of flight are approximately 2.7 and 6.4 s.
Solution;
The velocity v ms-1 acquired in falling 30m is given by;
V2 = 2g x30
V= √ (60g)
If α is the angle of elevation at which the projectile is fired,
-60 = √ (60g) x sin α x t - ½gt2 (1)
60 = √ (60g) x cos α x t (2)
Also
From 2 we get
60
t = √ ( 𝑔 ) x sec α

Substituting in i
-60 = 60 tan α – 30sec2α
= 60 tan α – 30 – 30 tan2α
2±√4+4
Therefore; tan α = = 1 ± √2.
2

One of these values is negative, and this means that one of the directions is below the
horizontal.
The product of the two tangents is (1 +√2) (1 - √2) = -1
And this, by a well known result in geometry, shows that the directions are at right
angles.
If tan α1 = 1+ √2
And tan α2 = 1 - √2
Sec2α1 = 1 + 2 √2 = 6.828
Sec2α2 = 1 + 3 -2 √2 = 1.172
Therefore; Sec α1 = 2.61 and sec α2 = 1.08,
60 60
Thus, the times are 2.61 √(9.8) = 6.4 s and 1.08 √(9.8) = 2.7 s approximately.

3. A body is thrown from the top of a tower 30.4 m high with a velocity of 24 m/s at an
elevation 30o above the horizontal. Find the horizontal distance from the foot of the
tower of the point where it hits the ground.

Solution; 24

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 30o

30.4m

Let T be the time of flight. The body covers a vertical distance equal to 30.4 m within this
time.

Vertical motion;

Using; s = ut + ½ at2

Vertical distance, y = u sin θ.T – ½ gT2 where u = 24m/s, θ =30o

-30.4 = 24 sin30o .T– ½ gT2

-60.8 = 24T – 9.8T2

9.8T2 -24T – 60.8 = 0

Solving this equation for T we have,

−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 24±√(−24)2 −4𝑥9.8𝑥−60.8

𝑇= =
2𝑎 2𝑥9.8

T1 = 4 seconds,T2 = -1.55seconds

Since time can not be negative, the time of flight is 4 seconds.

Horizontal distance, x = horizontal velocity x time of flight

X = u cos θ x T

X = 24 cos 30o x T

√3
X = 24. 2 𝑥 4 = 48√3 m.

Therefore, the body hits the ground at a distance 48√3 metres from the foot of tower.

4. The greatest range of a gun is 25 km. find the muzzle velocity of the shot, and prove
that, when the shot has travelled 6.4 km horizontally it has risen about 4.8 km.

Solution;

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 84

45o

Rmax = 25 km

Let θ be the angle of projection of the shot and u the muzzle velocity.
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2θ
Horizontal range, R = . This is maximum when sin 2θ = 1 i.e. when θ = 45o
g

𝑢2
Now, Rmax = = 25
𝑔

Therefore, u = √ (25g) km/hr and this is the muzzle velocity.

Now using the equation of trajectory, with x = 6.4, θ = 45o, and u = √ (25g), we have
𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 − 2𝑢2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ)

𝑔
𝑦 = 6.4 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45𝑜 – 50𝑔 𝑥6. 42 (1 + tan 45𝑜 )

y = 6.4 – 1.6384

y = 4.7616 km ≃ 4.8m hence shown as required.

5. A body is projected at such an angle that the horizontal range is three times the
greatest height. Find the angle of projection and if, with this angle the range is 400 m,
find the necessary velocity of projection and the time of flight.

Solution;

O R A

Let β be the angle of projection and u the velocity of projection.

At A, vertical distance y = 0.
2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛β
Using y = u sin β. T – ½ gT2 = 0, T = as the time of flight.
g

2𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 β 𝑠𝑖𝑛β
Now, when horizontal distance x = range, then R = u cos β .T = g

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Also, at maximum height, vertical velocity, v = 0

Using v = u + at, it implies that

0 = u sin β –gt
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Giving t = as the time required to reach maximum height.
𝑔

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 2
Considering vertical motion, H = u sin β. – ½ g. ( )
𝑔 𝑔

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β
This gives H = as the maximum height reached.
2𝑔

Now, given that R = 3H

2𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 β 𝑠𝑖𝑛β 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 β
It implies, =3
g 2𝑔

i.e. 4 cos β = 3 sin β

4
tan β = 3

4
Therefore, the angle of projection β = tan-1(3)

Given, R = 400m
𝑢2 sin 2β
It implies that R = 400 = 𝑔

400𝑔
Therefore, u2 = sin 2β,

u = 63.9 m/s.

Also, R = u cos β. T, where T is the time of flight.

3
u.5 . 𝑇 = 400

5
T = 400𝑥 3𝑥63.9 = 10.4 seconds.

Therefore, the angle of projection, velocity of projection and time of flight are tan-1(4/3),
63.9m/s and 10.4 seconds respectively.

6. A projectile is fired with initial speed √(2𝑔𝑎) to hit a target at a horizontal distance a
from the point of projection and at a vertical distance ½ a above it. Find the two
possible angles of projection and the ratio of the times of flight along the paths.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 86

Solution; √ (2ga) (a/ ½a)

Let θ be the angle of projection.

1 𝑔𝑥 2
Using the equation of the trajectory, 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 – (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 θ)
2 𝑢2

Now that y = ½ a, x = a and u = √ (2ga), we have

1 𝑔 𝑎2
½ a = a tan θ – 2 . 2𝑔𝑎 . (1 + 𝑡𝑎n2θ)

tan2θ – 4 tan θ + 3 = 0

4±√(−4)2 −4𝑥3𝑥1
tan θ = 2

Either tan θ = 3 or tan θ =1

Therefore, θ = 45o or 71o34’

The two possible angles of projection are 45o and71o34’

The second part of the question has been left as an exercise to the reader. Desired ratio is √5:
1.

7. A projectile is launched from a point with an initial velocity speed V. if R is the

horizontal range of the projectile and H its greatest height; prove that the initial speed
1
𝑅2 2
is [2𝑔 (𝐻 16𝐻)] .

Solution;

Let the projectile be launched with velocity V at an angle α to the horizontal. Let also R be
the range and H the maximum height.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 R

Since the given expression does not contain α, all we need to do is to eliminate α from the
expressions for range and maximum height.

2𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛αcosα
We know that, R = ………………………… (1)
𝑔

𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 α
And H = ………………………… (2)
2𝑔

Squaring (1), we have

4𝑉 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
R2 =
𝑔2

2𝑔𝐻
Making use of the fact that sin2 α + cos2 α = 1 and that from (2) sin2 α = we have,
𝑉2

2𝑔𝐻 2𝑔𝐻
R2g2 = 4V4 (1 − ).
𝑉2 𝑉2

2𝑔𝐻
R2g = 8V2H (1 − )
𝑉2

R2 = 8V2H – 16gH2

R2g + 16gH2 = 8V2

g (R2 + 16H2) = 8V2H

𝑅2 16𝐻 2
V2 = g (8𝐻 + )
8𝐻

𝑅2
V2 = [2𝑔 (𝐻 + 16𝐻)]

1
𝑟2 2
Therefore, V = [2𝑔 (ℎ + 16𝐻)] as required.

8. A ball is projected from a point on the ground distant a from the foot of a vertical wall
of height b, the velocity of projection being V at an angle α to the horizontal. Find how
high above the wall the ball passes.

𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 α
If the ball just clears the wall, prove that the greatest height reached is ¼ (𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛α−b)

Solution;

We need to find the time required to cover a horizontal distance a. let this be t.

Now, a = V cos α .t

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 88

α b

a
𝑎
From which, t = 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠α

Let h be the vertical distance covered in time t.

Now using S = ut + ½ at2, we have

𝑎 𝑎 2
h = Vsin α. 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠α - ½g (𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠α)

𝑎2 𝑔
h = a tan α - 2𝑉 2 sec2 α, and this is the height of the ball above the ground at a distance a from
the point of projection.

𝑎2 𝑔
Therefore, the height of the ball above the wall is {a tan α - 2𝑉 2 sec2α – b}.

Hmax h = b

Now if the ball just clears the wall, then it implies that h = b,

𝑎2 𝑔
i.e. a tan α - 2𝑉 2 sec2α - b = 0

2V2 (a tan α –b) = g a2sec2 α

𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 α
V2 = 2 (𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 α−b)

𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 α
It should be remembered that maximum height Hmax = ,
2𝑔

Substituting for V2, we have

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 α 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 α
Hmax = . 2(𝑎 tan α−b)
2𝑔

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 α
Hmax = ¼ (𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 α−b) as required.

9. A body is projected so that on its upward path, it passes through a point x m

horizontally and y m vertically from the point of projection. Show that, if R m is the
range on a horizontal plane through the point of projection, the angle of elevation of
𝑦 𝑅
projection is 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 . 𝑅−𝑥).

Solution;

Let α be the angle of projection, u the speed of projection and t the time taken to reach point
(x, y).

Considering horizontal motion;

x = u cos α.t …………………………………… (1)

2𝑢2 sin αcos α

R= …………………………………… (2)
𝑔

Considering vertical motion and applying S = ut + ½ at2, we have

y = u sin α.t – ½ gt2 ……………………………… (3)

𝑥
From (1), t = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠α

2𝑢2 sin αcosα

And from (2), g = 𝑅

Substituting these results in (3), we get

𝑥 1 2𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛αcosα 𝑥 2
y = u sin α.(𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠α) − 2 ( ) . (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠α)
𝑅

1 2𝑢2
y = x tan α – 𝑅 . 2𝑢2 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 αcos α. sec 2 α

tan α
y = x tan α – 𝑥2
𝑅

𝑦
𝑅. 𝑥 = R tan α – x tan α

𝑦
tan α (R –x) = R. 𝑥

𝑦 𝑅
α = ta𝑛−1 (𝑥 . (𝑅−𝑥)) as required.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 90

10. A Particle projected from a point meets the horizontal plane through the point of
projection after describing a horizontal distance a, and in the course of its trajectory
attains a greatest height b above the point of projection. Find the horizontal and
vertical components of the velocity of projection in terms of a and b.

Show that when it has described a horizontal distance x, it has attained a height of
4bx (a-x)/a2

Solution;

Let v be the velocity of projection and α the angle of projection.

𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 α
The maximum height, b = 2𝑔

V2sin2α = 2bg

The vertical component of velocity, v sin α = (2gb)1/2

2𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛αcosα
And horizontal distance/range, a = 𝑔

ag = 2(v sin α)(v cos α)

𝑎𝑔
v cos α = 2𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛α

𝑎𝑔
v cos α = and this is the horizontal component of velocity.
2√2𝑔𝑏

Now if t is the time taken by the particle to cover horizontal distance x, then

x = u cos α.t
1
𝑥 2𝑥(2𝑔𝑏)2
t = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠α = 𝑎𝑔

Now the vertical distance y covered in time t is given by,

y = ut + ½ at2
1 1
2𝑥(2𝑔𝑏)2 2𝑥(2𝑔𝑏)2
y = v sin α. –½g ( 𝑎𝑔 )2
𝑎𝑔

1
1
2𝑥(2𝑔𝑏)2 4𝑥 2 .2𝑔𝑏
y = (2𝑏𝑔) . 2 –½g.
𝑎𝑔 𝑎 2 𝑔2

4𝑏𝑥 4𝑥 2 𝑏
y= 𝑎
− 𝑎2

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 4𝑎𝑏𝑥−4𝑥 2 𝑏
y= 𝑎2

4𝑏𝑥
Therefore, y = (𝑎 − 𝑥) as required.
𝑎2

11. A heavy particle is projected from a point O at an elevation α and describes a parabola
under gravity. If the coordinate axes are taken horizontally and vertically through O,
prove that the equation of the parabola is
𝑥
y = x (1− 𝑅)tanα where R is the horizontal range.

If the distance between the two points on the parabola which are at the same height ℎ
above the horizontal is 2a, show that 𝑅 (𝑅 − 4ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼) = 4𝑎2

Solution;

O a

Let the velocity of projection of the particle be u and α the angle of projection.

The horizontal distance x covered after time t, x = u cos α

𝑥
t = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠α

1
Also the vertical distance covered in the same time, y = u sin α − 2 gt2

Substituting for t, we have,

𝑥 1 𝑥 2
y = u sin α. 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠α − 2g.( 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠α)

𝑔𝑥 2
y = x tan α - 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 α
𝑢2

2𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛αcosα
Also, the horizontal range R = 𝑔

𝑅𝑔
u2 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛α cosα

Substituting for u2 in the expression for y above gives,

1 2𝑠𝑖𝑛α cosα
y = x tan α − 2 gx 2 sec 2 α . 𝑅𝑔

1
y = x tan α - x2tan α. R

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 92

x
Therefore, y = x (1 − R)tan α as required.

Now if the first point is at a distance x from the point of projection, the second will be at a
distance (x +2a).

Since R is the range, then, R = 2a +2x

x = ½ (R – 2a)

Substituting y = h and x = ½ (R – 2a) in the above result, we have

𝑅−2𝑎
h = ½ (R – 2a).(1 − ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 α.
2𝑅

(𝑅−2𝑎)
2h = [R – 2𝑎 − ]𝑡𝑎𝑛α
2𝑅

4Rhcot α = 2R (R -2a) - (R-2a) 2

4Rhcot α = 2R2 – 4aR – R2 + 4aR – 4a2

R2 −4Rhcot α =4a2

Therefore, R (R -4hcot α) = 4a2 hence shown as required.

12. Shots fired simultaneously from the top and bottom of a vertical cliff, with elevations α
and β respectively, strike an object simultaneously at the same point. Show that if a is
the horizontal distance of the object from the cliff, the height of the cliff is
𝑎 (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 – tan 𝛼).

Solution;

Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of projection of the shots at the top and bottom of the cliff
respectively.

u1

α y1

u2

h y2

The horizontal distance covered by the shots is the same and it is a.

This implies that if a is covered in t seconds, then,

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

u1 cos α.t = u2 cos β.t = a

u1 cos α = u2 cos β
𝑎 𝑎
And t = 𝑢 =𝑢
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 β

The vertical distances covered by the shots are y1 and y2.

y1 = u1sin α- ½ gt2

y2 = u2sin β – ½ gt2

Now if h is height of the particle above the top of the cliff, then it implies that,

y1 + h = y2

h = y2 – y1
1
h = u2 sinβ .t – ½ gt2 – (u1sin α − 2 gt2)

h = (u2sin β – u1sin α)t

𝑎 𝑎
Substituting t = 𝑢 =𝑢 , 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 β

𝑎 𝑎
h = (𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽. 𝑢 − 𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼. 𝑢 )
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

ℎ = 𝑎(𝑡𝑎𝑛β − tan 𝛼) and this is the expression for the height of the cliff.

Exercise

1. A particle is projected from level ground towards a vertical pole, 4m high and 30m
away from the point of projection. It just passes the pole in one second. Find;
i) Its initial speed and angle of projection
ii) The distance beyond the pole where the particle will fall. (UNEB 2002, 16)
2.

Projection up an inclined plane

Consider a projectile launched with an initial speed u, at an elevation β to the horizontal up a

plane of inclination α.

Y u

β α y
Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss
 94

O x C X

Assuming that the projectile meets the plane through the point of projection along the line of
greatest slope at A(x, y), then OA is the range. At the point A, the displacement of the
projectile at right angles to the plane is zero.

Taking OX and OY as the coordinate axes, we shall consider the motion of the projectile
horizontally and vertically. Throughout the motion, the particle is moving with a constant
acceleration –g.

Horizontal motion; x = u cos β. t

𝑥
t=
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 β

Vertical motion; using s = ut + ½ at2, the vertical distance covered after time t is given by

y = u sin β.t – ½ gt2

Substituting for t, we get

𝑥 1 𝑥 2
y = u sin β. 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 β − 2 g (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 β)

𝑔𝑥 2
y = x tan β - 2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 β ……………………. (*)

𝑦
Now, from the geometry of the triangle OAC, tan α = 𝑥

y = x tan α

Substituting for y in (*), we get

𝑔𝑥 2
x tan α = x tan β - 2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 β

𝑔𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 β

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
( − )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
x= 2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

2𝑢2 sin(𝛽−𝛼)
x= 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

If T is the time of flight and x the horizontal distance of A from O, then

𝑥
T = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 β

Substituting for x in this equation yields,

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 2𝑢 sin(𝛽−𝛼)𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
T= as the expression for the time of flight.
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

Note that if the angles are known and the initial speed known, we can find the time of flight
quickly without first finding the expression for x.

This can be achieved by taking the coordinate axes perpendicular and parallel to the plane.

The initial velocity perpendicular to the plane is u sin (𝛽 − 𝛼) and the constant acceleration
in this direction is –g cos α.

g sin α

u sin(β-α) u g α g cos α

β u cos (β-α)

Using s = ut + ½ at2 Where s is the vertical distance of the projectile above the plane,
and at A, s = 0. So we have
1
0 = u sin (𝛽 − 𝛼). 𝑇 − 2 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑇2

2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝛼)
T= as the time of flight.
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

Range up the plane

To find the range R along the inclined plane, we shall use the geometry of triangle OAC.
𝑥
From Δ OAC, cos 𝛼 = 𝑅

𝑅 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 ……….. (**)

Substituting for x in (**), we get

2𝑢2 sin(𝛽−𝛼)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
R = sec 𝛼. 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

2𝑢2 sin(𝛽−𝛼) cos 𝛽

R= as the expression for the range along the inclined plane.
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼

Maximum range up the plane

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 96

2𝑢2 sin(𝛽−𝛼) cos 𝛽

It is now clear that R = , is the range up the incline.
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼

𝑢2
Now since the expression 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 α is a constant for known values of u and α which are
constants, then the maximum value of R is dependent on the value of [2sin(β − α) cos α]

The expression [2 sin (β-α) cos α] can be expressed as a difference of two sines.

2sin (β-α) cos α = sin (2β-α) - sin α

(Refer to Pure mathematics- Trigonometry-factor formulae)

𝑢2
Therefore, R = [sin(2𝛽 − 𝛼) − sin 𝛼]
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼

R is maximum when [sin(2𝛽 − 𝛼) − sin 𝛼] is maximum i.e. when sin(2𝛽 − 𝛼) = 1

This happens when,

[2 𝛽 − 𝛼] = ½ п

β=¼п+½𝛼
𝑢2
Therefore, maximum range, Rmax = 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 α (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)

𝑢2
Rmax = 𝑔 (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼) (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)

𝑢2 (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼) 𝑢2
Rmax = 𝑔(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼) = 𝑔(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)

It should be noted that if u is constant, then, β is the only variable and R is dependent on this.

Projection down an inclined plane

Consider a particle projected at an angle θ to the plane from the top of the plane which is
inclined at an angle γ to the horizontal with speed u.

R N

γ y

O x X

We can examine its motion down the plane by considering the direction of motion along the
plane and geometry of the plane.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Considering motion along the plane

At A the vertical distance covered by the particle below the plane, s =0

Using s = ut + ½ at2, we get

0 = u sin θ.T - ½ g cos γT2

2usinθ
T = g cos γ and this is the time of flight.

OX X
From geometry of ΔOXN, cos γ = ON = R

Therefore, R = x sec γ …………………….. (*)

The horizontal distance OX = x can be obtained by considering motion horizontally;

OX = x = ux .T
2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
x = u cos (γ- θ). 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾

2𝑢2 cos(γ− θ)sinθ

x= 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾

Substituting this value of x in (*), yields

2𝑢2 cos(γ− θ)sin θ
ON = R = 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛾

Now, R is maximum when cos(γ − θ) sin θ 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.

But, cos(γ − θ)sin θ = sin(2γ − θ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 γ is maximum when sin (2γ − θ) = 1

𝑢2 (1+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛γ)
Therefore, Rmax = 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛾

𝑢2 (1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 γ)
Rmax = 𝑔(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛γ)(1+cosγ)

𝑢2
Hence, Rmax = 𝑔(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛γ) as required

Suppose the angle of projection to the horizontal is β and the inclination of the plane is α,
𝑢2 𝑢2
then maximum range down the plane is 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼 (1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) and that up the plane is 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼 (1 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼).

From the results above it is clear that,

For a particle projected at the same angle up and down an inclined plane, maximum range
down the plane bears a constant ratio to the maximum range up the plane.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 98

1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
This ratio equals to 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
, where 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 .

Trial questions;

1.

B C

O 100m

1000m A

A Shell is fired from a stationary ship O which is at a distance of 1000m from the foot of a
vertical cliff AB of height 100m. the shell passes vertically above B and lands at a point C on
horizontal ground, level with the top of the cliff. The shell is fired with speed 300 ms-1 at
angle of elevation θ, and air resistance to the motion of the shell may be neglected.

i) Given that θ = 30o find the time of flight of the shell and the distance BC.

