INDUSTRIAL

INSTRUMENTATION

COURSE CODE: IEE/PC/B/T/223

The course aims to provide adequate knowledge about
● The operating principles of sensors and systems used for the measurement of
physical variables namely - force, torque, position, displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and pressure.
● Sensor signal conditioning and transmission techniques, selection criteria.
● Application aspects of sensors and measurement systems used in professional
practice, specifically in industrial automation.
COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of the course, the students will be able to

CO1: Explain the analog electronic and pneumatic, signal transmission
techniques and devices used in process industries.(K2-describe,A1)
CO2: Describe the operating principle of sensors used to measure position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration. (K2,A1)
CO3: Describe the operating principles and outline the application aspects of
pressure measurement systems.(K2, A1)
CO4: Explain the operating principle of force and torque measurement systems.
(K2-describe, A1)
PSO 1
Acquire hands on training on
electronic system design,
process instrumentation and
control systems.

PSO 2
Solve real life industrial and
research problems by applying
domain knowledge and skills.

PSO 3
Identify community specific
problems and provide
acceptable technical solutions
to them using a
multidisciplinary approach.
 SYLLABUS DETAILS
Analog electronic transmitters & Pneumatic systems: CO1: 14hrs
Introduction to electronic transmitters. Sensor linearization techniques, redundant
Unit I measurement systems.
Flapper-nozzle assembly. Pneumatic relays, air filter regulator, pneumatic force
balance systems, introduction to compressed air supply systems.
Measurement of position, displacement, velocity, acceleration: CO2 : 14 hrs
Limit switch, Proximity Sensors - Inductive, Photoelectric, Capacitive and
Unit II
Magnetic. Shaft encoders, Tachogenerators, Tachometers. stroboscopes.
Accelerometers. Introduction to vibration measurement.
Concept of absolute, gauge and differential pressure. Pressure units and
measurement principles. Elastic pressure sensors: bourdon tube, bellows,
diaphragm and capsule. Manometers. Pressure gauge. Pressure switch. Electronic
pressure transmitters: capacitive, piezo-resistive and resonator type. Calibration of
Unit III
pressure measuring devices. Installation of pressure measuring devices in different
services.
Measurement accessories - chemical seal and snubbers.
Vacuum
Force andmeasurement:
Torque measurementMcleodsystems:
gauge,12hrs:
thermal
CO4conductivity and ionization
Strain gauge, strain gauge signal processing, Load cells: column, shear and
Unit IV bending beam type. magnetostrictive load cell. Introduction to industrial weighing
systems and belt conveyor weighing systems. Weigh feeders. Principle of torque
measurement in rotating shafts
LESSON PLAN
Industrial Instrumentation Course code: IEE/PC/B/T/223

MONDAY (SATURDAY DUE TO NBA) Introduction to electronic transmitters. redundant measurement systems..
WEDNESS DAY Sensor linearization techniques
MONDAY Flapper-nozzle assembly. Pneumatic relays
WEDNESS DAY air filter regulator, pneumatic force balance systems,
MONDAY introduction to compressed air supply systems
WEDNESS DAY Limit switch, Proximity Sensors - Inductive,
MONDAY Photoelectric,
WEDNESS DAY Capacitive and Magnetic.
MONDAY Shaft encoders, Tachogenerators, Tachometers.
WEDNESS DAY stroboscopes. Accelerometers.
MONDAY Introduction to vibration measurement
WEDNESS DAY Concept of absolute, gauge and differential pressure. Pressure units and
measurement principles
MONDAY Elastic pressure sensors: bourdon tube, bellows, diaphragm and capsule.
WEDNESS DAY Manometers. Pressure gauge. Pressure switch. Electronic pressure transmitters:
MONDAY capacitive, piezo-resistive and resonator type.
WEDNESS DAY Measurement accessories - chemical seal and snubbers.
MONDAY Calibration of pressure measuring devices. Installation of pressure measuring
devices in different services.
WEDNESS DAY Vacuum measurement: Mcleod gauge, thermal onductivity
MONDAY ionization gauge
WEDNESS DAY ASSIGNMENT/ CAT
MONDAY Strain gauge, strain gauge signal processing,
WEDNESS DAY Load cells: column, shear and bending beam type. magnetostrictive load
cellshafts.
MONDAY Introduction to industrial weighing systems and belt conveyor weighing systems.
WEDNESS DAY Weigh feeders. Principle of torque measurement in rotating
MONDAY Assignment/CAT 2
What’s the difference between a transmitter and a sensor?
Nine different types of sensor transmitters.
How does each type of transmitter work?
What are the components of each transmitter type?