B C

O A 100m

1000m

ii) Given instead that the shell just passes over B, as shown in the figure, find the
value of θ, correct to the nearest degree. (29.9
sec, θ≈9o)

2. A particle that is projected from a point on a level ground and attains a maximum
height H, just clears two walls each of height h. Prove that, the time taken by the particle
𝐻−ℎ
to fly between the walls is 8√ .
𝑔

3. A shot projected with a velocity V can just reach a certain point on the horizontal plane
through the point of projecti on. Show that, in order to hit a mark h m above the ground at

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 the same point, if the shot is projected at the same elevation, the velocity of projection
𝑣2
must be increased to 1 .
(𝑣 2−𝑔ℎ) 2

4. A particle is projected with velocity V from a point, so that its range, on a plane
through the point and inclined at an angle α to the horizontal, is a maximum. Show
that this maximum range is R = V2/g (1+ sin α).
Show that, after two-thirds of the time of flight has elapsed, the vertical distance
2𝑅
between the particle and the plane is .
9
5. a) A particle P is projected with velocity V at an angle α with the horizontal. At
time t =0 it is at a point O where its velocity is horizontal. Write down the horizontal
and vertical displacements from O after time t, and show that the path of P is a
parabola of latus rectum (2V2/g) cos2 α.
b) A ball is thrown over three posts of heights h, h+d, h at equal distances a apart in the
same vertical plane, so as to just clear each post. Show that the ball strikes the ground
1
ℎ
at a distance a (1 + 𝑑 )2 beyond the middle post.
6. A particle is projected out to sea with a velocity of 49ms-1 from the top of a cliff 98m
high at an angle of 30o with the horizontal; find how far from the bottom of the cliff the
particle hits the water. Ans; approx; 316m
7. A bullet is fired with a velocity whose horizontal and vertical components are u, v; find
its position at time t. if the horizontal velocity is 600ms-1 , find the elevation at which it
must be fired if it is to hit a mark 2 m above the muzzle at a distance of 500m.
Ans; v= 6.48m/s, Ѳ = 37min.
8. A particle is projected with a velocity of 196ms-1 at an elevation of 300. Find;
i) The greatest height attained.
ii) The time of flight
iii) The horizontal range.
(Ans; 490, 20, 3395)
9. A vertical post subtends an angle α at a point A in the same horizontal plane as the
foot of the post. Two particles are projected at the same instant from A, in directions
making Ѳ1 and Ѳ2 with the horizontal, so that the former strikes the top of the post at
the same moment that the latter strikes the bottom of the post. Prove that tanѲ1 –
tanѲ2 = tan Ѳ2
10. A Particle P is projected from a point O with initial velocity 60 m/s at an angle of 30o
to the horizontal. At the same instant, a second particle is projected in the opposite
direction with an initial velocity of 50 m/s from a point leveled with O and 100m away
from O. if the particle collide, find the angle of projection of the second particle and
when the collision occurs.
11. A projectile is launched at an angle α from a cliff of height H above sea level. If it falls
into the sea at a distance D from the base of the cliff, prove that the maximum height
above sea level is H + D2 + tan2α
4(H + D tan α)

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 100

12. A projectile having horizontal range R reaches a maximum height H. prove that it must
have been launched with
a) An initial velocity equal to √( g(R2 + 16H2)/8H
b) At an angle with the horizontal given by sin-1(4H/√(R2+16H2)
13. The horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity of a body projected from
a point O on the ground are P and Q respectively.
a) Express the vertical distance y in terms of the horizontal distance X and
components P and Q.
b) Find the greatest distance H and the range R on the horizontal plane hence show
4x(R−x)
that 𝑦 = R2

14. A boy throws a ball at a velocity of 40 m/s at an angle α. Show that taking g to be
10m/s2, that the time of flight corresponding to the range of 80 m are positive roots of
the equation
T4 – 64T2 + 256 = 0

FRICTION;

This force tends to resist motion between two bodies one sliding over the other. The
maximum value of friction is attained just before motion takes place. This maximum value is
called limiting friction.

Laws of friction;

i) Friction acts in a direction as to oppose the change causing it. i.e. the direction in
which the body tends to move.
ii) The magnitude of friction is up to a certain point, exactly equal to the force tending
to produce it.
iii) Only a certain amount of friction can be called into play. This is called limiting
friction.
iv) The magnitude of limiting friction bears a constant ratio μ to the normal reaction
between the surfaces. This is called the coefficient of friction.
v) The amount of friction is independent of the area and shape of the surfaces in
contact provided the normal reaction is un altered.
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 vi) When motion takes place, the friction still opposes the motion. It is independent of
the velocity and proportional to the normal pressure but less than the limiting
friction.

From law 4, F/R = μ

F=μR

Note that friction is not always equal to μR. It only has this value when motion is about to
take place, otherwise it may have any value from zero up to μR.

Angle of friction;

If the normal reaction R and the force of friction F are compounded into a single force, this
force is called the resultant or total reaction, and it makes an angle tan-1F/R with the
normal.

When the friction is limiting, the angle made by the

R
resultant reaction with the normal is called the angle of
λ friction, and is denoted by λ. We see that tan λ = μ.

EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE;

Consider a particle of weight W placed on a rough plane whose inclination to the horizontal
is gradually.

F = μR

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 102

At any inclination α, the component of the weight down the plane is W sin α. The normal
reaction between the particle and the plane is W cos α. The limiting minimum friction is μW
cosα .

Hence, when W sin α = μ W cos α, or tan α = μ, motion is just about to take place.

The particle will therefore begin to slide down under its own weight when the angle of
inclination is such that tan α = μ. I.e. when the inclination of the plane is equal to the angle of
friction.

Particle on rough horizontal plane acted on by an external force.

a) R b) R1 P

P Ѳ

F F = μ R1

W W

If the force is horizontal as in a), for motion to take place, P must be greater than F = μR.

If the force is inclined upwards at an angle Ѳ, as in fig. b), the force has an upward vertical
component that reduces the pressure between the particle and the plane.

The normal reaction is now, and the corresponding limiting friction is μ (W – P sinѲ). When
the motion is just about to take place, we must therefore have,

Resolving perpendicular to the plane: R1 + Psin θ = W

P cos Ѳ = μ (W – P sinѲ).

R1= W – P sin Ѳ

Resolving horizontally: P cos θ = μR1

P cos θ = μ (W – P sin Ѳ)

∴P (cos Ѳ + μ sin Ѳ) = μW

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
But, μ = tan λ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆, where λ is the angle of friction.

sin 𝜆 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜆
P (cos Ѳ + sin Ѳ) = cos 𝜆 𝑊
cos 𝜆

cos Ѳ cos 𝜆+sin Ѳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 sin 𝜆

∴P = 𝑊
cos 𝜆 cos 𝜆

∴ P cos (Ѳ – λ) = W sin λ

sin 𝜆
∴P = 𝑊 cos(Ѳ− 𝜆 )

The value of P will be minimum when cos (Ѳ – λ) is a maximum, i.e. when Ѳ = λ, and then P =
W sin λ.

If P is inclined downwards, as in the figure below it has a downward vertical component that
increases the normal action and hence increases the friction.

R2

F = μR2

To move the particle with the least possible force, the force should therefore be applied in an
upward direction at an angle to the horizontal equal to the angle of friction.

→: F = P cosθ

μR = P cos θ

↑: R2 = P sin θ + W

The friction is; F = μR2 = μ (W + P sin Ѳ)

And for motion to take place, P cosѲ > μ (W +P sinѲ)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ѳ sin 𝜆

Therefore; P (cosѲ - ) >𝑊
cos 𝜆 cos 𝜆

𝑊 sin 𝜆
Therefore; P > cos(Ѳ+ 𝜆).

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 104

P must therefore be very large to allow motion and if (Ѳ + λ) is nearly 90o, the particle will
not move however large P may be.

Particle on a rough inclined plane acted on by an external force;

Case1; when the inclination of the plane is less than the angle of friction.

In this case, the friction is JUST enough to prevent the particle from moving downwards
under its own weight.

a) If P acts upwards at an angle α to the plane as shown in the fig.

Since the particle is now on the point of

R1 P

F =μR1

The normal reaction R1 = W cosα – P sin Ѳ

Hence, the limiting friction is μ (W cosα – P sinѲ) and acts down the plane. The
component of weight down the plane is W sin α.

On the point of moving up the plane we have;

P cos α = W sin α + μ (W cos α – P sinѲ)

sin 𝜆 sin 𝜆 cos 𝛼
Therefore; P (cos Ѳ + cos 𝜆 sin Ѳ) = W (sin α + )
cos 𝜆

cos(Ѳ− 𝜆) sin(Ѳ+ 𝜆)
𝑃 =𝑊
cos 𝜆 cos 𝜆

sin(𝛼+ 𝜆 )
Thus; P = W cos 𝜆

This is minimum when Ѳ = λ, and P = W sin (α +λ). If Ѳ = 0, i.e. when p acts parallel,
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛼+𝜆)
P=W cos 𝜆

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 b) If P acts downwards at an angle Ѳ to the plane
The limiting friction is now μR2 but now it acts up the plane, as the particle is on the
point of moving downwards.

R2

F = μR2
θ
α A

Resolving perpendicular to the plane: R2 = W cos α – P sin θ

Resolving parallel to the plane: P cos θ+ W sin α = μR2

Substituting for R2 gives P cosѲ + W sin α = μ (Wcosα – P sin Ѳ)

P cos θ + μP sin θ = μW cos α – W sin α

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜆 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜆 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
P =W
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

cos(Ѳ− 𝜆) sin(𝜆− 𝛼)
𝑃 =W
cos 𝜆 cos 𝜆

𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝜆−𝛼)
∴P = 𝑊 cos( Ѳ− 𝜆 )

P is again a minimum when Ѳ = λ, and its value is then W sin (λ – α)

CASE II: when the inclination of the plane is greater than the angle of friction.
In this case, the particle will slide down unless supported by external force. We have to
consider:
i) The force required to move the particle up the plane.
ii) The force required to support it.

Force required to move the particle up the plane

i) We shall resolve the forces as in the case 1 above. The frictional force is now
acting downwards because the particle is on the point of moving up the plane. The
force acting parallel to the plane is obtained putting Ѳ = 0,

R1 P

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 106

F =μR1

𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝛼+𝜆 )
P =W cos 𝜆

II) If P acts up wards at an angle Ѳ

The friction now acts up the plane as the particle is on the point of moving down.

R2 P

F = μR2

Resolving perpendicular to the plane: Pcos θ + R2 = W cos α

Resolving parallel to the plane: Wsin α = Pcos θ + μR2

The normal reaction R2 = W cos α – P sin Ѳ and the limiting friction is μ(W cos α – P sinѲ)

∴ P cos Ѳ + μ( Wcosα - P sinѲ) = W sin α

sin 𝜆 sin Ѳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 cos 𝛼

∴P (CosѲ – ) = W ( sin α – )
cos 𝜆 cos 𝜆

𝐶𝑂𝑆 ( Ѳ+ 𝜆) sin(𝛼−𝜆)
∴ P =W
𝐶𝑂𝑆 𝜆 cos 𝜆

sin(𝛼−𝜆)
∴ P = Wcos(θ+ 𝜆) and this is the force required to support the particle.

P will be minimum when Ѳ = -λ, i.e. when p acts along EA.

If P acts downwards at an angle θ to the plane,

R2

P
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 F = μR2
θ
α

it has a component perpendicular to the plane which increases the normal reaction;

The direction of the limiting friction remains unchanged but the magnitude now becomes
μ (W cosα + P sin Ѳ) and acts up the plane.

Note that from the diagram resolving perpendicular to the plane, gives R2 = Wcos α + Psinθ

∴ P cos Ѳ + μ (W cosα + PsinѲ) = W sinα

P (cos θ + μ sin θ) = W (sin α - μcos α)

Substituting for μ = tan λ,

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
P(cos θ – 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 cos 𝜃) = W(sin 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)

1 1
∴ P(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = W(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

sin( 𝜆 − Ѳ) sin(𝛼−𝜆)
∴ P )=𝑊
cos 𝜆 cos 𝜆

sin(𝛼− 𝜆)
P = W cos(Ѳ−𝜆)

This is minimum when Ѳ = λ, and then P = W sin (α-λ)

Examples

1. A weight of mass 20 kg is placed on a rough plane inclined at 22o to the horizontal. It is

found that the least force which, acting downwards, along the slope of the plane, will
cause it to move is 24 N. Find
(i) The coefficient of friction and,
(ii) The least force which, acting along the slope of the plane, will just cause the weight
to move upwards.

Solution;

i) Since the particle is to be moving downwards, friction is limiting and is acting

upwards.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 108

20g sin22o μR

24N 22o 20g cos 22o

20g

Resolving perpendicular to the plane; R = 20 g cos22o

Resolving parallel to the plane;

20g sin x 22o + 24 = μR

20g sin 22o + 24 = μ x20g cos22o

20g sin22o +24
𝜇=
20g cos22o

𝜇 = 0.536

ii) In this case, frictional force is acting downwards. Let the force required be P.

20g sin22o P

μR 22o 20g cos 22o

20g

Resolving perpendicular to the plane as before, R = 20g cos 22o

Resolving parallel to the plane, 20g sin 22o + μR = P

Substituting for R and μ in (2) gives

20g sin 22o + 0.536 x 20g cos 22o = P

P = 170.9 N.

2. The force P acting along a rough inclined plane is just sufficient to maintain a body on
the plane, the angle of friction λ being less than α, the angle of the plane. Prove that the
sin(𝛼+𝜆)
least force acting along the plane, sufficient to drag the body up the plane is P sin(𝛼−𝜆).

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Solution;

Case I; Since α >λ, the body moves down the plane in absence of P, so P and friction must act
in the same direction.

μR

α W cos α

Resolving perpendicular to the plane, we have R = W cos α

Resolving parallel to the plane, we have P + μR = W sin α

P + μW cos α = W sin α
𝑃
W = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼−𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)

Case II;

Let the required force be F. In this case, the body is to move up the plane and therefore
friction is acting down the plane.

W sin α

α μR W cos α

Resolving perpendicular to the plane; R = W cos α

Resolving parallel to the plane; F = μR + W sin α

Substituting for R, we have

F = μW cos α + W sin α

F = W (μ cos α + sin α)
𝑃
From (1), W = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼−𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)

Substituting for w in (2), we get

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 110

𝑃
F= (𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠α + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α)
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼−𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)

𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠 α+sinα
F = 𝑃 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 α−μcos α]

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
Now since μ = tan λ = cos 𝜆 , it follows that

𝑐𝑜𝑠 α sinλ+sinα cos λ

F = P 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α cosλ−cos αsin λ

sin(α+λ)
Therefore, F = P sin(α−λ) as required.

3. Particles of mass 2 kg and 1 kg are placed on the equally rough slopes of a double
inclined plane, whose angles of inclination are respectively 60o and 30o, and are
connected by a light string passing over a small smooth pulley at the common vertex
of the planes; if the heavier particle is on the point of slipping downwards, show that
the coefficient of friction is 5√3 − 8.

Solution:

The string is in a state of tension. Since the string is light, the tension is the same throughout.
Let this be T N. also, since the 2 kg mass is at a point of moving down, 1 kg mass will be at a
point of moving upwards. Friction acts down the plane for 1 kg mass and up the plane for the
2 kg mass.

R2 T T

μR2 R1

2g sin 60o 2g cos60o g sin 30o

60o g sin30o μR1 30o

For the 1 kg mass;

Resolving perpendicular to the plane; R1 = g cos 30o

Resolving parallel to the plane; μR1 + g sin 30o = T

I.e. T = μ g cos 30o + g sin 30o = T …………………………….. (1)

For the 2 kg mass;

Resolving perpendicular to the plane; R2 = 2g cos 60o

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Resolving parallel to the plane; μR2 + T = 2g sin 60o

i.e. 2μg cos 60o + T = 2g sin 60o …………………………… (2)

Substituting for T in (2) gives,

√3 √3
2 μg x ½ + μg x 2 + ½ g = 2g x 2

√3 1
μg (1 + 2 ) = g(√3 − 2)

2√3−1
μ= 2+√3

2√3−1 2− √3
μ= 𝑥
2+√3 2− √3

8− 5√3
μ= −1

Therefore, μ =5√3 – 8 as required.

4. A particle of mass m kg is placed on a rough inclined plane of inclination β to the

horizontal and angle of friction between the particle and the plane is λ. Prove that the
maximum force acting horizontally, Pmax required to maintain the particle in
equilibrium is given by Pmax = mg tan(β + λ).

Solution; it should be noted that the particle is in limiting equilibrium, therefore, Friction =
μR.

Pmax β μR

mg sinβ β mg cos β

Resolving along the plane;

Pmax cos β = μR + mg sin β …………….. (1)

Resolving perpendicular to the plane; R = mg cos β +Pmax sinβ ………………….. (2)

From (1) and (2),

Pmax cos β = tan λ Pmax sin β + tan λ mg cos β + mg sin β

Pmax (cos β – tan λ sin β) = mg (tan λ cos β + sin β)

Pmax (cos β cos λ – sin λsin β) = mg (sin λ cos β + sinβ cos λ)

Pmax cos (β +λ) = mg sin (β +λ)

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss
 112

Therefore, Pmax = mg tan (β +λ) as required.

Trial questions

1. A body of mass 20 kg is resting on a to maintain the particle in

8μmg
rough inclined whose slope is sin- equilibrium is Pmax = .
3 √1+9μ2
1 ; if the coefficient of friction
5 b) Given that the force acts
between the plane and the body is horizontally to the plane through
0.2, find the least force acting the line of greatest slope, show that
parallel to the plane required; the minimum force required to
(i) to prevent the body from sliding maintain the particle in equilibrium
down 4μmg
is Pmin = 1+3μ2 .
(ii) to pull it up the plane.
5. A body of mass 20 kg is resting on a
2. The horizontal force X is just rough horizontal plane, the
sufficient to prevent the body of coefficient of friction being 0.5; find
mass m from sliding down a plane
the least force which, acting
of inclination β. The horizontal
force 4X applied to the same i) Horizontally
particle causes the particle to just ii) At an angle of 30o with the
move up. If μ is the coefficient of
horizontal, would move the
friction between the mass and the
plane, show that 5μ tan2 β – 3(μ2 + body.
1) tan β + 5μ = 0. 6. A weight of mass 20kg is placed on
3. The least force required to move a
a rough plane inclined at 22o to the
body up the plane is P. show that
the minimum force acting parallel horizontal. It is found that the least
to the plane required to move the force that, acting downwards, along
body up the plane is P√1 + μ2 the slope of the plane, will cause it
where μ is the coefficient of friction.
to move is 24N. find;
4. A particle of mass 2m kg rests on a
rough plane inclined to the i) The coefficient of friction and;
horizontal at an angle tan-1(3μ) ii) The least force, which, acting
where μ is the coefficient of friction along the slope of the plane, will
between the particle and the plane;
just cause the weight to move
the particle is acted on by a force P
N. upwards.
a) Given that the force acts along the 7. A weight of mass 40 kg is on the
line of greatest slope, show that the
point of sliding down a rough
maximum possible force required
inclined plane when supported by a
force of 196N acting parallel to the
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 plane, and is on the point of moving the plane is P𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝜆 )/ sin(𝛼 −
up the plane when acted on by a 𝜆).
force of 294N parallel to the plane. 13. A particle of mass 0.8 kg is held at
Find the coefficient of friction. rest on a rough plane. The plane is
8. A body of mass 40 kg is resting on a inclined at 30o to the horizontal.
rough horizontal plane and can just The particle is released from rest
be moved by a force of 98 N acting and slides down a line of greatest
horizontally; find the coefficient of slope of the plane. The particle
friction. moves 2.7 m during the first 3
9. Find the least force required to seconds of its motion. Find
move a mass of 20 kg along a rough a) The acceleration of the particle
horizontal plane when the b) The coefficient of friction between
coefficient of friction is 0.25. the particle and the plane.
10. A body of mass 20 kg is placed on a
The particle is now held on the same rough
rough inclined plane whose slope is
plane by a horizontal force of magnitude X
30o; the plane is raised until its
newtons, acting in a plane containing a line
slope is 60o. Find the force parallel
of greatest slope of the plane, as shown in
to the plane required to support the
the diagram below. The particle is in
body.
equilibrium and on the point of moving up
11. The least force which will move a
the plane.
weight up an inclined plane is P.
show that the least force, acting
parallel to the plane, which will
x
move the weight upwards is P√( 1
+ μ2), where μ is the coefficient of 30o
friction .
12. The force P acting along a rough
inclined plane is just sufficient to Find the value of X.

maintain a body on the plane, the

14.
angle of friction λ being less than α,
the angle of the plane. Prove that
the least force, acting along the PN
plane, sufficient to drag the body up

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 114

A small package of mass 1.1 kg is held in

equilibrium on a rough plane by a
horizontal force . the plane is inclined at
an angle α to the horizontal, where tan𝛼 =
3
. The force acts in a vertical plane
4

containing the line of greatest slope of the

plane and has magnitude P newtons, as
shown in the figure above. The coefficient
of friction between the package and the
plane is 0.5 and the package is modeled as
a particle. The package is in equilibrium
and on the point of slipping down the
plane.

a) Draw, on the forces acting on the

package, showing their directions
clearly.
b) I) find the magnitude of the normal
reaction between the package and
the plane.

ii) find the value of P.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY

We can now extend the techniques of principle of moments and principle of forces in
equilibrium to solve problems involving rigid bodies. A rigid body is one whose shape and
size are invariable so that the distance between any two points on the body is always the
same. In other words, the shape and size of the body remain the same no matter what
forces are acting on it. Such a body may be in form of a heavy rod, solid or hollow sphere
e.t.c. In this section we shall deal with problems such as;

i) Determining reaction at the hinge and tension in the string.

ii) Solving ladder problems.
iii) Jointed rods.

In all these cases the general procedure is;

i) Interprete the problem and draw a sketch diagram.

ii) Indicate all the forces acting on the diagram.
iii) Resolve the forces in two suitable directions preferably perpendicular to each
other.
iv) Equate clockwise moments to anticlockwise moments of forces acting on a body
about any convenient point.

In step (i) and (ii) above the following points should be noted with a lot of care.

i) The weight of a body acts vertically downwards through its centre of gravity.
ii) When a body is leaning against a smooth surface, the reaction on the body is normal
to the surface.
iii) When a body is resting on a smooth peg the reaction of the peg on the rod is
perpendicular to the rod.
iv) When a body is freely suspended from a fixed point, the centre of gravity of the body
must lie in the vertical through the point of suspension.
v) The resultant of two equal forces bisects the angle between them. Thus, when a
string passes over a smooth peg, the thrust on the peg bisects the angle between the
portions of the string on each side of the peg.
vi) The tension in a light string is the same throughout the string and this tension is
unaffected by the string passing over smooth pegs or pulleys. If the pulley is rough,
the tension is different on both sides of the pulley.
vii)When an end of a rod is resting against a curved surface of a smooth sphere or
against a smooth circular arc, the reaction is normal to the sphere or circle, and
therefore passes through its centre.