Sensorsand transmittershave been playing an increasingly important role in the field of

instruments and meters, and in industrial automation. These two instruments are
commonly used on equipment that requires temperature, pressure, flow, and object-
space measurements, and the results must be transmitted for further automation
control.
Those unaccustomed with such instruments may easily get confused since both
sensor and transmitter are used for medium measurement. So, to get started, let’s first
talk about the differences between sensors and transmitters.
A sensor consists of a sensitive element and conversion element. The sensing
element can sense the measured variables (temperature, pressure, liquid level, and
flow), and the conversion element can convert the sensed variables into non-standard
electrical signals or other forms of output signals. The output signal of a sensor is non-
standard.
Different from sensors, a transmitter can’t sense the measured variables
initially.
Rather, it just converts the non-standard electrical signal outputted by the
sensor into a measurable electric signal, usually in a 4- to 20-mA current signal,
or 1- to ~5-V dc voltage signal. Meanwhile, a transmitter also amplifies the signal
for subsequent receiving instrument.

At present, many transmitters are integrated with sensors to create one

instrument. This integrated instrument is referred to as a transmitter, not a
sensor; for example, the Rosemount transmitter 3051 series and ABB
transmitter TTH 200 series, etc.
 Industry : economic activity concerned with the processing of raw materials and manufacture of goods in
factories.

The engineering sector is made up of a wide range of industries (including fabricated metal products, industrial
machinery and equipment, electronics and other electrical equipment, transportation equipment, and instruments
and related products).

Manufacture of food products

Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products
Manufacture of beverages
Manufacture of basic metals Manufacture of tobacco products
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, Manufacture of textiles
except machinery and equipment Manufacture of wearing apparel
Manufacture of computer, electronic and optical products Manufacture of leather and related products
Manufacture of electrical equipment Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork, except furniture;
Manufacture of machinery and equipment n.e.c. manufacture of articles of straw and plaiting materials
Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers Manufacture of paper and paper products
Printing and reproduction of recorded media
Manufacture of other transport equipment Manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products
Manufacture of furniture Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products
Other manufacturing Manufacture of basic pharmaceutical products and pharmaceutical
Repair and installation of machinery and equipment preparations
Manufacture of rubber and plastic products
.
A process is a series or set of activities that interact to produce a
result; it may occur once-only or be recurrent or periodic.
Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical, physical,
electrical or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacturing of an item
or items, usually carried out on a very large scale.
Industrial instrumentation is considered a science of
measurement and control of automated systems.

Instrumentation is comprised of the sensors and

various instruments to monitor and maintain
process control equipment for improved production,
product consistency, quality management, and
workplace safety in manufacturing and processing
facilities.
Out of syllabus but important to know first.

Very basic Industrial Safety and why it is important?

Safety is a condition that gives you freedom from hazards, risks,

and accidents that may cause injury, damage, loss of material
or property damage, and even death. In its simplest form
Elimination of hazard is also known as safety. ( The condition or
state of being safe, freedom from danger or hazard, exemption
from hurt, injury, or loss).
Industrial safety is primarily a management activity that is
concerned with reducing, controlling, and eliminating hazards
from the industries or industrial units. ( Industrial safety is
defined as policies and protections put in place to ensure plant
and factory worker protection from hazards that could cause
injury).
Safety is a basic need in any industry. The workplace safety
program creates a positive atmosphere and it may help to
improve workers’ morale.
Prior to the invention of electronic circuitry, process control systems used pneumatic control
signals2. In these systems, controllers were powered by distinct pressures of compressed air.
Eventually, air compression of 3-15 psi became the industry standard for a few reasons. First, it was
very expensive to engineer a system that would detect pressure signals under 3 psi. Second,
signals below 3 psi were unrecognizable. Lastly, using 3 psi to indicate a value of 0% measurement
made it easier to identify when system faults occurred, in other words, when the signal dropped to
zero. As electronic systems made their debut in the 1950s, current became the preferred, more
precise, and more efficient process control signal.

Why a 0 mA Signal is Not Practical?