Reaction at the hinge and tension in the string;

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 116

When a rod is freely hinged at a certain point, there exists a reaction at that hinge. Also,
when a string is set to suspend a weight, the string is in a state of tension.

Therefore, when resolving forces in equilibrium, the reaction at the hinge(s) and the
tension in strings involved should be put into consideration depending on the situation. If
the reaction is not required, moments can be taken at that point to eliminate the reaction.

Examples

1. A uniform rod AB of mass 5 kg and length 4m is freely hinged at point A and resting
horizontally in equilibrium with the aid of a rope attached at B making an angle of 300
with the rod. Find the tension in the rope.

Solution;

4sin30o T R

θ 30o T

A B

5g

Taking moments about A; 5g x 2 = T x 4 sin 300

Thus, T = 10g N.

In case we were required to find the reaction at the hinge at A the forces would be resolved;

Vertically; T sin30o + R sin θ = 5g

Horizontally; R cos θ = T cos 30o

From 1, substituting 10g for T gives;

R sin θ = 0.

R2 (sin2θ + cos2θ) = (5g√3)2

R = 5g√3 N, since sin2θ + cos2θ = 1

2. A uniform rod AB of mass m kg hangs vertically with end A freely hinged to a fixed
point. The rod is pulled aside by a horizontal force F applied at B until it makes 30o with
𝑚𝑔
the down ward vertical. Show that F = 2√3.
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 Solution;
l
sin30
2
𝑙
A 𝑐𝑜𝑠30
2

30o G

Mg B F

Let G be the centre of gravity and let the rod be of length l.

Taking moments about A;

𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 30𝑜 𝑥 𝑚𝑔 =lcos30O x F
2

2 𝑚𝑔
T = ¼ mg x = 𝑁.
√3 2√3

3. A heavy uniform rod AB, of weight W, is hinged at A to a fixed point. It is pulled aside
by a horizontal force P so that it rests inclined at an angle of 30o to the vertical. Find
the magnitude of the force P and the reaction at the hinge.

Solution;

R y

x A

30o G

D C B P

G is the midpoint of the rod. The verticals through G and A cut the line of action of P in C
and D, then the reaction R at A must pass through C, the point of intersection of W and P
(concurrence property).

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 118

Taking moments about A for the rod, we get;

½ AB sin 30o x W = AB cos 30o x P

1
𝑊 𝑥 sin 30 √3
2
P= = 𝑊 N.
cos 30 6

If x and y are the horizontal and vertical components of R.

Resolving forces vertically; y = W

𝑊
Resolving forces horizontally; x = P = √3N.
6

3 13
R is the resultant of x and y; i.e. R = √(x2 + y2) = W√ (36 + 1) = w √(12) 𝑁.

If θ is the angle of inclination of R to the horizontal, then tan θ = y/x = 6/√3 = 2√3; θ
=73.9o.

Note that the above problem could also be solved using the triangle of forces using triangle
P R W √3
ADC. Therefore; DC = AC
= AD
where AD = AB cos 30o = 2
AB, CD = ½ AB sin 30o = ¼ AB.

3 1 √13
Also; AC2 = AD2+ CD2= AB2 (4 + ); AC = AB
16 4

1
AB √3
4
Therefore P = W AB = W.
√3 2 6

√13
𝐴𝐵 13
4
And R = W √3
= 𝑊√12.
𝐴𝐵
2

√3
AD AB
2
Also tan ACD = DC = 1 = 2√3.
AB
4

4. A rod whose centre of gravity divides it into two portions, a and b, rests inside a
smooth sphere in a position inclined to the horizontal. Find the reactions at the points
of contact of the rod and the sphere.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Solution;

C α

b
B
a θ G D
A

C is the centre of the sphere; G is the midpoint of the rod. The reactions at A and B are
normal to the surfaces of the sphere since the surface of the sphere is smooth.
Note also that G must be vertically below C the point of intersection of R and S.
Taking moments for the rod about A gives;
S (a +b) sin (90O-α) = W a cosθ
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Therefore; S = 𝑊 (𝑎+𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
Also taking moments about B;
R (a + b) sin (90o - α) = W b cos θ
𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Therefore; R=𝑊 (𝑎+𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
5. A uniform beam AC of mass 8 kg and length 8m is hinged at A and is maintained in
equilibrium by two strings attached to it at points C and D as shown in the figure below.
The tension in the string is twice that in BD, AB =4 m, AD = ¾ AC.

4m

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 120

C D

Find;

i) the tension in the string BC

ii) the magnitude and direction of the resultant force at the hinge.

Solution;
3
i) AC = 8 m, AD = 8 𝑥 8 = 6 𝑚

tan α = 4/6 i.e. α = 33.69o.

also tan θ =4/8 i.e. θ = 26.56o

T2 T1

R α θ

A D C

Taking moments about A;

8g x 4 = T2 x AD sin α + T1 x AC sin θ

32g = ½ T1 x 6 sin (33.9o) + T1 x 8 sin (26.56o)

32g = T1 (3 sin 33.69o + 5 sin 26.56o)

T1 = 59.8339 N. (4d.ps cal.)

T2 = ½ T1 = 29.9169 N.

Hence the tension in string BC is 59.8339 N.

Y T2 T1

A α θ C

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 X D

8g

The resultant force at A, R, can be resolved into its components X and Y.

Horizontally; X = T1cos θ + T2 cos α

X = 59.8339cos 26.56o + 29.9169 cos 33.69o = 78.4118

Vertically; T1sinθ + T2 sin α = 8g – Y

Y = 8g – (59.8339 sin 26.56o + 29.9169 sin 33.69o) = 35.0513

Now R = √[X2 + Y2] = √ [(78.4118)2 + (35.0513)2]

R = 85.8895 N
𝑌 35.0513
tan β = 𝑋 = 78.4118 giving β = 24.084o as the angle of inclination of R to AC.

This section of the question can as well be solved by resolving the forces in directions
perpendicular to each other.

T2

T1 Y RA

26.56o 33.69o β

8g

Resolving forces horizontally; RA cos β = T1cos26.56o + T2 cos 33.69o

RA cos β = 78.4164 …………………………… (1)

Vertically; RA sin β = 8g – T1 sin26.56o – T2sin 33.69o

RA sin β = 8g – 59.8339sin 26.56o – 29.9169sin 33.69o

RA sin β = 35.0513 ………………………… (2)

Squaring and adding the two equations yields,

R2A = [(78.4164)2 + (35.0513)2]

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 122

R2A = 7377.725

RA = 85.8937 N

Equation (2) divided by (1) gives,

35.0513
tan β =78.4164 ; this gives β = 24.084O which is the angle of inclination of RA to the
horizontal AC.

6. A rod AB 0.6m long and of mass 10 kg is hinged at A. Its centre of mass of the rod is
0.5m from A. a light inextensible string attached at B passes over a smooth pulley 0.8 m
above A and supports a mass M hanging freely. If a mass of 5kg is attached at B so as to
keep the rod horizontal, find the;
i) Value of M.
ii) Reaction at the hinge.

Solution;

T T R
Mg
0.8 m 90o
T

θ G α B

A 0.5 m 0.1 m

10g 5g

Taking moments of the rod about A; 10g x 0.5 + 5g x 0.6 = T x 0.6 sin α
𝐴𝐷 0.8
Note that DB2 = AB2 + AD2 = 0.62 + 0.82 = 1, DB =1m and thus sin α = 𝐷𝐵 = = 0.8
1

5g + 3g = T x 0.6 x 0.3x 0.8

T = 16.7 𝑔 N.
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
Considering equilibrium of the particle;

T = Mg

16.7g = Mg

Giving M= 16.7 kg.

Considering equilibrium of the rod,

16.7g RA

α θ

1g

Resolving forces;

Horizontally; RA cos θ = 16.7g cos α but cos α = 0.6/1 = 0.6

RA = 16.7g x 0.6

RA = 10g …………………….. (1)

Vertically; RA sin θ + 16.7g sin α = 15g but sin α = 0.8/1 = 0.8

RA sin θ = 1.64g ……………………. (2)

Squaring and adding the two equations;

R2A = 100g2 + 2.6896g2

RA = 10.13g i.e. RA = 99.309 N.

Dividing (2) by (1)

1.64𝑔
tan θ = giving θ = 9.31o
10𝑔

Therefore the reaction at A is 99.309N and is inclined at 9.31o to AC.

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 124

7. A uniform rod AB of length 2l and weight W is smoothly hinged to the wall at A, it is

held at rest in a horizontal position by a light inextensible string attached at B and to a
point C which is vertically above and a distance, l, from A.
Calculate the tension in the string and show that the reaction at A is equal in magnitude
to the tension. When a load that weighs 4 times as much as the rod AB is attached to the
rod at a point D; the vertical component of the reaction at A is equivalent to the
7
horizontal reaction component in magnitude. Show that AD= 12 𝑙.

Solution;

Since the rod is uniform, the weight acts directly through G, the mid-point of AB.

Let the reaction at the hinge, R, and the tension in the string, T, make angles θ and β
respectively to the horizontal.

T and the vertical through G acts meet at E. Therefore, since the forces are not parallel then,
the reaction R should also act through E (concurrence property).

C R

l T E
T
θ G β
A l l B

Resolving forces horizontally, R cos θ = T cos β

Resolving forces horizontally; R sin θ + T sin β = W

𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐵 1 2
But sin β = 𝐶𝐵 and cos β = 𝐶𝐵 where AC = l, CB = l√5 so sin β = √5 and cos β = √5

2𝑇
Therefore, R cos θ = √5 …………………………….. (1)

𝑇
And R sin θ = W − …………………………….. (2)
√5

Taking moments about A for the rod; T x 2l sin β = l x W

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 2𝑇
=W
√5

√5
Therefore, T=W 2

Substituting for T in (1) and (2) gives;

R sin θ = ½ W ………………………………. (3)

R cos θ = W. ………………………………. (4)

Now, (3)2 + (4)2 we get,

R2 (sin2θ + cos2θ) = W2 + (½ W) 2 but sin2θ + cos2θ =1 so it implies that,

√5
R = W√ (1 + ¼) = W 2

To find θ, dividing (3) by (4) we get, tan θ = ½ so θ = tan-1 ½ = 26.565o.

Therefore the reaction at A is equal in magnitude to the tension in the string and is equal
√5
toW and is inclined to the horizontal at an angle of 26.565o to the horizontal.
2

Case II; when a weight of 4W is attached to a point D such that R sin θ = R cos θ, we have,

T R

l 2l sin β T

A θ D G β B

4W W

2𝑇
Resolving forces horizontally; R cos θ = T cos β =
√5

Resolving forces vertically; R sin θ + T sin β = 5W

𝑇
R sin θ = 5W - √5

Now that R sin θ = R cos θ it implies;

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 126

2𝑇 𝑇
= 5W - √5
√5

5√5
T=W 3

Now taking moments about A for the rod,

4W x d + W x l = T x 2l sin β

5√5 1
4Wd = W x 2l x √5 - W x l
3

7
4d = 𝑙
3

7
d = 12 𝑙.

7
Therefore distance AD = 12 𝑙.

8. A uniform flagstaff, 12m long and of mass 120 kg, has its lower end attached to the
ground by a swivel; it is being raised by a rope attached to its highest point. If the
inclination of the rope to the horizontal is 20o when that of the flagstaff is 50o, find
graphically or otherwise, the tension in the rope and the magnitude and direction of the
reaction of the swivel.

Solution;

AB is the flagstaff. Let R be the reaction and let this make and angle β to the horizontal. T is
the tension in the rope. G is the midpoint of the flagstaff. The vertical through G meets the
line of action of T at E and since there are only 3 non-parallel forces acting, R must pass
through E.

B R

E 20o

30o T

50o

β A

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 120g

Resolving forces vertically; R sin β = T sin 20o + 120g

Resolving forces horizontally; R cos β = T cos 20o

Taking moments about O; T x 12sin 30o = 120g x 6cos 50o

T = 120g x 6 cos 50o = 77.1gN

12 sin 30o

Now substituting for T in (1) and (2) gives,

R sin β = 146.37g ……………………………… (3)

R cos β = 72.45 g ……………………………… (4)

Squaring and adding equations (3) and (4), we get

R = 𝑔√72.452 + 146.372

R = 163.3g N

Dividing equation (3) by (4), we get

146.37
tan β = 72.45

β = 63.67o

Therefore, T = 77.1g N and R = 163.3g N inclined at 63.67o to the horizontal.

Further examples;

1. One end of a uniform rod of weight W is attached to a hinge, and the other end is
supported by a string attached to the other end of the rod and to a point on the same
level as the hinge, the rod and string being inclined at the same angle to the
horizontal. Find the tension in the string and the action at the hinge.
2. A uniform rod AB of mass 100 kg rests in equilibrium at an angle of 20o to the
horizontal with end A freely hinged at a point on the horizontal ground and with a rope
attached at end which makes 40o with AB. Find the tension in the rope.
Ans; T = 716 N.
3. A uniform rod AB of mass 4 kg with its lower end A resting on and inclined at 20o to a
rough horizontal floor coefficient of friction µ. A string attached to the end B of the rod
keeps the rod in equilibrium. If T is the tension in the string, F the frictional force at A

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 128

and R the normal reaction at A. find the magnitude of T, F and R and also the least
possible value of µ for equilibrium to be possible.
Ans; T =21.3, F = 16.3, R =25.5, µ = 0.64.
4. A non uniform rod of mass 3 kg and length 40 cm rests horizontally in equilibrium
supported by two strings attached at the ends A and B of the rod. The strings make
angles 45o and 60o with the horizontal. Find the tension in each string and the position
of the centre of gravity of the rod.
Ans; 15.2, 21.5, 14.625 cm from A.
5. A uniform ladder of weight 20 g N rests at an angle75o to the horizontal , with one end
against a smooth vertical wall and the other end on a rough horizontal floor, the vertical
plane through the ladder being perpendicular to the wall. Find the magnitudes of the
reactions at the floor and the wall.

Ans; 20.5g N, 4.5 g N

LADDER PROBLEMS:

Consider a ladder resting against a vertical wall with the foot of the ladder on the ground.
The ladder will be in equilibrium under its own weight and a number of other forces, say,
friction, reactions etc. iff the sums of components of forces in any two directions
perpendicular to each other are each zero and the algebraic sum of the moments of the
forces about any point in their plane is zero.

In all these cases we obtain three equations connecting the unknown forces and angles by;

i) Equating the algebraic sum of the components of all the forces in two directions
perpendicular to each other to zero.
ii) Equating to zero the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point
in their plane.

In dealing with ladders, we can have a variety of cases which include;

1) Smooth wall and smooth ground

In this case the ladder AB of length l is under influence of three forces; the reactions and its
own weight. Assuming the ladder makes an angle θ with the horizontal, we have

A R1

R2

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 W θ

Resolving vertically; R2 = W ………………………………….. (i)

𝑙
Taking moments about B; W x2 cos θ = R2 x lsin θ ……………….…………..….(ii)

R1 = ½ W cot θ

2) Smooth wall and rough floor;

In this case the ladder AB of length l is under influence of its own weight, the reactions, and
frictional force at the foot of the ladder. Care must be taken not to assume that this
frictional force is equal to µR1 UNLESS the ladder is in limiting equilibrium.

A R2

G R1

F B

Vertically; R1 = W ………………………………….. (i)

Horizontally; R2 = F ………………………………….. (ii)

R2 = µR1 if the ladder is in limiting equilibrium with µ the coefficient of friction at B.

𝑙
Taking moments about A; W x 2 cosθ + F x l sin θ = R1 x l cosθ. …………………….. (iii)

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 130

From the equations developed, the required unknown forces can be determined.

3) Wall rough and floor rough.

Consider a uniform ladder of weight W and length l resting in limiting equilibrium with
one end resting on a rough vertical wall and the other end resting on a rough floor making
an angle θ with it.

If the coefficients of friction at the wall and floor are µ1 and µ2 respectively, then,

F =µ1R2

A R1

R2

FB =µ2R2 B

Horizontally; R1 = µ2R2 ………………………………… (i)

Vertically; R2 + µ1R1 = W ………………………………… (ii)

𝑙
Taking moments of the rod about A; W x 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + µ2R2 x l sin θ = R2x l cosθ ………… (iii)

4) Rough wall and smooth floor;

F =µR1

A R1

R2

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 W T B

Vertically; R2 + µR1 = W ………………………………. (1)

Horizontally; R1 = T …………………………………… (2)

Taking moments about B, we have;

𝑙
W x 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =R1x l sinθ + T x l cos θ ………………………….. (3)

Worked Examples;

1. A uniform ladder of length 2l and weight W rests in a vertical plane with one end
against a rough vertical wall and the other against a rough horizontal surface. The
angles of friction at each end being tan-1(⅓) and tan-1(½) respectively. If
i) The ladder is in limiting equilibrium at either end, find θ, the angle of inclination
of the ladder to the horizontal.
ii) A man of weight 10 times the weight of the ladder begins to ascend it. How far
will he climb before the ladder slips?

Solution;
1
Since the ladder is in limiting equilibrium, frictional force at A, FA=µSS =3 𝑆 and that at B, FB
= ½ R. G is the mid-point of AB and weight acts vertically downwards through G. θ is the
inclination of AB to the horizontal.
1
FA = 3 S

A S

l R

θ B

W FB = ½ R

1
Resolving forces; Vertically; R + 3 𝑆 = 𝑊 …………………….. (i)

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 132

Horizontally; S = ½ R

From equation 2, R = 2S …………………… (ii)

1
Taking moments about B; W x l cosθ = 3 𝑆x 2 l cos θ + S x2l sin θ

Substituting equations (i) and (ii) in equation (iii) gives;

1 1
(R +3 𝑆)x l cosθ = 3 𝑆x 2 l cos θ + S x2l sin θ

1 1
(2S +3 𝑆) x l cosθ = 3 𝑆x 2 l cos θ + S x2l sin θ

Dividing through by l;
1 2
(2S +3 𝑆)𝑥 cos θ = 3 𝑆 cos θ + 2S x sin θ

Dividing through by S x cos θ gives;

1 2
2 + 3 = 3 + 2 tan θ

5
tan θ = 6, Giving θ = 39.806o

Let d be the distance the man climbs before the ladder slips. In this case an extra force of
magnitude 10W has come into play. The angle of inclination to the ground is the same but
the reactions at the ends of the ladder are no longer the same as those in the first case
above.
1
𝑆
3

A S

G R

β d

½R B

W 10W

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 1
Vertically; R + 3 𝑆 = 11𝑊

Horizontally; S = ½ R
33 66
From 2, R = 2S. This in 1 gives 2S + S/3 = 11 W i.e. S = 𝑊 and thus R = 𝑊
7 7

1
Taking moments about B; `W x l cos β + 10W x d cos β = S x 2l sin β + 3 𝑆 x 2l cos β.

Substituting for S and dividing by W in this equation gives,

66 22
l x Cos β + 10d cos β = 7
𝑥 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛β + 7
𝑙 cosβ

Dividing through by cos β we get,

66 22
l + 10d = 7
𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛β + 7
𝑙 but tan β = 5/6

66 5 22
Thus, 10d = 𝑥 6 𝑙 + 7 𝑙 − 𝑙. Giving d = l.
7

Therefore the man will ascend a distance l before the ladder slips.

2. A uniform ladder of mass 50 kg and length 2l leans against a smooth vertical wall while
its lower end rests on a rough floor the angle of friction between the ladder and the
floor being equal to arc tan (0.2). If the ladder makes an angle of 30o with the
downward vertical, find;
a) How far a man of 100 kg will climb up the ladder before it slips.
b) The minimum force that must be applied at the bottom of the ladder so that the
mass of 100 kg climbs the top of the ladder safely.

Solution; let d be the distance the man climbs before the ladder slips.

A S

30o l

G l -d

d R

60o B

F =0.2R

50g 100g

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 134

Vertically; R = 50g + 100g = 150g ………………………………… (i)

Horizontally; S = 0.2R, implying, S = 30g ………………………… (ii)

Taking moments about B; 100g x d cos 60o +50g x l cos 60o= S x 2l sin 60o ………………. (iii)

Substituting 30g for S in (iii)

100g x d cos 60o + 50g x l cos 60o = 60g x l sin 60o

Dividing through by 10g cos 60o gives;

10d + 5l = 6 l tan 60o , 10d = 6 l√3 – 5l

d = 0.539l

Therefore, the man will climb a distance of 0.539l units before the ladder slips.

c) The minimum force Pmin must act in a direction similar to that of friction to prevent
the ladder from slipping.

A S

30o

100g

60o B

50g (0.2R + Pmin)

Vertically; R = 100g + 50g = 150g

Horizontally; S = 0.2R + Pmin = 30g + Pmin

Taking moments about A; 50g x l sin 30o + (0.2R +Pmin) x 2l cos30o= R x 2l sin 30o

25g x l + (30g +Pmin) x l√3 = 150g x l

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

25g + 30g√3 +Pmin√3 = 150g

Pmin = 413.54 N.

Therefore the minimum force required is 413.54N.

3. A uniform ladder rests in limiting equilibrium with its top end against a rough vertical
wall and its base on a rough horizontal floor. If the ladder makes an angle of θ and that
the coefficients of friction between the ladder and the wall and between the ladder and
the floor are µ and µ’ respectively, find the reactions at the ends of the ladder and show
1− μμ′
that tan θ = .
2μ′

Solution;

Let AB be the ladder and let it be of length l and weight W.

Since the ladder is in limiting equilibrium frictional force at B, FB = µS and that at A, FA =

µ’R where R and S are the reactions at the ends A and B respectively.

FB=µS

S B

R G

A θ

FA = µ’R

Vertically; FB + R = W

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 136

µS + R = W ………………… (1)

Horizontally; S = µ’R ………………….. (2)

Taking moments of the rod about A;

𝑙
W x 2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑆 𝑥 l sin θ +µS x l cosθ

𝑊
Dividing by (l x sin θ) gives; 2
cot θ = µS cot θ

𝑊 cot 𝜃
S = 2( 1+μ cot 𝜃) ……………………….. (3)

𝑊 cot 𝜃
Substituting this result in (1) gives; R = 2(μ′+ μμ′𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃) ………………… (4)

Now substituting (3) and (4) in (1) gives;

𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 𝑊μcotθ
+ =𝑊
2(μ′ + μμ′cotθ) 2(1 + μcotθ)

𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 1
( + μ) = W
2(1 + μcotθ) μ′
1+μμ′
cot θ ( ) = 2 + 2µcot θ
μ′

cot θ = 2 µ’/ (1- µµ’)

1− μμ′
Therefore; tan θ = as required.
2μ′

4. A ladder rests at an angle α to the horizontal, with its ends resting on a smooth floor
and against a smooth vertical wall, the lower end being joined by a string to the junction
of the wall and the floor. Find the tension in the string, and the reaction at the wall and
the ground. Find also the tension of the string when a man, whose weight is equal to
that of the ladder, has ascended the ladder three-quarters of its length.

Solution;

Let AB be the ladder and let it be of weight W and length l. let R and S be the reactions at A
and B respectively and T the tension in the string. G is the midpoint of the AB and AG =GB
= ½ l.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 S B

½l

R ½l

A T W

Resolving forces vertically; R = W …………………………….. (1)

Resolving horizontally; S = T …………………………. (2)

𝑙
Taking moments about B; T x lsin α + W x 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠α = R 𝑥 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠α ……………………….. (3)

Substituting W for R in (3)

𝐿 l
T x lsin α = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠α − 𝑊 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠α = W 2 cos α.

Dividing through by lsin α gives;

𝑊
T= 𝑐𝑜𝑡α.
2

From (2), S =T = ½ W cot α.

Case 2; when the man is at position D where AD = ¾ l, we have;

S B

α W W

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 138

A T

Resolving vertically; R = 2W

Horizontally; S = T

Taking moments about B; W x ¼ lcos α + W x ½ lcos α +T x lsin α = R x lcos α

Substituting (1) in (3) and then dividing by l gives;

T sin α = 2W cos α – ¾ W cos α

5
Therefore; T = 𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑡α.
4

5. A ladder AB 10 metres long and mass 8 kg is in limiting equilibrium with its lower end
A resting on a rough horizontal ground and the upper end B resting against a smooth
vertical wall. If the centre of gravity of the ladder is 3m from the foot of the ladder and
the ladder makes an angle of 30o with the horizontal, find;
i) The coefficient of friction between the ladder and the ground.
ii) The reaction at the wall.

Solution;

B S

7m R

30O 3m

F = µR A

8g

Resolving forces;

Vertically; R = 8g …………………………………. (1)

Horizontally; S = µR

From (1) it implies; S = 8µg …………………………………… (2)

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Taking moments for the rod about B; 8g x 7cos 30o+µR x 10sin30o = R x 10cos 30o ………
(3)

Substituting (1) in (3) we get,

56gcos30o + 80µsin30o = 80gcos30o

80µgsin30o = 24gcos30o
24𝑔
µ = 80𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑡 30o

Therefore, µ = 0.5196

Therefore the coefficient of friction between the ladder and ground is approximately 0.52.

Substituting this result in (2) gives S = 0.5196x 8g = 4.16g N = 40.8N as the reaction at the
wall.

6. A uniform bar AB, of weight 2W and length l, is free to turn about a smooth hinge at its
upper end A, and a horizontal force is applied to the end B so that the bar is in
equilibrium with B at a distance a from the vertical through A. Prove that the reaction
1
4𝑙2 −3𝑎2 2
at the hinge is equal to W[ ]
𝑙2 −𝑎2

Solution;

Let the horizontal force be F and G the centre of gravity of AB. The weight 2W through G
meets the line of action of F at D. since the forces R, F and 2W are not parallel, they must be
concurrent i.e. R must pass through the point of intersection of F and 2W.

A X

α ½l

Y G

½l

C ½a D ½a B F

2W R

Let X and Y be the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction R respectively and let
AB be at an angle α to the vertical.

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 140

Resolving forces vertically; Y = -2W

Resolving forces horizontally; X = -F

Taking moments about A, we have

2W x ½l sin α = F x lcos α

F = W tan α
𝐶𝐵 𝑎
But tan α =𝐴𝐶, where AC2 = AB2 – CB2 = (l2 – a2), tan α = 1
(𝑙2 −𝑎2 )2

𝑎
And F = 𝑊 1
(𝑙2 −𝑎2 )2

Now R2 = X2 + Y2
2
𝑎
R2 = (-2W) 2 + [−𝑊 1 ]
(𝑙2 −𝑎2 )2

𝑎2
R2 = 4W2 + 𝑊 𝑙2 −𝑎2

4𝑙2 −4𝑎2 +𝑎2

R2 = W2 [ ]
𝑙2 −𝑎2

1
4𝑙2 −3𝑎2 2
Therefore, R = W[ ] as required.
𝑙2 −𝑎2

7. One end of a uniform ladder, of weight W, rests against a smooth wall, and the other end
on rough ground, which slopes down from the wall at an angle β to the horizontal. Find
the inclination of the ladder to the horizontal when it is on the point of sliding, and
show that the reaction of the wall is then W tan (γ –β), where γ is the angle of friction.

Solution; G is the mid point of AB and W acts vertically through G. R is the normal reaction
at B.

F E

R θ B

G C

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 γ

A β W

When the ladder is on the point of slipping, the resultant reaction at A makes and angle γ
with the normal at A, and also passes through E, where the line of action of R meets the
vertical through G.
1
𝐸𝐺 𝐴𝐹 1 1
2
Now, tan θ = 𝐸𝐵 = = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝐹𝐴𝐸 = 2 cot(𝛾 − β) which gives θ, the inclination of the
𝐹𝐸
ladder to the horizontal.

If 2l is the length of the ladder, then, taking moments about A,

R x 2l sin θ = W x lcos θ

Therefore, R = ½ W cot θ = ½ W x 2 tan (γ-β) = W tan (γ – β)

Trial questions;

1. One end of a uniform ladder, of weight W, rests against a smooth wall and the other on a
rough horizontal ground, the coefficient of friction being µ. Find the inclination of the
ladder to the horizontal when it is on the point of slipping, and the reactions at the wall
and ground.
2. A uniform ladder AB of weight W rests with end B against a smooth wall and end A on a
smooth floor. The ladder is prevented from slipping by a light string attached to it at a
point C and to a point O, where the wall joins the floor such that the angle ACO =90O.
show that the tension in the string is given by
T= W cos α where α is the angle the ladder makes with floor.
2(sin α – cos α)
2 2

3. A uniform rod ACB of weight W is supported with its end A against a smooth vertical
wall, with the end B uppermost; by means of a string attached to C and to a point D in
the wall on the same level as B. If the inclination of CD to the wall is 30o, find the tension
in the string and the reaction at the wall and prove that AC = ⅓AB.
4. A uniform rod AB is in equilibrium at an angle α with the horizontal with its upper end
A resting against a smooth peg and its lower end B attached to a light cord, which is
fastened to a point C on the same level as A. prove that the angle β at which the cord is
inclined to the horizontal is given by the equation
𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼
tan β = 2 tan α + cot α, and that AC = 1+2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼

Jointed rods

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 142

In this case, we shall consider a number of rods hinged at a point and in equilibrium under
action of their own weight and a number of other forces such as, friction, reactions at the
hinges, tension in strings if any e.t.c. the general procedure remains the same as in the
above cases.

Examples;

1. Two uniform rods AB, BC of masses 4 kg and 6kg respectively are hinged at Band
rest in a vertical position on a smooth floor as shown. A and C are connected by a
rope.

A 4 cm 8 cm C

a) Find the reactions between the rods and the floor at A and C when the rope is taut.
b) If now a body is attached a quarter of the way up CB and the reactions are equal,
find the mass of the body.

Solution;

R RC

A 4 cm 8 cm C

4 g 6g
a) resolving forces vertically;
RA + RB = 10g

Taking moments about A;

4g x 2 + 6g x 8 = RC

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

8g + 48g = 12RC
14
RC = 𝑔
3

Substituting this result for RC in equation (1) gives;

14
RA = 10g - 𝑔
3

16
RC = 𝑔
3

b) Let the reactions at A and C be R.

R R

A 4 cm 8 cm C

4g 6g mg

Resolving forces vertically;

2R = 10g + mg

R = 5g + ½ mg ………………………………… (1)

Taking moments about A;

4g x 2 + 6g x 8 + 10xmg = R x 12

56g + 10mg = 12R

14 10
R= 𝑔 + 12 𝑅 ………………………………… (2)
3

Equating (1) to (2)

14 10
5g + ½ mg = 𝑔+ 𝑚𝑔
3 12

10 14
𝑚𝑔 – ½ mg = 5g – 𝑔
12 3

m =1 kg.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 144

Therefore the mass of the body is 1 kg.

2. Two uniform rods AB, AC, each of weight W and length 10 cm are smoothly hinged
at A and ends B and C rest in a smooth horizontal plane kept in equilibrium in a
vertical plane with the string taut. An object of weight 2W climbs the rod AC to a
point E such that AE = 8 cm. given that angle BAC = 2𝜃, Determine in terms of W
and θ
i) The reactions at the ends B and C.
ii) The tension in the string. Hence show that the reaction at the hinge A is given by
𝑊
10
√49𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 4

Solution; A

5cm θ θ 5cm

R E 3cm 5cm S

2cm

C T T B

2W W W

Resolving forces vertically;

R + S = 4W ……………………………………… (1)

Taking moments about C;

2W x 2 sin θ + W x 5 sin θ + W x 15 sin θ = S x 20 sin θ

4W + 5W + 15W = 20S
6
S =5𝑊

Substituting for S in equation (1) gives

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 6
R = 4W - 5 𝑊

14
R= 𝑊
5

6 14
Therefore the reactions at ends B and C are 𝑊 and 𝑊.
5 5

By separating the rods and considering rod AB we have,

YA X

θ 5 cm

5 cm S

W B

Resolving forces horizontally; X = T

Taking moments about A;

W x 5 sin θ + T x 10 cos θ = S x 10 sin θ

5Wsin θ + 10 T cos θ = 10 S sin θ

Substituting for S and simplifying gives,

7
T = 10W tan θ

Resolving forces vertically;

Y+S=W
6 1
Y = W – 5𝑊 = -5𝑊

If RA is the reaction at the hinge, then,

RA = √(X2 + Y2)
7 1
= √ [(10W tan θ) 2 + (- 5 𝑊)2]

𝑊
RA = 10 √49𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 4 as required.

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 146

3. Two equal heavy beams AB, AC are smoothly jointed at A, and B is joined by a string
to the mid point of AC; the beams rest with B, and C on a smooth horizontal plane; if
the angle BAC = 60o find the tension in the string.

Solution; Let each of the beams have a weight W and length 2l. Let T be the tension in the
string.

60o

R=W T T S=W

C B

W W

Note that since the beams are of equal weight W and the lines of action of the weights are
equidistant from B and C, the vertical reactions at B and C are each equal to W.

Proof;

Taking equilibrium of both rods,

Resolving forces vertically gives; S + R = 2W ………………………….. (1)

Taking moments for both beams about B, we get,

W x l cos 60o + W x3 l cos 60o = R x 4l cos 60o

4R = 4W

Therefore R = W.

Substituting in (1) gives S =W

Splitting up the rods and letting X, Y be the horizontal and vertical components of the
action at the hinge, we have;

X A X
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 60O Y

W T W

C B

W W

Considering equilibrium of beam AC.

Taking moments about A for AC,

Txl+Wx¼l=½lxW

½T=¼W

T = ½ W.

√3
Resolving horizontally; X = T cos 30o = 𝑊.
4

Resolving vertically; Y + W = W + T sin 30o

Y = ½ T = ¼ W.

The resultant action at A, is given by

3 1
R = √[X2 + Y2] = W √[(16 + ) = ½ W.
16

𝑌 1
It is inclined to the horizontal at an angle tan-1 𝑋 = tan-1 √3 = 30o.

4. Two uniform beams AB, BC of equal lengths, are freely jointed at B, and rest in
equilibrium in a vertical plane with the ends A and C on a rough horizontal plane. If
the weight of AB is twice that of BC, show that if there is limiting friction at either of
these points it is at C. find also the coefficient of friction if the greatest angle that the
rods can make with each other is a right angle.

Solution;

Let W be the weight of beam BC and let each of the beams be of length 2l. R and S are the
reactions at A and C respectively. Angle ABC = 2θ

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 148

θ θ

R S

FA FB

A 2W W C

Horizontally; FA = FB = F

Vertically; R + S = 3W ………………………. (1)

Taking moments about A for both beams,

S x 4l sin θ = W x 3l sin θ + 2W x l sin θ

5
S = 4 W.

7
Substituting for S in (1) gives R = 4 W.

7
Now, if the friction is limiting at A its value must be µR or 4 µW while if it is limiting at C its
5
value must be µS or 4 µW. but the frictional force has the same value at A and C, and hence
5 7
it can not be limiting at both of these points, since 4 μW can not equal 4 μW.

5 7
F will reach the value μW before it reaches µW so that if it is limiting at either point it
4 4
will be at C.

When 2θ = 90o the point C will be on the point of slipping but A will not. The frictional
5
force at both A and C will be 4 µW.

Taking moments about B for rod BC,

5
µW x 2l cos θ = S x 2l sin θ – W x l sin θ
4

5
µW = 2S tan θ – W tan θ
2

5 5 3
µW = 2 x 4 W – W = 2 𝑊
2

3
Therefore, µ = 5

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 5. Two equal uniform rods AC and CB are smoothly hinged at C, and have their other
ends attached to supports at two points A, and B, at the same level. If each rod has a
mass of 40 kg and is inclined at 60o to the horizontal, find the action on the hinge C.

Solution;

Let l be the length of each rod and let X and Y be the horizontal and vertical components of
the action (or reaction) at the hinge.

To find X and Y we have to separate the rods and consider equilibrium of each separately.

X C X

R S

60O 60O

A B

40g 40g

Taking moments about A for AC,

X l sin 60o + Y l cos 60o = 40g x ½ l cos 60o

Therefore, X tan 60o + Y = 20g …………………………………… (1)

Taking moments about B for BC,

X l sin 60o – Y l cos 60o = 40g x ½ l cos 60o

Therefore, X tan 60 o – Y = 20g ………………………………….. (2)

From the two equations, Y = 0.

And X tan 60o = 20g

196
Therefore, X = N.
√3

196
So the reaction has only the horizontal component and has a value of N.
√3

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 150

TRIAL QUESTIONS;

1. A 8a C

5a 5a

3mg B 2mg

Two uniform beams AB and BC, each of length 5a, have masses 3m and 2m respectively.
The beams are freely jointed to fixed points at A and C, and to each other at B. the points A
and C are on the same horizontal level at a distance 8a apart, and the beams are in
equilibrium with B vertically below the midpoint of AC, as shown in the figure.

i) Find the vertical component of the force acting on BC at C, and show that the
5
horizontal component of this force is 3 𝑚𝑔
ii) Find the magnitude and direction of the force acting on AB at B.
9 1
(𝑌 = 4 𝑚𝑔, 12 √409𝑚𝑔 ≈ 1.69𝑚𝑔, 𝑑𝑖𝑟. 𝑎𝑏𝑣. ℎ𝑜𝑟. ≈ 8.5 )
2. Two uniform bars AB, AC of equal length and weight W and W’ hang in a vertical
plane from two hinges B and C at the same level, the bars being smoothly jointed at
𝑎 (𝑊 + 𝑊’)
A. prove that the horizontal component of the reaction at A is , where 2a is
4ℎ
the distance BC, and h is the depth of A below BC. Find also the vertical component
of the reaction.
3. Two uniform ladders, each of length a and weight W, are hinged at their upper ends,
and stand on a smooth horizontal plane. A weight W is hung from a rung of one of
the ladders at a distance b from its lower end, and the ladders are prevented from
slipping by means of a rope of length 2c attached to their lower ends. Find the
pressure on each of the ladders on the ground and the tension in the rope.
𝑏 𝑏
Ans; W (1 + 2𝑎); 𝑊(2 − )
2𝑎
4. A step-ladder of weight 2W consists of two equal parts, jointed at the top, and held
together by a rope half-way between the top and bottom, so that when the rope is
6
tight, the angle between the two halves of the ladder is 2tan-113. A man of weight 5W
mounts the ladder and then stops two-thirds of the way up. Neglecting the friction
between the ladder and the ground, find the tension in the rope and the reaction at
the hinge.
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 5
Ans; T=2W, X= 2W, Y= 3 W.
5. AC and BC are two light rods freely jointed at C, are freely jointed to a wall at A and
B so that AC is horizontal and the angle ACB = α, and the point B is vertically below
A. a weight of W is suspended from C. find the tension in AC and the thrust in BC.
Prove that the tension in AC, if also a weight W’ be suspended from the midpoint of
BC is ½ (W + 2W’) cot α.
Ans; W cot α; W cosec α.
6. Two uniform rods AB and CD, each of weight W and length a are smoothly jointed
together at O, where OB =OD =b. the rods rest in a vertical plane with ends A and C
on a smooth table, and the ends B and D connected by a light string. Prove that the
reaction at the joint is (aW/2b) tan α, where α is the angle of inclination of either
rod to the vertical.
7. Two uniform rods AB, AC of weight W1 and W2; and of equal length, are smoothly
hinged at A, and rest with B, C on a smooth horizontal plane, being kept in
equilibrium by an inextensible string joining BC. A weight w is suspended from a
point in AC at a distance of ¾ AC from A. prove that the tension in the string is ¼
(W1 + W2 + ½ W) tan ½ A.
8. Two uniform rods AB, BC are of same length and weigh 3W and W respectively.
They are smoothly hinged at B and stand in a vertical plane with A and C on a rough
horizontal plane. The coefficient of friction between each rod and the plane is ⅔.
Equilibrium is about to be broken by one of the rods slipping on the plane. Find
which rod will slip and calculate the angle each rod makes with the plane. Calculate
also the reaction at the hinge B in magnitude and direction.
Ans; BC, 45o, ½ W√5 at arc tan (½) to the horizontal
9. Two straight uniform rods AB and BC, each of length 2a and weight W are smoothly
hinged at B and are in equilibrium with A, B, C in the same horizontal line. The rod
BC is simply supported at a point X in AB where BX = x and the rod BC is simply
supported at Y in BC where BY = y.
2𝑦𝑊
a) By considering equilibrium of the system, show that the reactions at X and Y are 𝑥+𝑦
2𝑥𝑊
and 𝑥+𝑦 respectively.
b) By considering equilibrium of each rod separately, show that
i) If x > a, then, y<a
ii) 2xy = a (x +y)
W (x−y)
iii) The mutual reaction between the rods at B has magnitude (𝑥+𝑦)
c) Find the value of y when x = 2a

Sliding and overturning:

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 152

In some problems especially those involving friction, equilibrium of a rigid body may be
disturbed by sliding, tilting, overturning or toppling. This always happens when there is a
variable quantity such as a slightly increasing force, or change in the inclination of the
plane of rest.

Equilibrium is broken by overturning when the normal reaction acts through that edge
about which toppling/overturning is likely to take place.

Examples

1. A uniform cube, edge 4a, stands on a rough horizontal plane. A gradually increasing
horizontal force is applied to one of its vertical faces at a height a above the centre of
the face. Determine how equilibrium will be broken
i) When the coefficient of friction between the plane and cube is 0.5.
ii) When the coefficient of friction is 0.7.

Solution;

Let ABCD be the vertical section of the cube. R is the normal reaction of the cube at the
ground and W its weight.

i) When μ = 0.5, let F be the magnitude of the horizontal force.

A R

F1 D Here equilibrium is about to be broken by

sliding.
2a 2a
3a R = W, F1 = μR = 0.5W ………………. (1)

μR B W C

When equilibrium is to be broken by tilting, this will occur at C and normal reaction acts at
this point. let F2 be the magnitude of the horizontal force at the point of tilting.

F2 A D

3a 2a 2a

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 μR B W C

Here equilibrium is about to be broken by tilting.

2
Taking moments about C, we have, 2a x W = 3a x F2 i.e. F2 = 3W.

From the results above,

F1 < F2, therefore, it will be reached before F2. Hence when μ = 0.5, equilibrium will be
broken by sliding.

ii) When μ = 0.7

For sliding, R =W and F1 = μR = 0.7W

2
For tilting, R must act at C as before and F2 = 3 𝑊

F2 < F1 and will be attained before F1. Therefore when μ =0.7, equilibrium will be broken
by tilting.

2. A uniform solid cube of side 2a rests in contact with a rough horizontal plane
2
coefficient of friction being 5. A gradually increasing force, F, is applied at the mid-
point of one top edge perpendicular to the vertical face. Show that equilibrium is to
be broken by sliding not overturning.

Solution;

F1 R

A B

μR D C

W=mg

If the cube is to slide, it will be about to do so when

F1 = μR and R = w = mg
2
Implying that F1 = 5 W ……………. (1)

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 154

If the cube begins to overturn, it will rotate about the edge through C and the normal
reaction R acts through C.

F2 A R Taking moments about C,

2a F2 = aW
2
R a F2 = ½ W ……………………… (2)
5

Equations (1) and (2) show that F1 < F2 and therefore F1 is reached before F2. Hence,
equilibrium is broken by sliding.