1. Difficult and Expensive

A 0 mA signal is essentially an open circuit in which no flow of current exists at all. Thus, engineering any device
with circuitry capable of handling a signal level that reaches 0 mA and remains accurate is more difficult and
expensive than limiting the design to 4-20 mA. This was especially true during the 1950s when electrical signals
like 4-20 mA had just emerged and surpassed pneumatic signals like the old 3-15 psi standard.
2. Inability to Detect a System Failure

Another reason why a 0 mA signal is not efficient is the inability to clearly differentiate between a measurement
of zero and a system failure in which the signal would drop to zero. The term live zero is used to describe a loop
signal where the zero value is a number higher than zero (i.e. 4 mA)4. The term dead zero denotes a loop signal
3. The advantage
where the zeroof using
value a live zero
is indeed zeroversus a dead zero
(i.e. 0 mA).

is that it allows receiving instruments to quickly detect when a system failure has occurred due to a break in the
line, devices wired incorrectly, etc. Again, that is because a live zero interprets 4 mA as 0% of the sensor’s
4. Does Not Allow and
measurement, Devices
whentocurrent
Operate
falls to any number below 4 mA then that is an indicator of a fault in the
system.

Lastly, a 0 mA signal does not provide a loop powered, or two wire, device with a minimum amount of current to
function. Loop-powered transmitters, displays, and other equipment require some power for operation, which is
drawn from the current flowing through the loop. In a situation where a 0 mA signal exists, that means there is no
As aflow
result,
ofusing a 4-20
current at mA signal
all in the isloop,
preferred
thusbecause it supports
it is unable two-wire
to meet transmission
the minimum that supplies
current the powertoneeded
requirements powerforuploop-
the
powered devices like transmitters and displays to operate.
 Why 4-20 mA is the Industry Standard?

Now that we have reviewed the reasons why a 0 mA

signal is not practical, it's easy to see why the process
control industry has preferred the 4-20 mA signal range.

In addition, it provides other benefits such as

easier wiring,
easier configuration
more cost-effective,
better for traveling long distances,
less sensitive to background electrical noise than many the 4-20mA current loop is that it is essentially
other signals available. lossless with respect to the transmission media
(wire) and the interconnections (connectors). That
Another benefit of a 4-20 mA signal is safety. The low
is, the accuracy of the signal is not affected by the
current is not an electrical shock hazard and it is also an voltage drop in the interconnecting wiring. This
easy signal to work with when designing equipment to be allows the signal transmission to occur over long
intrinsically safe for hazardous. distances, with varying conductors. Compare this to
voltage signals, which will always have an
associated signal loss related to the length of the
wires—the 4-20mA signal current does not exhibit
any signal losses under this same scenario.
Kirchoff’s Current Law
teaches us that the current in
a loop is equivalent at any
point in the loop. That is, if
you happen to be reading
12mA at your receiver input,
you can be certain that
12mA is passing through
your transmitter.
So, in short , Its lossless nature, lower sensitivity to induced noise, its live-zero offset, fail-safe operation, and easy
scalability contribute to its longevity. Plus its adaptability to many different wire conductors and connectors, and its
relative immunity to poor quality connections, all contribute to its popularity.
And because it is so widely supported by thousands of compatible devices, including wireless
transducers, it would be difficult to unseat it as the leading analog transmission standard for industrial
I/O. Likewise, modern variations of 4-20mA such as HART1 continue to drive support for the standard.
 Introduction To Electronic Transmitters. Sensor
Linearization Techniques, Redundant Measurement
4-20 mA transmitter Systems
This is the device used to transmit data from a sensor over the
two-wire current loop. There can be only one Transmitter
output in any current loop. It acts like a variable resistor with
respect to its input signal and is the key to the 4-20mA signal
transmission system. the design of 2-wire field transmitters easier.
The transmitter converts the real world signal, such as flow,
An example of a circuit utilizing the XTR116 is shown in Figure 2. Here, a
speed, position, level, temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.,
resistive sensor is placed in a full resistive bridge. The output of the bridge is
into the control signal necessaryconnected
to regulatetothe flow of current
an instrumentation amplifier, INA, which provides gain and
in the current loop. level shifting of the sensor output. The INA output connects to the input of
The level of loop current is adjusted by the transmitter to be
the XTR116 which then precisely controls the output current through the
proportional to the actual sensor input signal. An important
Q1 BJT to regulate the current between 4 mA and 20 mA. The XTR116 also
distinction is that the transmitted signal is not the current in
integrates a +5 V linear regulator, VREG, and a 4.096 V precision reference,
the loop, but rather the sensor signal it represents. The
VREF­. The VREG output is used to power the INA and the op amp circuitry
transmitter typically uses 4mA output to represent the
internal to the XTR116. The VREF output provides a precise low-drift
calibrated zero input or 0%, and 20mA output to represent a
excitation voltage for the resistive bridge.
calibrated full-scale input signal or 100% as shown
 CONTD….