3. A uniform solid cylinder of radius a and height 3a is placed with one plane face in
contact with a rough inclined plane. The inclination of the plane is slowly increased.
2
Show that equilibrium will be broken by sliding if μ <3.

Solution;

Case 1: Assuming equilibrium is to be broken by sliding. Let the inclination at the point of
sliding be α1.

R
G

2
a μR
3

α1

Resolving perpendicular to the plane; R =Wcos α1

Resolving parallel to the plane; μR = W sin α1

Therefore, μ = tan α1

Case 2: Assuming the body is at a point of overturning, (equilibrium is about to be broken

by overturning). The line of action of W goes through A.
3
𝑎
2

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 R B

α2

α2

W
𝑎 2
tan α2 = 3 = 3
𝑎
2

2
Therefore, if sliding is to occur before overturning, α1 < α2 i.e. μ < 3

4. A cone of radius r and height h rests on a rough plane, and the inclination of the
plane to the horizontal is gradually increased; show that the cone will slide before it
topples over if the coefficient of friction is less than 4r/h.

Solution;

G C

h/4

W sin β B h/4
μR W cos β

Let W be the weight of the cone, R the normal reaction and G the centre of gravity of the
cone, which is at a distance h/4 above BC.

Now the cone will slide iff W sin β > μ W cos β, i.e. iff tan β > μ.

If the cone is to topple, this will take place about B and R must act at B.

Taking moments about B, the cone will topple over if

W sin β x ¼ h > W cos β x r

4𝑟
i.e. iff tan β > ℎ

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 156

If μ < 4r/h, and β is gradually, increased, tan β reaches the value μ before it reaches 4r/h
and the cone will slide.

Trial questions;

1. The diagram shows the cross section of a uniform solid rectangular block. This cross
section has dimensions 20cm by 10cm and lies in a vertical plane. The block rests in
equilibrium on a rough plane whose inclination α to the horizontal can be varied.
The coefficient of friction between the block and the plane is 0.7. given that α is
slowly increased from zero, determine whether the equilibrium is broken by
toppling or sliding.

10 cm

20cm

(topples since ½ < 0.7)

2. A uniform cube of edge 4a and weight W stands on a rough horizontal plane. A

gradually increasing force P is applied inwards at right angles to a face F of the cube
at a point distant a vertically above the centre of that face. Prove that equilibrium
will be broken by sliding or by tilting according as the coefficient of friction between
the cube and the plane is less than or greater than a certain value, and find this
value.
If P has not reached a value for which equilibrium is broken, and P = ½ W, find how
far from the face F of the cube normal reaction acts.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 3. A uniform cylinder, of radius r and height h, is placed with its plane base on a rough
plane whose inclination to the horizontal is gradually increased. Show that the
cylinder will topple over before it slides if 2r/h is less than the coefficient of friction.
4. A block in the form of a cube of side 2a stands on a horizontal plane, the coefficient
of friction between the block and plane being μ. A gradually increasing horizontal
force is applied to a vertical face of the cube, at right angles to it, and in a vertical
plane through the centre of gravity of the cube. Show that if μ < ½ the cube will tend
to slide without upsetting, but that if μ > ½ the cube will tend to upset without
sliding, if the point of application of the force is at a height above the plane greater
than a/μ.
5. An equilateral triangle rests in a vertical plane with one side on a rough horizontal
plane; a gradually increasing force acts on its highest vertex in the plane of the
triangle. Prove that the triangle will slide before it tilts if the coefficient of friction be
1
les than 3√3.

6. A right cone rests on a rough horizontal plane and is acted on by a gradually

increasing force at its vertex. Show that the cone will turn over, or slide, according
as the coefficient of friction is > or < r/h, where r is the radius and h the height of
the cone.
7. A uniform block in form of a cube stands on a plane inclined at an angle α to the
horizontal in such a way that four of its edges are parallel to the line of greatest
slope. A gradually increasing force is applied to the block at right angles to it and in a
vertical plane through the centre of the block in the direction which would tend to
move the block down the plane. If μ (>tan α) is the coefficient of friction between
the block and the plane, show that the block will tilt without sliding provided that μ
2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 α+tanα+1
> .
𝑡𝑎𝑛2 α+tanα+2

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity of a solid body is a fixed point on the body where the resultant weight
of the body acts. Note this resultant weight is due to the individual weights of the particles
that make up the body. (These may be atoms, molecules e.t.c.) Each of these weights acts

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 158

vertically downwards, acts as parallel forces and they have a resultant. This resultant force
acts through the centre of gravity.

Determination of centre of gravity of a body

It should be recalled that the sum of moments of a number of forces about any point/axis is
equal to the moment of their resultant about the same axis.

In this case, the weights of the constituent particles are the different small forces and the
sum of their moments will be equated to the sum of their resultant. This will give the
distance of the centre of gravity from the chosen axis. For two dimensional problems, we
shall take moments about two non-parallel lines/axes.

Consider n particles of masses m1, m2... mn placed at points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), …, (xn, yn)
respectively in the x-y (XOY) plane. The weights of these particles are m1g, m2g, … mng. The
resultant of these weights acts at the centre of gravity. Let this be represented as G (x, y) in
the same plane.

Y Y

(x1, y2) ≡ G

(x2, y2) (x, y)

O X O X

(x3, y3)

Taking the x-y plane to be horizontal so that the weights of the particles are perpendicular
to the x-y plane, then using the principle of moments gives,

Taking moments about y-axis, m1gx1 + m2gx2 + …. + mngxn = (m1 + m2 +..+ mn )gx

g∑mixi = xg∑m

∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Therefore, x = ∑𝑚

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
Like wise, taking moments about x-axis (OX) gives, y = ∑𝑚

In vector form, we can consider particles above placed at points with position vectors r1, r2,
r3, …., rn where

r1 = x1i + y1j, r2 = x2i + y2j, …, rn = xni +ynj

∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
From above, x = and y =
∑𝑚 ∑𝑚

The position vector of G is r where r = xi + yj

𝑖 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 +𝑗 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 (𝑚1𝑥1𝑖 +𝑚2𝑥2𝑖 +⋯ )+ (𝑚1𝑦1𝑗+𝑚2𝑦2𝑗+⋯ )

So r = =
∑𝑚 ∑m

𝑚1 (𝑥1𝑖+𝑦2𝑗)+ 𝑚2 (𝑥2𝑖+𝑦2𝑗)+ …. 𝑚1𝑟1+𝑚2𝑟2+⋯ ∑mr

= = = =𝑟
∑m ∑m ∑m

Examples;

1. Particles of mass 2, 3, 6 and 9 kg are placed in a straight line AB at distances 1, 2, 3, 4

cm respectively from A. Find the distance of their centre of gravity from A.

Solution;

Note that the weights of the particles are 2g, 3g, 6g and 9g respectively. Let the centre of
gravity be a point G at a distance X cm from A.

A 1cm 2 cm 3cm 4 cm

2g 3g 6g 9g

Taking moments about A we have,

2g x1 + 3g x 2 + 6g x 3 + 9g x 4 = (2 + 3 + 6 + 9)g X

2g + 6g + 18g + 36g = 20gX

62g = 20gX

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 160

Giving X= 3.1cm

Therefore, the centre of gravity is at a distance 3.1 cm from A.

2. Particles of masses 2 kg, 5 kg and 3 kg are placed at points whose position vectors
are (2i + 3j, 3i –j, and -2i + 5j.

Solution; using the result above, letting r to be the position vector of the resultant (centre of
gravity) we have,

∑mr
r= ∑m

2(2𝑖+3𝑗)+ 5(3𝑖−𝑗)+3(−2𝑖 +5𝑗) 1

r= = (13𝑖 + 16𝑗) as the position vector of c.o.g.
2+5+3 10

Trial questions;

1. A uniform tray is 75cm long, 50cm wide and weighs 600g. Objects weighing 300g
and 600g are placed on the tray 15cm and 25cm from the longer side and 30cm and
40cm from the shorter side respectively. Find the position of the centre of gravity.
2. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 4 m. Weights of mass 5, 1, and 3 kg are placed
at A, B and C respectively, and weights of mass 2, 4, and 6 kg are placed at the mid-
points of BC, CA, and AB. Find the distance of their centre of gravity from B.
3. Particles of mass 1 kg, 2kg, 3kg and 4kg lie at the points with position vectors 6i, (i-
5j), (3i+2j) and (ai +bj) respectively. if the centre of gravity of this system lies at
the point with position vector (2.5i – 2j), find the values of a and b.

Uniform bodies

A uniform body is made from a uniform material i.e. any given quantity of the material
(say; volume, area, length, etc.) will have the same mass as any equal quantity of the same
material. Uniform bodies may be in form of uniform rods, uniform sphere, uniform lamina
etc and have their centre of gravity along each line of symmetry that the body possesses.

Centre of gravity of uniform rods;

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

The mass of the rod is proportional to its length i.e. the linear density (mass/length) of the
body is constant and the weight of the rod acts at its mid-point.

In dealing with problems involving uniform rods, we shall let the linear density to be a
constant in order to get the mass and thus the weight of the rod and then proceed normally.

Example

A frame work for an end of a green house consists of 4 pieces of rods in the shape of a
trapezium. The two parallel sides are 2m and 1.5m high and are 2m apart. Find the height
of the centre of gravity and its distance from the shorter side.

Solution;

B (2, 2)

C (0, 1.5)

O (0, 0) A (2.0)

Let ρ be the mass per unit length of the material of the rods.

Portion Length mass Weight Distance of c.o.g

From OY From OX

OA 2 2ρ 2ρg 1 0

AB 2 2ρ 2ρg 2 1

BC 2.06 2.06 ρ 2.06ρg 1 1.75

OC 1.5 1.5 ρ 1.5ρg 0 0.75

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OABC 7.56 7.56 ρ 7.56 ρg x y

Let (x, y) be the position of centre of gravity

Taking moments about OY we have

2ρg x1 + 1.5ρg x 0 + 2ρg x 2 + 2.06ρg x 1.75 = (2ρg + 2ρg + 2.06ρg + 1.5ρg) x

8.06ρg = 7.56ρg x

X = 1.066 m.

Taking moments about OX we have,

1.5ρg x 0.75 + 2ρg x0 + 2.06ρg x 1.75 + 2ρg x1 = (2ρg + 2ρg + 2.06ρg + 1.5ρg) y

7.56ρgy = 6.735ρg

Y = 0.891 m.

Therefore (x , y) = (1.066 m, 0.891m) as the centre of gravity of the framework.

Centre of gravity of a uniform lamina

A lamina is a body whose breadth (thickness) is so small (negligible) compared to its other
dimensions. The centre of gravity of rectangular or square lamina is at the point of
intersection of the lines of symmetry.

Triangular lamina

The total weight of a triangular lamina can be represented by 3 particles of equal weight
located at the vertices of the triangular lamina.

Therefore, the centre of gravity of any uniform triangular lamina is the same as that of
three particles of equal weights placed at the vertices of the triangle.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 y3 W (x3, y3)

(x2, y2)

y2 W`

y1 (x1, y1 W

Consider a triangular lamina with vertices (x1, y1), (x2, y2) (x3, y3). Let (x, y) be the
coordinates of the centre of gravity.

From the preceding theorem, the weight of the lamina can be represented by 3 equal
weights W placed at the vertices of the lamina.

Using the principle of moments,

Taking moments about OY;

wx1 + wx2 + wx3 = (w + w + w) x

1
x = 3(x1 + x2 + x3)

Taking moments about OX;

wy1 + wy2 + wy3 = (w + w + w) y

1
y = 3(y1 + y2 + y3)

1 1
Therefore G(x, y) = ( 3(x1 + x2+ x3), 3(y1 + y2 + y3))

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 164

In case two of the vertices of the triangular lamina lie parallel to one of the reference axes,
1
it can be shown that the centre of gravity of the lamina is at a distance h where h is the
3

height of the lamina.

Proof; consider a lamina whose vertical height is h. let G(x, y) be the centre of gravity of the
lamina.

Y (x3, y3) W

G(x, y)

O W W X

(x1, y1) (x2, y2)

Since the lamina has a line of symmetry, the c.o.g of the lamina lies along this line.

Now taking moments about OX, we have

W x0 + w x0 + w x h = (w + w + w) y
𝑤ℎ 1
y = 3𝑤 = ℎ
3

1
Therefore the c.o.g of the lamina is at a distance of 3 ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒.

Centre of gravity of a compound body

A compound/composite body is one made up of two or more parts. If the weights and the
positions of the centre of gravity of each of the parts are known, we can determine the
centre of gravity of the composite body.

Consider a body made up of two bodies of weight W1 and W2 and centres of gravity G1 and
G2 respectively as shown.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

G G2
 O B
G1

Let G be the centre of gravity of the composite body. The resultant of W1 at G1 and W2 at G2
is (W1 + W2) acting at some point G in OB.

Taking moments about O we have,

W1 x OG1 + W2 x OG2 = (W1 + W2) AG

AG = W1 x OG1 + W2 x OG2

(W1 + W2)

This is the distance of the centre of gravity of the composite body from O.

Examples;

1. A sheet of paper in form of a rectangle ABCD, with an isosceles triangle described on

the side BC has the following dimensions; AB =12 cm, AD= 8cm, and the height of
the triangle is 12 cm. Find the distance of the centre of gravity of the sheet from AD.

Solution;

Let G1, G2, G3 be the centres of gravity of ABCD, Triangle, and composite body respectively.

E Let w be the weight per unit area of the

Material of the sheet

12 cm Area of ABCD = 12 X8 = 96 cm2

G2
Weight of ABCD = 96W
G
B C Area of BCE = 4x12 = 48 cm2

G Weight of BCE = 48 cm2

12 cm G1 area of ABECD = (96 +48) = 144 cm2

Weight of ABECD = 144W

A D

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 166

8 cm

Let the distance of centre of gravity of the composite sheet from AD be y .

Portion Weight Distance of c.o.g from AD

ABCD 96w 6 cm

BCE 48w 16 cm

Whole 144w y

Taking moments about AD we have

96W x 6 + 48W x16 = 144W x y

1344W = 144W y
1344 1
y= = 9 3 cm.
144

1
Therefore the c.o.g of the body is 9 3 cm from AD.

2. ABCD is a square lamina of side 9cm. E, F are points in BC, and CD such that CE, CF
are each 3 cm. Find the centroid of the part ABEFDA.

Solution;

Let G(x, y) be the position of the body and let W be the weight per unit area of the body.

Let G1, G2, G is the c.o. g of the portion ABCD, ECF and ABCEFD respectively.

E Area of ABCD = 9X9 = 81 cm2

3 cm weight of ABCD = 81W

C F D area of ECF = ½ x 3x3 = 4.5 cm2

3 cm Weight of ECF = 4.5w

Taking BA and BE as the coordinate axes,

9 cm Distance of G2 from BA = 1/3 (9+9+12) = 10cm

Distance of G2 from BE = 1/3(0 +0+3) = 1.5cm

B 9 cm A

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 Portion weight Distance of centre of gravity

From BA From BE

ECF 4.5W 10 cm 1.5 cm

ABCD 81W 4.5 cm 4.5 cm

Whole 85.5w y x

Taking moments about BA;

4.5W x 10 + 81Wx 4.5 = 85.5W x y

45W + 364.5W = 85.5W y

y = 4.7895 cm

Taking moments about BE;

4.5Wx 1.5 + 81W x4.5 = 85.5W x

x = 4.342 cm

Therefore G (X, Y) = (4.34, 4.79) is the position of the c.o.g of the system from BE, BA
respectively.

3. KLMN is a trapezium in which KL, MN are parallel and of length s, t respectively.

1 s+2t
Prove that the distance of the centre of mass from KL is 3 p ( s+t ) where p is the
distance between KL and MN.

Solution;

N t M

G1
p
G
G1

K t O (s-t) L

We can make OM parallel to KN and consider KLMN as a sum of parts OKNM and OLM. Let
w be the weight per unit area of the material of the trapezium.

Area of OKNM = pt

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 168

Weight of OKNM = pt w

Area of OLM = ½ p(s-t)

Weight of OLM = ½ p(s-t) w

Let the distance of c.o.g from KL be y

portion area Weight Distance of c.o.g from KL

OKNM Pt Pt w ½p

OLM ½ p(s –t) ½ p(s –t) w p/3

KLMN ½ p(s+t) ½ p (s+t) w Y

Taking moments about KL gives,

Pt w x ½ p + ½ p(s-t) w x p/3 = ½ p(s +t) w x y

Dividing through by ½ pw gives

𝑝
Pt + 3(s-t) = (s+t) y

1
P (t + (s-t)) = (s+t) y
3

1
(s +t) y = 3 p(s + t)

p(s+2t)
Giving y = as the distance of the centroid from KL as required.
3(s+t)

Centre of gravity of remainder

Consider a body from which a portion(s) has been removed. If the weights and centres of
gravity of the whole original body and the removed portion(s) are known, then we can
obtain the centre of gravity of the remainder by finding the difference of the moments.

I.e. moment of remainder = moment of whole – moment of removed portion

Examples;

1. In a circular disc of 12 cm radius, a circular hole of 2 cm radius is cut, the centre of

the hole being 6 cm from the centre of the disc. Find the position of the centre of
gravity of the remainder of the disc.

Solution;
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
Let G1, G2 be the c.o.g of the whole disc, circular hole respectively and G the c.o.g of the
remainder.

12 cm 4 cm 4
2
O G G1 X
2

G2

The c.o.g of the remainder G lies along OX (axis of symmetry). Let w be the weight per unit
area of the disc and x the distance of G from O.

Portion Area Weight Distance of c.o.g.

from O

Whole disc 144п 144пw 12 cm

Circular hole 4п 4пw 18cm

remainder 140 п 140пw 𝑥̅

Taking moments about OY we have;

Moment of whole – moment of hole = moment of remainder

144 .п .w .12 – 4.п.w .18 = 140 п w x

1656 пw = 140 пw𝑥̅

𝑥̅ = 11.83 cm

Therefore the centre of gravity is at a distance 11.83cm from O (0.17 cm from Centre of
disc)

2. ABCD is a rectangular lamina such that AB =CD = 2a, AD = BC = 2b respectively. P

and Q are mid points of BC and CD respectively. The triangular portion PCQ is cut off
the lamina prove that the perpendicular distances of the centre of gravity of the
19𝑎 19𝑏
remainder from sides AD, AB are and respectively.
21 21

Solution;

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 170

D a Q a C

G2 b

G P

G1 b

A B

Let w be the weight per unit area of the lamina, G1, G2, G be the c.o.g of the whole ABCD,
BCQ and ABPQD respectively.

Area of ABCD = 2a x 2b = 4ab

Area of PCQ = ½ a.b

5
Distance of G2 from AD = 1/3 (a + 2a +2a) = 3 𝑎

5
Distance of G2 from AB = 1/3 (b + 2b+ 2b) = 3 𝑏

Let x, y be the distances of G from AD, AB respectively.

portion Area Weight Distance of c.o.g

From AD From AB

ABCD 4ab 4abw a B

PCQ ½ ab ½ abw 5 5
𝑎 𝑏
3 3

ABPQD ½ (7ab) ½ (7ab)w 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅

Taking moments about AD,

5 7
4abw.a – ½ a.b. w x 3 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑤 𝑥̅
2

5 7
4a2bw – 6 a2bw = 2 𝑎𝑏𝑤𝑥̅

19 2 7
a bw = 2abw𝑥̅
6

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 2 19
Dividing through by abw and multiplying by 7 gives 𝑥̅ = 21 𝑎

Taking moments about AB gives

5 7
4ab x b – ½ abw x3 𝑏 = 2 𝑎𝑏𝑤 𝑦

5 7
4ab2w - 6 𝑎𝑏2w = 2 𝑎𝑏𝑤 𝑦

19
y = 21 𝑏

19 19
Thus G is at distances 𝑎 and 𝑏 from AD, AB respectively hence shown as required.
21 21

3. A uniform rectangular lamina of length 4a and width 2a has part of the lamina
folded back upon it self to form a section of double thickness as shown in the figure
below. Locate the centre of gravity of the resulting lamina.

D’ E D A

2a

C’ F a C B

4a

Solution;

Let w be the weight per unit area of the lamina and let C’D’ and C’B be the coordinate axes.

portion area Weight Distance of c.o.g

From C’D’ From C’B

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 172

ABCD 4a2 4a2 w 3a A

CDEF 2a2 4a2w 1.5a A

whole 6a2 8a2w x cm y cm

Taking moments about C’D’, we have

4a2 w x 3a + 4a2 x 1.5a = 8a2 w x

12a3 + 6a3 = 8a2x

9
X =4 𝑎 cm

Taking moments about C’B, we have

4a2w x a + 4a2w x a = 8a2wy

8a3 = 8a2y

y=a
9
Therefore the c.o.g of the lamina is at distances 4 𝑎 units from C’D’ and a units from C’B.

Centre of gravity of a solid body;

In this case we shall consider a few examples of solid bodies. We shall assume the bodies to
be uniform.

Uniform right cylinder;

Consider a right cylinder of weight w and height h. by symmetry, it is obvious that the
centre of gravity of this cylinder lies at the point of intersection of these lines of symmetry
and this lies at a distance ½ h above the base.

Tetrahedron

Consider a uniform tetrahedron ABCD shown in the figure below.

The centre of gravity of a tetrahedron is the same as that of four equal particles placed at its
vertices. Let the weight of each particle be w. taking the base ABC to be horizontal and
taking moments about this plane gives;

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 D

A B
O
w x 0 + w x0 + w x0 + w x h = (w + w+ w + w) y

y = ¼ h.

Therefore the c.o.g of a right tetrahedron is at a distance a quarter of the height above the
base.

Centre of gravity of a pyramid and of a solid cone

A solid pyramid can be divided into a number of triangles. This divides the pyramid into a
number of tetrahedrons.

E D

A O C

Each of these tetrahedrons has its centre of gravity at ¼ h above the base. Therefore, the
centre of gravity of the whole pyramid is at a height ¼ h above the base.

A right circular cone is can be considered as the limiting case of a pyramid when the base is
a regular polygon and the number of sides is increased indefinitely. The centre of gravity
lies along the line joining the base and the vertex at a distance ¼ h above the base.

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Curved surface of a right circular cone;

The circular cone can be divided into an infinite number of slices each of which is
1
approximately a triangular lamina whose centres of gravity are at distances ℎ from the
3
1
base. Therefore the centre of gravity of the curved surface of a cone lies on the axis 3 ℎ
from the base where h is the vertical height of the cone.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY INTEGRATION

In all the cases above we have been dealing with problems where it has always been easy
to divide a body into a finite number of parts each with a known weight and centre of
gravity. However, this is not always the case for bodies like solids of revolution, surfaces of
revolution, etc.

When a body cannot be divided into a finite number of parts, it may be divided into an
infinite number of small parts, called elements whose weights and centres of gravity are
known. We then proceed by taking moments about any suitable axes and sum them up.
Since the particles are so many, the sum is just a limit and this summation of moments will
involve integration.

Centre of gravity of a lamina.

Consider a uniform lamina bounded by the x- axis, lines x = a, x = b, and the curve y = f(x).

Y (x, y)

y = f(x)

G(x, y) (x, ½ y)

O x=a δx x =b X

The lamina can be divided into elements.

The element in this case is a strip at a distance x from OY. It is approximately rectangular
with height y and width δx. Let G(x, y) be the centre of gravity of the lamina and w its
weight per unit area.

portion area weight Distance of centre of gravity

From OY From OX

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 Element yδx yδx w X y

Whole lamina ∑𝑥=𝑏

𝑥=𝑎 (𝑦δx) = A Aw x y

Taking moments about OY, we have

∑𝑥=𝑏
𝑥=𝑎 (𝑦δx) 𝑤𝑥 ≃ Aw x

𝑥=𝑏
Now as the number of strips n →∞, δx → dx and ∑𝑥=𝑏
𝑥=𝑎 (𝑦δx) 𝑤𝑥→ ∫𝑥=𝑎 𝑦𝑥 dx

𝑥=𝑏
Therefore; Ax = ∫𝑥=𝑎 𝑦𝑥 dx
𝑥=𝑏
∫𝑥=𝑎 𝑦𝑥dx
x= 𝐴

Taking moments about OX, we have

∑𝑥=𝑏
𝑥=𝑎 (𝑦δx) (½ y) ≃ A y

𝑏1
y = ∫𝑎 2 𝑦2 dx

A
𝑏
The value of A can be evaluated by using calculus (using A = ∫𝑎 𝑦dx).

Centre of gravity of a semicircular lamina.

Consider a uniform semi circular lamina of radius r and centre (0, 0)

(-x, y) G (x, y) δy

(-r, 0) O (0, 0) (r, 0) x

The element in this case is an approximately rectangular strip of length 2x and width δy. By
symmetry, the centre of gravity of the body lies along OY.

Let G (x, y) be the centre of gravity of the lamina and let w be the weight per unit area of
the lamina.

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 176

portion Area weight Distance of G from OX.

Element 2xδy 2xδyw Y

Whole ½ п r2 ½ п r2w y
=A

Taking moments about OX, we get

∑𝑦=𝑟
𝑦=0(2xδy) wy = ½ п r w y
2

𝑟
Implying that, 2∫0 xydy = ½ п r2 y

Note that the semicircle is part of a circle centre O (0, 0) and radius r. so its equation is
x2 +y2 = r.

From this equation, x = √𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2

𝑟
So ½ п r2 y = 2 ∫0 y√𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2 dy

4 1
y= [- 3(r2 –y2)3/2]0 r
п 𝑥 𝑟 𝑥𝑟

4𝑟
y = 3п

4𝑟
Therefore the centre of gravity of the uniform lamina is at a point (0,3п).

Centre of gravity of an arc of a circle

Consider an arc AB of a circle of radius a subtending an angle 2α at the centre.

Y A

δθ

O α

α G X

Let G be the centre of gravity of the body at a distance x from O. by symmetry it shows it is
evident that G lies along OX.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Let W be the weight per unit length of the arc.

We can divide the wire into small arcs subtending and angle δθ at O, then each element of
length aδθ is approximately a particle.

Body Weight Distance of c.o.g from O

Element (a δθ)w a cos θ

Arc (a x 2α) x

Taking moments about OY we have

∑𝛼𝜃= −𝛼 (𝑎𝑤𝛿𝜃)𝑎 cos 𝜃 ≃ (a x 2α x w) x

𝛼
As the number of elements n → ∞, it implies ∫−𝛼 𝑎2w cos θ dθ = 2aαw x
𝑎 sin 𝛼
Giving x = as the distance of c.o.g from O, where a is the radius of the circle.
𝛼

It should be noted that for a semicircular arc for which α = ½ п, x = 2r/п.

Centre of gravity of a sector of a circle

Consider a sector of a circle of radius r subtending an angle 2α at the centre.

δθ A

r
O α B

Let B be the midpoint of arc AC.

By symmetry, it is evident that the centre of gravity lies along OB.

The sector can be divided into elemental sectors. Each of these sectors is approximately
2
triangular with a centre of gravity at a distance 𝑟 from O. The area of each element is ½
3
r2sinδθ. However, for small angles sin δθ ≃ δθ. Therefore, the area of each element is ½ r2
δθ.

Let w be the weight per unit area of the sector.

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 178

Body Weight Distance of c.o.g from O.

2
Element ( ½ r2δθ)w r cos θ
3

Whole ( ½ r22α)w
x

Taking moments about OY, we have

1 2 1
∑+𝛼
𝜃=−𝛼(2 r δθ w) (3 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) ≃ (2r 2αw) x
2 2

For an infinite number of elements, we have

+𝛼 1
∫−𝛼 a3 w cos θ dθ = a2 α w x
3

𝑟 2𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
Implying that, x = 3𝛼 [sin 𝜃] 𝛼−𝛼 = and this is the distance of the c.o.g of the sector
3𝛼
from O.

Note that for a semi circular lamina α = ½ п and the distance of the c.o.g from the diameter
4𝑟
of the semi circle is . This can act as an alternative method of determining the c.o.g of the
3п
semi-circular lamina.

Centre of gravity of a solid of revolution

When given area under a curve is rotated about a fixed axis, a solid of revolution is always
formed.

Consider a solid formed when the area under the curve y = f(x), x = 0, y = 0 and x = a is
rotated about the line y = 0 through 360o.

y x =a
y = f(x)

O X

δx

By symmetry it is obvious that the centre of gravity of the solid of revolution lies along the
fixed axis of rotation OX. Now, if the solid is divided into an infinite number of elements
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
perpendicular to OX, each element is in form of a circular disc with radius y and thickness
δx.

If w is the weight per unit volume of the solid, then, we have,

Body Volume Weight Distance of c.o.g from OY

Element Пy2 δx Пy2 δxw X

Whole solid V Vw x

Taking moments about OY, we have

∑𝑥=𝑎
𝑥=0 (пy δxw) x ≃ V w x
2

𝑎
As the number of discs n→ ∞, ∑𝑥=𝑎
𝑥=0 (пy δxw) x → п𝑤 ∫0 𝑥𝑦 dx
2 2

𝑎
It implies, п ∫0 𝑥𝑦2 dx = V x
𝑎
The volume V of the solid of revolution is obtained normally. From calculus, V = ∫0 п𝑦2 dx

Centre of gravity of a uniform solid hemisphere;

Consider a uniform hemisphere of radius r with w the weight per unit volume of the body.

δx

O (0, 0) r x

From symmetry it is evident that the c.o.g of the body lies along OY.

Suppose the hemisphere is divided into an infinite number of slices parallel to the plane
base each with thickness δx at distance x from O.

Since the hemisphere is generated from a circle whose centre is O (0, 0) and radius r, the
equation of the generating circle is y2 + x2 = r2

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 180

From which, y = √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2

Now volume of each slice = п y2δx = п (r2 – x2) δx

Body Weight Distance of c.o.g from O.

Element W п x(r2 – x2)δx X

Whole hemisphere ⅔ пwr3 x

Taking moments about OY;

∑𝑟0 𝑤п(r2 – x2) δx = ⅔ п wr3 x

𝑟
∫0 𝑤п(r2x – x3) dx = ⅔пwr3 x

¼ w п r4 = ⅔ пwr3 x
3
Therefore, x = 𝑟.
8

Centre of gravity of a thin hollow hemisphere

Consider a uniform hemispherical shell of radius r with w the weight per unit area of the
body.

aδθ

a sinθ δθ

G θ

O a cosθ x

The hemispherical shell can be divided into slices parallel to its plane. Each element is
approximately a circular ring with its centre of gravity at its centre. The ring is
approximately a cylinder of radius a cos θ and breadth aδθ.
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
The surface area of this cylinder is (2п a cos θ) (aδθ).

Body Weight y coordinate of the c.o.g

Element (2пa2 cosθ δ)w a sinθ

Whole 2пa2w y
hemisphere

Taking moments about OX,

1
п
∑2θ=0(2пa2 cosθ)w ≃ 2п a2 y

п
Therefore, ∫0 2𝑎 3w cosθ sinθ dθ = 2пa2w y, which gives y = ½ a
2

Centre of gravity of a uniform solid right circular cone

Consider a right circular cone of base radius r and height h whose weight per unit area is w.
if G is the centre of gravity of the cone, it is clear that G lies along OX by symmetry.

y h

O θ y (h, 0)

y a X

δx

The cone can be subdivided into ‘disc’ elements each of thickness δx and radius y. Let the
disc element be at a distance x from O.

Volume of the disc = пy2δx.

𝑎 𝑦 𝑎
Note that tan θ = ℎ = , therefore, y = ℎ 𝑥
𝑥

Body Weight X coordinate of the c.o.g

Element Пy2δxw X

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 182

Whole Cone ⅓ п r2hw x

Taking moments about OY,

∑𝑋=ℎ
𝑥=0 (п𝑦 δxw) x ≃ ⅓п r hw x
2 2

ℎ
Therefore, ∫0 𝑥y2 dx = ⅓ r2h x

ℎ 𝑎𝑥
∫0 𝑥( ℎ )2dx = ⅓ r2h x

x = ¾ h.

Therefore the centre of gravity of a solid cone is at a distance ¾ h from the vertex or ¼ h
fro the base, where h is the height of the cone.

Equilibrium of a body hanging from a point or resting on a surface

When a body is suspended from one point by use of a string, it is under action of two equal
and opposite forces, the tension in the string and its own weight that goes through G, its
centre of gravity. For this body to be in equilibrium, the line through the point of
suspension and G must be vertical.

Also, a body resting will be in equilibrium when the vertical through G goes through the
projection of the base onto the vertical plane in which the body rests, otherwise, the body
will topple.

Examples

2. ABCD is a uniform rectangular lamina in which AB = p, BC = 3p. The point E is on

AD such that ED = 3q. show that G, the centre of gravity of the trapezium ABCE, is
distant
3p2 – 3pq + q2 from AB and find its distance from BC.
2p –q
When the trapezium is suspended from E, the edge BC is horizontal. Prove that
q = ½ p (3-√3)

Solution;

A (3p-3q) E 3q D

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

G (x, y)
 p

B C

Distance of centre of gravity of CDE from AB = ⅓ [(3p-3q) + 3p +3p] = (3p – q)

Distance of centre of gravity of CDE from CD = ⅓ (0 + p+ p) = ⅔ p

Let w be the weight per unit area of the lamina and G (x, y)

Portion Weight Distance of c.o.g from

AB CD

ABCD 3p2w ½ (3p) ½p

CDE ½ (3pq)w (3p-q) ⅔p

ABCE 3p (p- ½ q) x y

Taking moments about AB, we have

(3p2w) ½ (3p) - ½ (3pqw) (3p –q) = 3p (p- ½ q) w x

Dividing through by 3pw yields

3
p2 – ½ p (3p –q) = ½ (2p-q) x
2

3p2 – 3pq + q2 = (2p – q) x

Giving x = 3p2 – 3pq + q2 as the distance of G from AB hence shown as required.

2p –q

Now taking moments about BC, we have

3 2
3p2 w x ½ p - 2 pqw x 3 p = 3p (p – ½ q) w y

½ p2 - ⅓pq = ½ (2p –q) y

⅓ (3p2 – 2pq) = (2p –q) y

Which gives, y = 3p2 -2pq as the distance of G from BC.

3 (2p- q)

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 184

A (3p-3q) E 3q D

p X G

B B O C

Since the line EO through G must be vertical, AE = BO = x

i.e. 3p2 – 3pq + q2 = 3(p-q)

2p –q

(3p-3q) (2p-q) = 3p2 – 3pq +q2

2q2 – 6pq + 3p2 = 0

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
Using x = ,
2𝑎

6𝑝±√(6𝑝)2 −4(2)(3𝑝2 )
q= 2(2)

6𝑝 ± √36𝑝2 −24𝑝2
q= 4

3 p
q = 2 p ± 2 √3

q = ½ p (3 ± √3)

But according to the diagram, it is obvious that q ≠ ½ p (3+ √3)

Therefore, q = ½ p (3 - √3) as required.

3. The figure below shows a cylindrical solid of uniform density into which a conical
solid is drilled so that they have a common axis.

D 24 cm C

R r

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 A B

Given that the cylinder is of base radius R and height 24cm and the conical part has base
radius, r and height 6 cm.

288R2 − 45r2
a) Show that the centre of gravity is a distance from face containing BC.
2(12R2 − r2 )
b) If R = 12 cm, and r = ¼ R, find the angle of inclination of CD to the vertical when the
cylinder is suspended from C.

Solution;

a) Let ρ be the density of body and let x be the distance of c.o.g from the face BC.

portion Volume Weight Distance of c.o.g from BC.

Whole cylinder пR2H=24пR2 24 пR2ρg ½ H = 12 cm

1 45
Conical hole пr2h= 2пr2 2п r2ρg H–¼h=
3 2

remainder 2п (12R2 –r2)ρg x

2п (12R2 –
r2)

Taking moments about the face containing BC, we have

45
24 пR2ρg (12) -2 п r2ρg ( 2 ) = 2п (12R2 –r2) ρg x

Dividing through by 2 п ρg

45 2
144R2 - r = (12R2 – r2) x
2

288R2 – 45r2 = 2(12R2 – r2) x

288R2 − 45r2
x= 2(12R2 − r2 )

288R2 − 45r2
Therefore the distance of c.o.g from face containing BC is as required.
2(12R2 − r2 )

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 186

b) substituting for R = 12 cm, r = ¼ R, r = 3cm gives x = 11.945 cm. now when the
body is suspended from C, we have;

α O

24 cm G α B

A W

For this body to be in equilibrium, GC must be vertical as shown in the figure.

OG = x = 11.945 cm, OC = R = 12 cm and we need to find α

𝑂𝐶 𝑅 12 12
tan α = 𝑂𝐺 = 𝑂𝐺 = 11.945 , α = tan-1 11.945 = 45.13o

Therefore the angle of inclination of BC to the vertical is (90o – α) = 44.87o

4. A solid uniform cylindrical piece of metal of height h and radius r has a cone shape
removed from it as shown below. The base of the cone has radius r and its height is
h.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 3
i) Show that the centre of gravity of the remaining is at a distance 8 h from A.
ii) If the resulting solid is placed in its plane in contact with a rough table, the
surface of the table being rough enough to prevent the solid from slipping as the
table is slowly tilted. Find the angle through which the table has been tilted
when the object is at a point of toppling given that h = 4r.

Solution;

i) Let w be the weight per unit volume of the cylinder and let y be the distance of
the centre of gravity of the remainder.

Figure Volume Weight Distance of c.o.g from A

Cylinder п r2h п r2hw ½h

Conical hole ⅓ п r2 h ⅓ п r2h ¾h

remainder ⅔ п r2h ⅔ п r2h y

Taking moments about face containing A, we have

П r2h x ½ h - ⅓ п r2h x ¾ h = ⅔ п r2h x y

Dividing through by п r2h gives,

½h–¼h=⅔y

¼h=⅔y
3
Therefore y = 8 h and this is the distance of the c.o.g of the remaining solid from A.

ii) Let the angle of inclination of the table to the horizontal at the point of toppling
be α.

R a
A

αα

r C

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss

 188

α B

mg

Note that at the point of toppling, the normal reaction R acts at B.

GC 𝑟 8𝑟
Now, from triangle BGC, tan α =BC = 5 = 5ℎ
ℎ
8

8𝑟
But h = 4r, so it implies that tan α = = 0.4, thus α = tan -1 0.4 = 21.80o.
20𝑟

5. ABCD is a uniform rectangular sheet of cardboard of length 8 cm and width 6 cm. a

square and circular holes are cut off the card board as shown in the figure below.

A D
1 cm

2 cm 1cm
6cm 2c
m

2 cm

B 8 cm C

i) Calculate the position of the centre of gravity of the remaining sheet.

ii) If the remaining sheet is suspended by a string attached at A, find the angle AB makes
with the vertical.

Solution;

i) Let w be the weight per unit area of the lamina and let (x, y) be the distances of
the center of gravity from AB and BC respectively.

Figure Area Weight Distance of c.o.g

From AB From BC

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 Whole (ABCD) 48cm2 48w 4 cm 3 cm

square 4 cm2 4w 3 cm 4 cm

circle П cm2 Пw 6 cm 4 cm

remainder (44- п) cm2 (44- п)w x y

Taking moments about AB and BC, we have

48w (43) - 4w (34) –п w (64) = (44-п) 𝑤 (𝑦𝑥 )

(44- п ) x =192 -12 - 6 п

180−6п
x= = 3.94412 cm
44−п

Likewise, (44- п) y = 192 -16- 4 п

176 − 4 п
y= , 𝑦 = 2.8252cm
(44−п)

Therefore the centre of gravity of the remaining lamina is 3.944cm and 2.825 cm from AB
and BC respectively

ii) Let β be the angle AB makes with the vertical.

A D

β
g
6cm G 2c
2 m

β vertical
B O C

From triangle BOG, we have

3.1748

B β O

3.9412

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 190

3.94412
tan β = ,
3.1748

𝛽 = 51. 17o

Summary of standard positions of centres of gravity for different bodies

Uniform body/Shape Position of centre of gravity

Uniform rod Centre of the rod

Regular At a distance ½ l where l is the side

rectangle/square

Triangular lamina Distance equal to h/3 from the base, where h is the vertical
height or (∑y)/3 or (∑xi)/3 for i = 1, 2, 3.

Tetrahedron ¼ h from the base

Pyramid ¼ h from the base

Solid cone ¼ h from base

Curved surface of cone h/3 from the base

Circular arc
3
Uniform solid 𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
8
hemisphere

Uniform hollow ½ r from the base

hemisphere

Uniform Right cone ¼ h from the base

Sector of a circle

Trial questions;

1. a) Prove that the centre of gravity of a solid cone is ¼ h of the vertical height from
the base.

b) E

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 D A

C B

The figure ABCDE above shows a solid cone of radius r, height h, joined to a solid
cylinder of the same material with the same radius and height H. if the centre of mass of
the whole solid lies in the plane of the base of the cone where the two solids are joined,
find H.

If instead H =h, and r = ½ h, find the angle AB makes with the horizontal, if the body is
hung from A.

2. a) Find the position of the centre of gravity of a uniform semi-circular lamina of

radius a from O, the midpoint of its straight edges.
c) A semi circular lamina of radius b and with O as the midpoint of its straight edges is
cut from the former lamina. Show that the centre of gravity of the resulting lamina is
at a distance from O given by [4(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 +𝑏 2 )]/ [3п (a + b)].
3. A square lamina PQRS of side 2l is made of uniform thin material. When a semicircular
piece with PQ as diameter is removed from the square, show that the centre of gravity
20𝑙
of the remainder of the lamina is at a distance 3(8−п) from the line PQ.
The remainder is suspended from a light string attached at R and hangs in
equilibrium. Show that RS is inclined to the downward vertical at an angle θ where
2(14−3п)
tan θ = .
3(8−п)
4. ABCD is a uniform square lamina in which AB = 12cm. E is a point in AD such that
AE= 3 cm. triangle CDE is cut off the lamina.
a) Find the centre of gravity of the remainder from side AB.
b) The remainder is placed in a vertical plane with AE on a horizontal surface;
calculate the magnitude of the minimum force applied on the remainder that will
prevent it from toppling.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

A particle/body is said to move with simple harmonic motion if its acceleration is
proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards that
point.

Mathematically, if x is the displacement of the particle from the rest position, and a its
acceleration, then, a = -ω2 x where ω is a positive constant. A negative sign is introduced in
the expression to show that a and x are in opposite directions.

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 192

Consider a particle executing simple harmonic motion. If a is the acceleration of the

particle, x its displacement from a fixed point O and v its velocity at any time t.

From above, a = -ω2x

𝑑2 𝑥
But a = 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑥
Therefore, 𝑑𝑡 2 = -ω2x

d2 x dV dV dx dv dx
By the chain rule, dt2 = a = = . = v dx since dt = v
dt dx dt

dv
Therefore, v dx = -ω2x

Separating variables and integrating gives,

∫ vdv = ∫ −ω2 xdx

𝑥2
½ v2 = - ω2 2 + c, where c is an arbitrary constant.

V2 = -ω2x2 + k, where k is a constant.

Assuming at the start of the motion i.e. at t = 0, x =A, and v = 0, we have c = ω2A2

Therefore, v = ± ω√A2 − x 2 and this is the expression for the velocity at any displacement
x.

It is clear that when x = 0, i.e. when the particle is at O, the particle has maximum velocity.

And vmax = Aω.

Displacement at any instant

dx
We know that v = dt

dx
It implies that, dt = ±ω√A2 − x 2

Separating variables and integrating, we have

dx
∫ √A2 −x2 = ∫ ωdt
x
Sin-1(A) = ωt + c

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 п
Assuming that at t =0, x = A, then, c = 2

x
= sin (ωt + ½п) = cos ωt
A

Therefore, x = A cos ωt

The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position is called the amplitude of the
motion. From x = A cos ωt

It implies that the maximum value of x is A and this is the amplitude. This occurs at t = 0.

Period and frequency of a simple harmonic motion

The period T of a simple harmonic motion is the time taken to complete one cycle. It is
2п
given by T = .
ω

The frequency of a simple harmonic motion is the number of complete cycles made per unit
time. It is the reciprocal of the period and it is measured in hertz (Hz).
ω
The frequency, f = 2п .

We can now summarize the fundamental expressions related to simple harmonic motion.
d2 x
Acceleration a = dt2 = −ω2 x

Velocity v = ±ω√A2 − x 2

Displacement x = A cos (ωt +c)

2п
Period T= 𝜔

1 𝜔
Frequency f = 𝑇 = 2п

The above equations can also be reached at by initially relating the simple harmonic
motion to circular motion.

Consider a particle

Examples;

1. The particle describing simple harmonic motion in a straight line is directed

towards a fixed point O. when its distance from O is 3m, the velocity is 25m/s and its
acceleration is 75m/s2. Determine the
i) Period and amplitude of the oscillation

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 194

ii) Velocity as it passes through O.

Solution;

i) Given x = 3, a = 75m/s2 , v = 25m/s

From a = -ω2x,

75 = ω2.3

ω = 5 rads-1.
2п 2
Period, T = = п seconds.
𝜔 5

Also, using v2 = ω2(𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )

252 = 52. (A2 -32)

A = √34 m and this is the amplitude of oscillation.

ii) At O, x = 0,

Using v2 = ω2(𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ), we have

V2 = 52. (34 – 0)

V = √25𝑥34 = 25.16 𝑚⁄𝑠 as the required velocity.

2. A body has a simple harmonic motion, its velocity being 3 m/s at 150mm
displacement, and 2.4m/s at 225mm displacement, from the mid position. Find the
periodic time, frequency and amplitude.

Solution;

Using v2 = ω2 (A2 – x2)

For x = 150 mm = 0.15m, v = 3 m/s

32 = ω2 (A2 –0.152)

9 = A2ω2 - 0.0225ω2 ………………………………… (1)

For x = 225mm = 0.225 m, v = 2.4 m/s

2.42 = ω2 (A2 – 0.2252)

5.76 = A2ω2 -0.0506ω2 ………………………………… (2)

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
Subtracting equation (2) from (1), we get

0.0281ω2 = 3.24

ω = 10.74 rev/s

Substituting for ω in equation (1) gives A = 0.317 m =317mm.

2п 2п
Now Periodic time T = = 10.74 = 0.585 seconds.
𝜔

1 1
Also frequency = 𝑇 = 0.585 = 1.71 Hz.

Therefore the period is 0.585 seconds, the frequency is 1.71 Hz and the amplitude is
317mm.

3. A particle moving with simple harmonic motion about a fixed point O and amplitude
150cm is observed to be with a velocity 0.6п ms-1when it is 30 cm from one end.
Determine the
i) Periodic time
ii) Time it takes to move from the end to a point 120cm from O.

Solution;

From v2 = ω2 (A2 – x2)

150 2 120 2
(0.6п) 2 = ω2((100) − (100) )

(0.6п)2
ω2 = 0.81

0.6п 2
ω= = 3 п rads-1
0.9

2п 2п 𝑥3
Periodic time, T = = = 3 seconds.
𝜔 2п

Now, from x = A cos ωt from end

30 150 2
= 100 cos(3 пt)
100

2п
𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.2 = 1.3𝑑6. Thus, t = 0.6539 seconds.
3

Trial questions;

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 196

1. A particle executing simple harmonic motion about point O has speeds 3√3 m/s and
3 m/s when at a distance of 1m and 0.268m respectively, from the point. Find the
amplitude of the motion. (UNEB 2000, 8) ANS; 2.001m
2. A particle executing simple harmonic motion starts at rest from a point O and passes
through points A and B in that order. Given that OA = 0.1 cm, OB = 0.2 cm
and the particle passes A and B with 6m/s and 5m/s, calculate the
i) Amplitude and angular velocity of the motion
ii) Time the particle takes to move from A directly to B.
3. A particle of mass 2 kg executes S.H.M about the centre O. when the particle is 1.5 m
from O, its speed is 4 m/s and the resultant force acting on it is 12 N. find the
i) Period and amplitude of the motion
ii) Least time the particle takes to reach O.
iii) Kinetic energy of the particle as it passes through O.
4. The amplitude of a particle moving with S.H.M is 1.5m, the acceleration at a distance
0.6m from the mean position is 1.2 m/s2, find the velocity when the particle is in its
mean position, and also when it is 1.2 m from this position.
𝑑2 𝑥
5. a) A particle performing a S.H.M satisfies the equation 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0. show that
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐), where c is a constant and A is the amplitude.
b) A particle moving with a S.H.M of amplitude a m travels from a point P, x1 m
from the centre of motion directly to a point Q, x2 m from the centre of
2п
motion in t seconds. Show that the period of the motion satisfies 𝑎2 cos =
𝑇
𝑥1 𝑥2 + √(𝑎2 − 𝑥1 2 )(𝑥 2 − 𝑥2 2
6. A point, moving with S.H.M, has velocities of 1.2m/s and 0.9m/s when at distances
of 0.9m and 1.2 m from its central position. Find the period and the maximum
acceleration.
7. A point is moving in a straight line with simple harmonic motion about a fixed point
O of the line. The point has velocity v1 when its displacement from O is x1, and a
velocity v2 when its distance from O is x2. Show that the period of the motion is
𝑥 2 −𝑥 2
2п√( 𝑣1 2 −𝑣22 )
2 1

8. The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line is given by the equation v=

k√(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) where k and a are constants, and x is the distance of the particle from a
fixed point in the line; prove that the motion is simple harmonic, and find the
amplitude and the periodic time of the motion.

Forces that produce simple harmonic motion

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Simple harmonic motion or a close approximation to it occurs provided there is force
acting in such a way that it is always directed towards equilibrium point and is
proportional to the distance from that point. We shall examine some of these cases and
show that simple harmonic motion results.

Particle suspended by a spring or an elastic string

Consider a spring or an elastic string of length l and modulus of elasticity λ with one end
fixed and the other end supporting a particle of mass m suspended freely from it.

To T1

l+e TO (l+e+x)

T1

mg

i) In equilibrium state mg ii) in state of motion

Suppose the string/spring extends a distance e when the body is hung from it. In a state of
equilibrium, (see fig. (i) above), the tension in the string/spring just balances the weight of
the body

i.e. TO = mg
𝜆
Therefore, mg = 𝑙 𝑒

Let now the mass be pulled a distance x down wards

The total length of the string is now (l + e +x) and the new tension in the string/spring is
T1.
𝜆
From Hooke’s law, T1 = 𝑙 (𝑒 + 𝑥)

This is the new restoring force T1 in the spring/string.

According to Newton’s law, the resultant force downwards, F= ma is given by

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 198

ma = mg -T1
𝜆
ma = mg − 𝑙 (𝑒 + 𝑥)

𝜆
But from (1), mg = 𝑙 𝑒

𝜆 𝜆
ma = 𝑙 𝑒 − 𝑙 (𝑒 + 𝑥)

𝜆
Therefore, F = ma = − 𝑙 𝑥.

𝜆
And a = − 𝑚𝑙 𝑥

The acceleration is therefore always directed towards the equilibrium position and is
proportional to the displacement x from the equilibrium position and so the motion is
simple harmonic.

Comparing the result above with the basic equation for S.H.M, a = -ω2x,

𝜆 𝜆
It implies that ω2 = 𝑚𝑙 and ω = √𝑚𝑙

𝑚𝑙
If T is the period of oscillation, then T = 2п√
𝜆

Note;

The results are the same whether the mass is oscillating vertically or horizontally. The only
difference in the two cases is in the position about which the oscillation takes place. In a
vertical motion, the body oscillates about the static deflected position whereas in
horizontal motion, the mass oscillates about the un stretched position of the string.
Consider the example below;

An elastic string of natural length l and modulus of elasticity λ is stretched between two
points A and B distant 2l on a smooth horizontal table. A particle of mass m fastened to the
midpoint O of the string is pulled towards A through a distance x (< ½l) and then released.
Investigate the motion of the particle.

Solution;

l x l-x

B O TB P TA A
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
Consider the motion of the particle as it passes through a general point distant x from the
midpoint O.

For the portion BP of the string,

Stretched length is (l + x)

And natural length is ½ l

Extension in BP is (l +x)- ½l = ½ l + x

𝜆 1 𝜆
The tension in BP, TB = ( 𝑙 + 𝑥) = (𝑙 + 2𝑥)
𝑙/2 2 𝑙

For portion AP of the string,

The natural length is ½ l and stretched length is (l-x).

Extension in AP, e = stretched length – natural length = (l – x) – ½ l = ½l – x

2𝜆 1 𝜆
The tension, TA = (2 𝑙 − 𝑥) = 𝑙 (𝑙 − 2𝑥)
𝑙

Since the initial displacement x< ½ l, the particle will never go beyond M and therefore the
string never goes slack during the subsequent motion.

For all positions of P, applying Newton’s law in direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃 gives

TA – TB = ma

𝜆 𝜆
(𝑙 − 2𝑥) − (𝑙 + 2𝑥) = ma
𝑙 𝑙

4𝜆
− 𝑥 = ma
𝑙

4𝜆
a = − (𝑚𝑙) 𝑥

we see that the particle performs simple harmonic motion about O as the centre of the
2п 𝑚𝑙
motion. The period of oscillation, T = = п√ 𝜆
𝜔

The simple pendulum

A system consisting of a small particle oscillating through a small angle at the end of a
weightless string fixed at one end is called a simple pendulum. This particle describes
angular simple harmonic motion.

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 200

Consider a mass m suspended at the end of a weightless string of length l and having its
other end fixed at O.

A s C

B θ

mg sinθ mg

Assuming the particle is displaced through a small angle θ. When released the particle
tends to return to the equilibrium position B.

Let the position of the particle at any time t be determined by the arc length s measured
from the equilibrium position B.

By Newton’s second law,

𝑑2 𝑠
m𝑑𝑡 2 = -mg sinθ

But from the diagram, since θ is small, BC≈ AC where AC = l sinθ

But for small angles, sinθ ≈ θ, so s = lθ

Substituting for s in (1) yields

𝑑2 (𝑙𝜃)
m = -mg θ
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝜃
m𝑙 𝑑𝑡 2 = -mg θ

𝑑2 𝜃 𝑔
𝑑𝑡 2
= - 𝑙 𝜃. This is its angular acceleration.

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

Comparing this result with the basic equation a = -ω2x, shows that a particle oscillating
through small angles at the end of a light string performs angular simple harmonic motion.

The period T of the motion is 2п√𝑙⁄𝑔

Note;

a) A simple pendulum whose period is one second is called a seconds pendulum.

b) The period of a simple pendulum depends on the acceleration due to gravity and
varies from place to place.

Examples;

1. A Particle P of mass m lies on a smooth horizontal table and is attached to two

elastic strings fixed to the table at two points A and B. The natural length of the
strings AP and BP are 4l and 5l respectively and their moduli of elasticity are mg and
5
mg respectively. show that when P is in equilibrium, AP = 6l.
2
P is now held at C in the line AB with AC = 5l and then released. Show that the
resultant motion is simple harmonic with period 4п√𝑙⁄3𝑔 . Find the maximum
velocity.

Solution;

Let TA and TB be the tensions in AP and BP respectively and e1 and e2 the extensions
respective.

4l+e1 5l+e2

A TA P TB B

Since AB = 12l, the extension in BP, e2 = 12l -5l – 4l – e1

e2 = 3l – e1 ………………………………… (1)
𝜆
From Hooke’s law, T = 𝑙 𝑒

5
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
2
Therefore, TA = . 𝑒1 and TB = (3𝑙 − 𝑒1 ).
4𝑙 5𝑙

Since the particle is in equilibrium, TA = TB

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 202

5
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
2
. 𝑒1 = (3𝑙 − 𝑒1 ).
4𝑙 5𝑙

½ e1 = 3l – e1

e1 = 2l

but, AP = 4l +e1

AP = 4l + 2l = 6l as required.

Suppose at a certain instant, the particle is at a distance x from the equilibrium position P.
The tensions are no longer equal since the extensions have changed.

4l+e1-x 5l+e2+ x

A T’A T’B B

5l C x P

The extension in BP is now (e2 + x) while that in AP is (e1 –x).

5𝑚𝑔⁄
𝑚𝑔 2
From Hooke’s law; T’A = (𝑒1 − 𝑥) and T’B = (𝑒2 + 𝑥)
4𝑙 5𝑙

The resultant force = ma = T’A – T’B

5𝑚𝑔⁄
𝑚𝑔 2 (𝑒
ma = (𝑒1 − 𝑥) − 2 + 𝑥)
4𝑙 5𝑙

𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
ma = (𝑒1 − 𝑥) − (𝑒2 + 𝑥)
4𝑙 2𝑙

𝑚𝑔
ma = (𝑒1 − 2𝑒2 − 3𝑥)
4𝑙

But from (1), e2 = 3l – e1 and e1 = 2l. Therefore, e2 = l, and e1 – 2e2 = 0

𝑚𝑔
ma = − . 3𝑥
4𝑙

3𝑔
a = − 4𝑙 𝑥

Comparing this result with a = -ω2x shows that the motion is simple harmonic with
3𝑔 1 3𝑔
ω2 = √( 4𝑙 ) = 2 √ 𝑙

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 2п 2п 𝑙
But, T = =1 = 4п√3𝑔 as required.
𝜔 3𝑔
√
2 𝑙

Now, maximum speed = ω A, where A is the amplitude of the motion.

The amplitude in this case is CP = 6l – 5l = l

𝑙 3𝑔
So maximum speed is √ .
2 𝑙

2. A particle of mass m is attached by means of light strings AP and BP of the same

natural length a m and modulus of elasticity mg and 2mg respectively to the points
A and B of a smooth horizontal table. The particle is released from the midpoint of
1
4п2 𝑎 2
AB and AB = 3a m. Show that the motion of the particle is S.H.M with period( ).
3𝑔

Solution;

Let T1 and T2 be the tensions in AP and BP and e1 and e2 the respective tensions.

a+e1 a+e2

A T1 P T2 B

Since AB = 3a, the extension in BP, e2 = 3a – (2a + e1)

e2 = a – e1 …………………………. (1)
𝑚𝑔 2𝑚𝑔
From Hooke’s law, T1 = e1 and T2 = (𝑎 − 𝑒1 )
𝑎 𝑎

In equilibrium, T2 = T1
2𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
(𝑎 − 𝑒1 )= e1
𝑎 𝑎

2a – 2e1 = e1
2
e1 = 3 𝑎

1
From (1), e2 = 3 𝑎

Assuming that at a certain instant, the particle is at point O, a distance x from the
equilibrium position P. The tensions are no longer equal since the extensions have changed.

a+e1-x a+e2+ x

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 204

A T’1 T’2 B

1.5a O x P

The extension in BP is now (e2 + x) while that in AP is (e1 –x).

𝑚𝑔 2𝑚𝑔
The new tensions in the strings are, T’1 = (𝑥1 − 𝑥) and T’2 = (𝑒2 + 𝑥)
𝑎 𝑎

The resultant force, ma on the particle is T’1 – T’2

𝑚𝑔 2𝑚𝑔
ma = (𝑒1 − 𝑥) − (𝑒2 + 𝑥)
𝑎 𝑎

𝑚𝑔
ma = (𝑒1 − 𝑥 − 2𝑒2 − 2𝑥)
𝑎

Substituting for e1 and e2 , we have

𝑚𝑔 2 2
ma = (3 𝑎 − 3 𝑎 − 3𝑥)
𝑎

3𝑔
a=− 𝑥
𝑎

Therefore the motion of the particle is simple harmonic with ω = √(3𝑔/𝑎) and amplitude,
A = 1.5a
2п
The period of motion, T = = 2п√𝑎/3𝑔
𝜔

1/2
4п2 𝑎 4п2 𝑎
T2 = , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇 = ( ) as required.
3𝑔 3𝑔

3. One end of an elastic string of natural length l is fixed to a point A on a smooth

horizontal table. A particle of mass m is attached to the other end of the string. The
particle is pulled away from A and is then released. Investigate the subsequent
motion of the body.

Solution;

A B T P ma

l x

Let the particle be located at a distance x from B at any instant t, where AB = l

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 𝜆
The tension in the string, T = 𝑙 𝑥 (Hooke’s law)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ gives,
Applying Newton’s law in the direction 𝐵𝑃

𝜆
− 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑙
𝜆
Therefore, 𝑎 = − 𝑚𝑙 𝑥

This is the basic equation of simple harmonic motion with ω = √𝜆/𝑚𝑙.

The period of oscillation, T = 2п√𝑚𝑙/𝜆.

P’ T B’ A B T P ma

l l x

The particle will execute the above simple harmonic motion provided the string never goes
slack. However, as the particle moves through B, the string becomes slack and therefore no
horizontal force acts on it. It will therefore travel with a uniform speed till the string becomes
taut again at B’ where AB’ = l.

4. A light elastic string has natural length l and when a particle of mass m is suspended
1 1
on it, the extension is 5 𝑙. The particle is then pulled down a further distance 5 𝑙 from
its equilibrium position and then released. Show that the ensuing motion is simple
harmonic of period 2п√𝑙/5𝑔 and that the maximum speed of the particle satisfies
5𝑔
the equation, Vmax = √( 𝑙 )

Solution;

1 1
l +5 𝑙 To l+5 𝑙 T1

x T1

mg mg

a) In equilibrium b) when disturbed

Case I (fig. a)

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 206

𝜆
The tension in the string, TO = 𝑙 𝑒

𝜆 1 𝜆
TO = 𝑙 . 5 𝑙 = 5

But To = mg
𝜆
Therefore, mg = 5 thus, λ = 5mg.

Case II (fig. b)

Consider motion of the particle through a general point distant 𝑥 from the equilibrium
position O.
𝜆 1 5𝑚𝑔 1
The new tension in the string, T1 = 𝑙 (5 𝑙 + 𝑥)= (5 𝑙 + 𝑥)
𝑙

5𝑚𝑔 1
The resultant force downwards, ma = mg – (5 𝑙 + 𝑥)
𝑙

𝑚𝑔
ma = ( 𝑙 − 5𝑥 − 𝑙)
𝑙

5𝑔
a=− 𝑥
𝑙

5𝑔
Therefore, the motion of the particle is simple harmonic with ω2 = .
𝑙

2п 2п 𝑙
Period, P = = = 2п√5𝑔
𝜔 5𝑔
√
𝑙

1
Maximum speed, Vmax = ω A, where A is the amplitude of motion. In this case A = 5 𝑙

5𝑔 1
Therefore, Vmax = √ .5𝑙
𝑙

5𝑔 𝑙2 𝑔𝑙
V2 max = . 25 =
𝑙 5

5𝑔
Hence, Vmax = √( 𝑙 ) as required.

Exercise;

1. Two fixed points A and B on a smooth horizontal table are at a distance 10a apart. A
particle of mass m lies between A and B. it is attached to A by means of a light elastic

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 string of modulus λ and natural length 2a and to B by means of another string of
natural length 5a and modulus 2λ. Let AP = x.
9𝜆 3𝜆
i) Show that 𝑥̈ + =
10𝑎𝑚 𝑚
ii) Determine x when the particle is in equilibrium.
iii) If the particle is released from rest when the string AP is just taut, show that the
5𝑎 2п
particle moves with simple harmonic motion of amplitude and period
3 𝜔
9𝜆
where ω2 = 10𝑎𝑚.
2. A rigid square frame consists of four uniform rods, each of mass m and length 2a,
joined at their ends to form a square. Show that the moment of inertia of the frame,
40
about an axis through one of its corners and perpendicular to the plane is ma2.
3
The frame is suspended form one corner, and can rotate in a vertical plane about a
smooth horizontal axis through the corner. Show that the motion in which the frame
makes small oscillations about its equilibrium position os approximately simple
harmonic, and find the period of this simple harmonic motion.

RELATIVE MOTION

RESULTANT VELOCITY

A body may possess a number of velocities simultaneously. Take an example of a passenger

moving on the deck of a moving ship. These different velocities can be compounded into a
single velocity, this is called the resultant velocity, and the different velocities are called the
components of the resultant.

Like all other vector quantities, velocities can be compounded by the parallelogram law.

The parallelogram of velocities

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 208

If a particle possesses simultaneously velocities represented in magnitude and direction by

lines OA and OB, it has a resultant velocity represented in magnitude and direction by OC
the diagonal of a parallelogram OACB.

B C

VR

u
α 180o-α α

O v A F

If OA = v, OB = u, angle OACB = α, then,

OC2 = VR2 = OF2 + FC2

= (OA + AC cosα)2 + (AC sin α)2

= OA2 + 2OA.AC cos α + AC2

If the resultant is V R,

V R = u2 + v2+ 2uv cos α

If u and v are at right angles, then VR2 = u2 + v2

Examples;

1. Find the resultant of velocities of 8 m/s and 6 m/s inclined at an angle of 60o.

Solution;

6 m/s 6m/s

60o α 120O

8m/s

Let the resultant velocity be V. we can complete the parallelogram as shown above.

Using the cosine rule; V2 = 82 + 62 -2x8x6 cos 120o

V2 = 148
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
V = 12.17m/s

If α is the angle v makes with the 8m/s velocity, then;

Using the sine rule, we have

12.17 6
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛α
𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝑜

6𝑠𝑖𝑛120𝑜
sin α = 12.17

α = 25.29o.

Therefore the resultant velocity is 12.17m/s making an angle of 25.29o with the velocity of
8 m/s.

2. A railway carriage is travelling at 30 m/s and a person rolls a ball across the floor of
the carriage at right angles to the direction of motion of the train at 16 m/s. find the
resultant velocity of the ball.

Solution; 16m/s

30 m/s

If V is the resultant velocity, then, v2 = 162 + 302

V = 34 m/s.

If α is the angle the resultant makes with the direction of motion of the train,
30
tan α = 16

This gives α = 61.93o.

Therefore, the resultant velocity is 34m/s making an angle 61.93o to the motion of the
train.

3. Find the resultant of the following velocities (4i-3j) m/s, (-7i+5j) m/s and (8i-6j)
m/s.

Solution; VR = (4i-3j) + (-7i+5j) + (8i-6j) = 5i – 4j

Angle of inclination of VR to the horizontal is tan-1(4/5) to the negative x direction.

Components of velocity

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 210

A given resultant velocity can be broken down into its components in any two desired
directions. For practical purposes, the directions of the components shall be considered to
be at right angles.

Let OB represent the resultant velocity V, that we desire to resolve into two components
one along OX and the other along OY.

Y B

O A X

If angle X𝑂̂B = α, then,

𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛 α = 𝑂𝐵 and cos α = 𝑂𝐵

AB = OB sin α = v sin α, and OA =OB cos α = v cos α

Therefore, v is equal to two components v cos α making an angle α to it and v sin α that is
perpendicular to the first component.

Example

A cyclist rides at 16 m/s in a direction 30o east of north. Find the components of his velocity
due north and due east respectively.

Solution;

N 16m/s

y 30O

x = 16 sin 30o = 8i m/s

y = 16cos30o = 8√3j m/s

Trial question

Resolve a velocity of 10 m/s into two perpendicular components such that

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 i) The components are equal.
ii) One component is twice the other.

Frames of reference; a frame of reference is where one bases as he sees the movement of
other bodies. A frame of reference is always assumed.

Note that;

✓ The earth is considered the universal frame of reference.

✓ North wind is considered blowing from north to south.
✓ Northeast wind is considered moving from northeast to southwest.

Relative velocity;

Given that a body A moving with velocity VA and body B moving with velocity VB.

The velocity of A with respect to B is denoted VA/B = AVB = VA- VB

Example;

1. A man on a ship whose velocity is 20i – 30j is watching a yacht whose velocity is 5i
+ 4j. What is the velocity of the yacht as seen by the man?

Solution;

Vm = 20i – 30j, Vy = 5i + 4j

5 20 −15
Vy/m = ( )− ( )= ( )
4 −30 34

Vy/m = -15i + 34j

2. The driver of a car travelling East on a straight road at 40 kph observes a train
moving due North at 75 kph. What is the apparent speed and direction of the motion
to the train?

Solution;

Vm = 40i

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 212

Vt = 75j

Vt/m = Vt – Vm = 75j – 40i = -40i + 75j

Vt/m = √ (-402 + 752) = 85 km/h

75 kph

40kph

75
tan Ѳ = 40 and thus Ѳ = 61.92o I.e. direction is W61.92ON or bearing is 331.9o

3. To an observer moving Northeast at 20 kph an airplane appears to be flying due

west at 100 kph. What is the true course and speed of the airplane?
Solution;
20 kph

45o

100 kph

VB = 20 cos 45oi + 20 sin45o

VB = 10√2i + 10√2j

VA/B = -100

VA/B = VA – VB

VA = VA/B + VB = -100i + 10√2i + 10√2j =

VA = i(10√2 – 100) + 10√2j

Magnitude of VA = √ ( 7371.57 + 200 = 87 kph = 24.17 m/s.

10√2
tan Ѳ = giving Ѳ = 9.35o or direction W9.35oN
85.85

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

10√2

85.85

4. A train is travelling along a horizontal rail at 54 kph and rain is falling vertically with
a velocity of 5 ms-1. Find the apparent direction and velocity of the rain to a person
travelling in the train.

Solution;

Vt= 15i, Vr = -5j,

Vt/r = Vt – Vr = 15i + 5j

Magnitude of Vt./r = √(152 + 52) = 15.8 m/s

5
tan Ѳ =15, thus Ѳ = 18.3o i.e. the direction is W18.43S or bearing is 288.43o

5. Raindrops are falling through air with a velocity of 3m/s. if the north wind blows at
18kph, find the direction in which the drops appear to a person walking at 6kph.
Solution;
VR/W = -3k
VW = -5j
VR/M =?
VM= 5/3 m/s
VR/M = VR – VM
VR = VR/M + VM = -5j -3k
Also, VR/M = VR – VM = -5j – 3k – 5/3j
20
VR/M = 𝑗 − 3𝑘
3
20
Magnitude of VR/M = √ [( 3 ) 2 + (-3)2] = 7.31 m/s

Direction;
20
tan Ѳ = 3/( 3 ) giving Ѳ = 87.13o

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 214

6. To a cyclist riding due south at 20 kph, a steady wind appears to blow in direction
240o. When he reduces his speed to 15 kph, the wind appears to blow in direction of
250o. Find the true wind velocity and direction.
Solution;
Vc = -20j
Vw/c = λ
Case I

30o 240o

Vw/c = - λ cos 30oi – λ sin 30oj

√3 λ
Vw/c = - λ 2 𝑖 − 2 j

Vw/.c = vw - vc

It implies that Vw = vc + Vw/c

√3 λ
Vw = λ 2 𝑖 − (2 + 20) j

Case 2

Vc = - 15j

Let vw/c = μ

Vw/c = - μcos60i – μ sin 60j 60o

𝜇 √3
= - 2i - μ 2 j

Vw/c + Vc = Vw

Note that the velocity of the wind is the same in each case.

√3 𝜆 𝜇 √3
-λ 2 𝑖 - (2 + 20)𝑗 = − 2 𝑖 − (𝜇 + 15)j
2

√3 𝜇
λ 2 𝑖 = 2i

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 μ = λ√3

𝜆 √3
+ 20 = μ 2 + 15
2

Substituting for μ gives λ = 5

And thus μ = 5√3

5
Now Vw = -2√3i – 22.5j

5
Vm = √ [(- √3)2 + (-22.5)2]
2

= 22.912 km/hr

22.5
Ѳ tan Ѳ = 5 giving Ѳ = 79.10o
√3
2

7. A stream ship is travelling north at the rate of 16 kph and there is a northeast wind
blowing at the rate of 32kph. In what direction will the smoke from the funnel will
appear to move to an observer in the ship?
8. A passenger on top of a mini bus feels a breeze, which to him appears to blow across
the bus at 16kph. If the mini bus is travelling at 24 kph, what is the velocity of the
mini bus?
Ans; 8m/s, bearing 320o
9. The passenger is in the train travelling northeast at 100kph. He watches a car
moving on a straight road. A car seems to be travelling in direction 240o at 120kph.
What is the true velocity of the car?
Ans; 97.4kph
10. A boy is walking due north along a straight road and the wind appears to be blowing
southwest. When he turns right at a cross road, the wind appears to be blowing in a
direction 260o. Find the true velocity of the wind.

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 216

11. A girl is riding a horse along a straight path at 5km/hr. a second rider is moving at 8
km/hr along a perpendicular straight path. What is the velocity of the second rider
relative to the first?
12. A passenger in a train travelling northeast at 10kph watches a car moving on a
straight road. The car seems to be travelling in the direction 210o at 125 kph. What
is the true velocity of the car?
13. Two aircrafts are flying at the same height on straight courses. The first is playing at
400kph due north. The true speed of the second is 350 kph and it appears to the
pilot of the first aircraft to be a course of 220o. Find the true course of the second
aircraft.
14. A, B and C are three objects each moving with a constant velocity. A’s speed is
10m/s in a direction pq, the velocity of B relative to A is 6m/s at an angle of 70o to it
and the velocity of C relative to B is 12 m/s in direction qp. Find the velocity of B and
C.
15. When a motorist is driving with velocity 6i + 8j, the wind appears to come from
direction i. when he doubles the speed, the wind appears to come from a direction i
+ j. prove that the true velocity of wind is 4i +8j in the same direction. If the wind
appears to come from the direction 2i + j, calculate the motorist speed.

RELATIVE POSITION;

Suppose a body A is moving with a velocity of Va and initially at point roA. Let B moving with
velocity and initially at point roB.

Let rA and rB be the position vectors of A and B.

rA = ∫ 𝑣a dt

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

rA = vat + c, where c = roA since at t = 0, rA= roA. This is the position vector of A at any time
t.

Likewise the position vector of B at any time t is given by; r B = vB t + roB

Now the displacement of A relative to B denoted by rA/B is given by rA/B = rA – r B

If these two bodies do not collide, then they are closest to each other at an instant. For the
minimum distance between the two bodies A and B, their relative velocity is perpendicular
to their relative position at time t. The time needed to reach the closest approach is
obtained from the two cases below;

a) From the dot product;

ArB (t). AVB (t)
b) From calculus;

𝑑
|𝑟𝐴 – 𝑟𝐵 | = 0.
𝑑𝑡

To obtain the distance of closest approach we substitute the time of closest approach
obtained above in (rA - rB)

Example 1;

An object passes P through a point whose position vector is 3i -2j with a constant
velocity of i+j. at the same instant, another object Q moving with a constant velocity
4i – 2j passes through a point with position vector i+4j. Find the displacement of P
relative to Q after t seconds and the time when P and Q are closest together. How far
apart are they at that time?

Solution;

roP = 3i -2j

Vp = i +j

rp = ∫ 𝑉𝑝𝑑𝑡 =∫( 𝑖 + 𝑗)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑖𝑗 + 𝑐

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 218

But at t= 0, rp = rop which on substituting in the above expression for rp gives c = rop

I.e. rp = ti + tj + 3i – 2j

rp = (t+1)i + (t-2)j

Likewise, vq = 4i -2j, roq = i + 4j

Now, rQ = 4ti -2tj + i+4j = (4t + 1)i +(4 -2j)j

𝑡+3 𝑡+1
rP/Q = ( )- ( ) = (2-3t)i + (3t -6)j
𝑡−2 4 − 2𝑡

Magnitude of rp/Q = ( rp/Q) 2 = (2-3t)2 + ( 3t-6)2

𝑑
rp/Q = 0
𝑑𝑡

2.-3(2-3t) + 2.3(3t +6) =0

4
Solving yields t = 3 seconds as the time of closest approach.

Now to find the distance of closest approach,

4 4
rp/q =( 2- 3. 3)2 + (3.3 . 6)2 = 2√2 m.

1. A particle moving at a constant velocity 2i + 3j + 8k passes through a point with

position vector 6i – 11j + 4k . at the same instant, another particle Q passes through
a point with position vector i- 2j +5k moving with constant velocity 3i +4j – 7k.
find;
i) Position and velocity of Q relative to P at that instant.
ii) Time that elapses before the particles are nearest to each other.
iii) Shortest distance between P and Q in their subsequent motion.

Solution;

Rp = 6i – 11j + 4k

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 VP = 2i + 3j + 8k

RQ = i- 2j + 5k

VQ = 3i +4j -7k

i) QRP = RQ - RP

1 6 −5
= (−2) – (−11) = ( 9 )
5 4 1

Thus the position of Q relative to P = -5i + 9j + k

Likewise; QVP = VQ - VP

3 2 1
= ( 4 ) − (3) = ( 1 )
−7 8 −25

ii) RP(t) = RP + VP .t
6 2 6 + 2𝑡
= (−11) + ( 3 ) 𝑡 = (−11 + 3𝑡 )
4 8 4 + 8𝑡

1 3 1 + 3𝑡
Likewise; RQ (t) = RQ + VQ.t = (−2) + ( 4 ) 𝑡 = (−2 + 4𝑡)
5 −7 5 − 7𝑡

Now, for shortest distance to occur QRP (t). QVP = 0

1 + 3𝑡 6 + 2𝑡 −5 + 𝑡
Where QRP (t) = RQ (t) - RP (t) = (−2 + 4𝑡) − (−11 + 3𝑡) = ( 9 + 𝑡 )
5 − 7𝑡 4 + 8𝑡 1 − 15𝑡

Now using this result in the equation above yields;

−5 + 𝑡 1
( 9 + 𝑡 ).( 1 ) =0
1 − 15𝑡 −15

This implies; (-5+ t) + (9+ t) -15t (1- 15t) = 0

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 220

From which t = 11⁄227 units which is the time that elapses before the particles are
nearest to each other.

iii) Shortest distance is obtained from | 𝑄 𝑅𝑃 |(t) at t = 11⁄227 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 where

−5 + 𝑡
QRP(t) = 9+𝑡
1 − 15𝑡

−4.952
Substituting t = 11⁄225 units yields QRP (11⁄227) = ( 9.048 )
0.273

Shortest distance d = magnitude of QRP = 10.313 units.

Example 2;

Two trains A and B are 20km apart initially with B on a bearing of N67oE from A. train A
is moving at 18kph in a direction of S20oE and B is moving at 12kph due south.
Assuming that the velocities of the trains remains constant, find the least distance apart
in the subsequent motion and the time at which the position is reached.

Solution; N

Sketch: B

20km

N 67o VB = 12kph

A Ѳ d

20o AVB

20o

M C

VA= 18kph

Simplied mechanics for advanced level students

 Note that B is at rest and A moves with velocity AVB in direction AC.

The least distance apart is BD =d

From ALM, apply the cosine rule and let AVB = x

Therefore; x2 = 182 + 122 – (2x 12x18cos20o)

This gives x = 7.877kph

Magnitude of AVB is 7.877 kph.

Now using the sine rule;

12
AVB = 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ѳ

Sin20o

This yields Ѳ = 31.4o

Now <BAC = 180O – (67o + 31.40 + 20o) = 61.6o

𝑑
Sin <BAC = 20 => d = 20sin61.6o giving d = 17.59 km.

𝐴𝐶 20𝑐𝑜𝑠61.6
Time to reach this position = 𝑎𝑉𝑏 = = 1.208 hours
7.877

Thus, the least distance between the trains is 17.6km and occurs after 1 hour
12minutes.

Exercise;

1. A particle P moving with a constant velocity 2i +2j+ 5k passes through a point of

position vector 6i -11j +4k. at the same instant, a particle Q passes through a point
with position vector 3i + 4j – 4k. Find the position vector and velocity of Q relative
to P at the instant. When will these two particles be closest to each other and at
what distance?
2. A steamer moving with velocity 20i + 20 j kph observes a cruiser at a displacement
of 16i -16j km away from her that is moving at a velocity of -40i + 40j kph.

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 222

i) Find the velocity of the cruiser relative to the steamer.

ii) At what time are the two vessels nearest to each other?
iii) How far are they apart at this time?
Ans; -60i + 20j km/hr, 0.32hr, 10.119 km
3. A time t, ship A is at a point O and ship B is at a point whose position vector is 10j
referred to O. the velocity of the ships are steady. Ship A sails at 34kph in direction
8i +11j and ship B sails at 30kph in direction of 3i +4j. find;
i) The velocity of each ship1
ii) The velocity of B relative to A at time t.
iii) The position vector of B relative to A at time t

Given that the visibility is 10km, show that the ships are within sight of each other.

4. Particle P is 80km due west of particle Q. initially P is moving with a constant

velocity of 20kph due north east while Q is moving at 30 km/hr due North. Find;
i) the velocity of Q relative to P
ii) the time when they are nearest to each other
iii) the nearest distance between them in their subsequent motion.
5. Two straight paths inclined to one another at 60o intersect at point O. a boy A is on
one path 300km from O while boy B is on the other path 400km from O. angle AOB
is 60o. Simultaneously, the boys begin to run towards O, A with a speed of 15kph and
B with 12kph. What is the shortest distance between the two boys?
6. An aircraft P is 5000m due north of aircraft Q both flying at the same height with
constant velocities of 150m/s due west and 200m/s in direction 330o respectively.
After what time will the aircrafts be closest together and how far apart will they be?
7. A runway horse is galloping across a field in a direction 020o at 40kph. It is already
300m away in direction due east from a mounted rider who has taken off in pursuit
with a speed of 48kph. In what direction should he ride to catch the runaway?
8. At noon, the position vectors of two ships A and B relative to a light house O are 5i
+20j and (-20i – 10j) respectively where i and j are unit vectors due east and due
north. The constant velocities of the ships A and B are (-2i -5j) and (15i +25j) (units
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 for velocity and displacement re are km and kph). Find the velocity of A relative to
B. find also the position vector of A relative to B at time t minutes after noon.
Determine, to the nearest minute, the time at which the two ships are closest
together.

Interception and collision;

Consider bodies A and B initially at points P and Q and moving with velocities VA and VB
respectively.

By imposing –VB on both bodies and body B can be considered to be at rest while body
B will move with AVB.

Thus, AVB is the direction of PQ for ships A and B to meet. This may be by design i.e. one
ship intercepting another or by accident i.e. one ship colliding with another .thus for
interception or collision to occur AVB must be in direction of the line joining the original
positions of A to that of B.

Example;

A speed boat A and ship B are initially 570m apart and B is due north of A. the ship has a
constant velocity of 7i +5j m/s and the boat has a constant velocity of 25m/s. find in vector
form the velocity of A if it is to intercept B and find the time taken to intercept it.

B 7i+5j m/s

570 m

A 25 m/s

Impose -VB on both A and B. then ship B is considered to be at rest.

VB = 7i + 5j m/s

Let VA = ai + bj m/s

This implies that a2 + b2 = 252 i.e, a2 + b2 =625

AVB = VA – VB = ( a – 7)i + (b-5)j m/s

For interception to take place AVB must be in the direction due north

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 224

It therefore follows that i component is zero i.e. a -7 =0 , a =7.

Substituting in equation ** above,

72 + b2 = 625, from which b = ± 24

Since north is positive, it implies b-5 must be positive so b = +24 not -24.

So VA = (7i + 24j) m/s.

AVB = 19i

From t = distance / speed, time to intercept, t, = 570 / IAVBI = 570/19 = 30 seconds.

LINEAR MOTION

1. A small ball is projected vertically upwards from ground level with speed u ms-1.
The ball takes 4s to return to ground level.
a) Draw, in the space below, a velocity-time graph to represent the motion of the ball
during the first 4s.
b) The maximum height of the ball above the ground during the first 4s in 19.6m. find
the value of a.
2. An athlete runs along a straight road. She starts from rest and moves with constant
acceleration for 5 seconds, reaching a speed of 8 ms-1. This speed is then maintained
for T seconds. She then decelerates ata constant rate until she stops. She has run a
total of 500m in 75s.
(a) In the space below, sketch a speed-time graph to illustrate the motion of the athlete.
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 (b) Calculate the value of T.
3. A ship S is moving along a straight line with constant velocity. At time t hours the
position vector of S is s km. when t =0, s = 9i – 6j. when t = 4, s = 21i + 10j. find
a) The speed of S
b) The direction in which S is moving, giving your answer as a bearing.
c) Show that s = (3t+9)i +(4t-6)j

A light house L is located at the point with position vector (18i+6j) km. when t =T, the ship
S is 10 km from L.

d) Find the possible values of T

Three posts P, Q, R are fixed in that order at the side of straight horizontal road. The idstance from P to
Q is 45m and the distance from Q to R is 120m. a car is moving along the road with constant
acceleration a m/s2. The speed of the car as it passes P, is u m/s. the car passes Q two seconds after
passing P, and the car passes R four seconds after passing Q. find

i) The value of u,
ii) The value of a.

u m/s a

t=2

P Q R

Consider PQ Using s = ut + ½ at2

U, t =2, s = 45, a = 165 = 6u + ½ a(6)2

S = ut + ½ at2 165 = 6u + 18a

45 = 2u + ½ a (2)2 55 = 2u + 6a

45 = 2u + 2a

Consider PR

U, t =6, s = 165, m

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 226

Solving the two eqns 2 – 1 , a = 2.5 m/s2 , substituting for a gives u = 20m/s2

2. a particle P moves with constant acceleration (2i – 5j )ms-2 . at time t = 0, P has speed u m/s. at time t =
3s, P has a velocity (-6i + j) m/s. find the value of u.
When t = 0, u
T = 3, v,
V = u + at

U = v – at

U=(-6i + j) -3(2i-5j)

= -12i + 16j

U =Magnitude of u = root (122 + 162)

mei.org.uk/index.php?section=papers

4. A small brick of mass 0.5 kg is placed on a rough plane which is inclined to the
4
horizontal at an angle θ where tanθ = 3,and released from rest. The coefficient of
1
friction between the brick and the plane is 3. Find the acceleration of the block.

5.

15 kg
50o

A small box of mass 15 kg rests on a rough horizontal plane. The coefficient of friction
between the box and the plane is 0.2. a force of magnitude P newtons is applied to the box at
50o to the horizontal as shown in the fig. the box is on the point of sliding along the plane.
Find the value of P giving your answer to 2 sig. figures.

6. A car of mass 800kg pulls a trailer of mass 200kg along a straight horizontal road
using a light towbar which is parallel to the road. The horizontal resistances to motion
of the car and trailer have magnitudes 400N and 200N respectively. The engine of the
car produces a constant horizontal driving force on the car of magnitude 1200 N. find
i) The acceleration of the car and the trailer
ii) The magnitude of the tension in the towbar.

The car is moving along the road when the driver sees a hazard ahead. He reduces the
force produced by the engine to zero and applies the brakes. The brakes produce a
force on the car of magnitude F newtons and the car and trailer decelerate . given that
Simplied mechanics for advanced level students
 the resistances to motion are unchanged and the magnitude of the thrust in the tow
bar is 100N,

c) Find the value of F.

7.

Simplied mechanics for Advanced Level Studentss