The most common issue that people encounter when designing 2-wire field transmitter
systems results from violating the compliance voltage of the system. The XTR116 has a
minimum power-supply voltage, VCOMPLIANCE, of +7.5 V between V+ and IO for proper
operation. If the resistive load and/or resistive losses due to cable length cause the
supply voltage to decrease below +7.5 V, the system will lose its ability to regulate the
output current.
In Figure 3, an 18 V drop occurs in the current loop due to the 20 mA output current and
the 900 Ω of series resistance in the loop. With a 24 V supply, this would only leave +6 V
across the XTR116 which doesn’t meet the minimum supply voltage requirement of +7.5
VoltageV!compliance
As a result issues
the output currentrelated
are directly will notto
reach 20Law.
Ohm’s mA and
Thewill typically
product become
of the non-linear
output current and the
as the
resistance input
in the circuitry
loop loses power.
can’t exceed the supply voltage applied to the system. If VCOMPLIANCE, and VLOOP
are known, the maximum loop resistance, RMAX, can be calculated as shown in Equation 1.
While voltage compliance issues can occur in the field due to long wiring distances, poor quality wires and
multiple receivers, they also commonly occur in testing when the wrong value resistor is placed in the circuit
for a load. If the output current of the transmitter stops increasing during testing, measure the voltage drop
across the load. If the load voltage drop is higher than expected, the load resistance is likely the cause of the
output current issue.
ADVANTAGES OF 2 WIRE TRANSMITTER

The circuit compliance to handle a given voltage drop from additional loop devices
depends on the transmitter output circuit and on the power supply voltage.
The typical power supply for industrial transmitters is +24 VDC. If 6 volts, for example,
are needed to power the transmitter and its output circuit, then 18 volts of compliance
remain to allow for wire resistance, load resistance, voltage drops across intrinsic safety
(IS) barriers and remote displays, etc.
The main advantage of a two-wire loop is that it minimizes the number of wires
Where
neededtheto current
run bothloop signal
power issignal.
and connected to the
The use main
of a receiving
current equipment
loop to (PLC/DCS)
send the signal
or data
also hasacquisition system,
the advantages of areduced
precision load resistor
sensitivity of 250 ohms
to electrical is normally
noise and connected.
to loading
effects.
This converts the 4 to 20 mA current signal into a 1 to 5 volt signal, since it is standard
practice to configure
The electrical noise isthe analog-to-digital
reduced because the converter
two wires ofare
therun
receiving equipment
as a twisted pair,
(PLC/DCS) as aeach
ensuring that voltage-sensing input.receives the same vector of energy from noise
of the two wires
sources, such as electro- magnetic fields due to a changing current in a nearby
conductor or electric motor.
Disadvantages of two-wire transmitters
Low impedance capability is the major limitation of the two-wire
transmitter
The type and number of devices which can be driven by the system
and also the distance is limited
Three-wire transmitter
The 3 -wire transmitter would transmit the data signal and the power with respect to the common
ground. The three-wire transmitters are energized by the supply voltage in the transmitter and the
transmitter would source the loop current. The receiver common is connected to the transmitter
common. In this transmitter, the current loop can also be operated on a measuring instrument that
has high input impedance. The three-wire arrangement is not widely used but it would deliver more
power to the module electronics.
 Sensor linearization techniques, redundant measurement systems.
The sensor is an important device in instrumentation, measurement, and control applications. It can be
used to measure various physical, chemical, and physiological parameters. It plays a very important role
in numerous industrial, home, healthcare, defense, environmental, and agricultural applications . Various
sensors such as (i) capacitive, (ii) resistive, (iii) inductive, (iv) impedance, (v) amperometric (vi)
electrochemical, (vii) chemical/biological field effect transistors (ChemFET/BioFET), (viii) surface
acoustic wave (SAW), etc. Many sensors show a non-linear response with the variation of the
measurement.
However, there may be some sensors including some electrochemical sensors, which are linear but for a limited
range of measurement . It can be linearized to some extent by processing the sensing materials as well as suitably
designing the geometrical configuration of the structures. But this is tedious, time-consuming, and difficult to
achieve in many cases .
The response for very thin hydrophilic sensing film based two electrodes parallel plate moisture sensor is quite
linear . In the study of Silva et al. (2015), several multilayered structures of spintronic materials were engineered to
fabricate the magnetoresistive sensors to obtain a
A linear response. Many factors such as materials, ge-­
ometries, and layout strategies are studied to improve the
linear response as well as the detection limit of the
sensors.
With the availability of advanced fast active de­vices at low
cost, it may be easy to linearize the response by the
signal conditioning circuits with rel­atively small delay.
Generally, the response of a sensor can be voltage or
current, frequency or time signal. In most of the cases,
the output signal varies nonlinearly with the variation of
input measurement parameters. Also, in many cases, the
environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, or Figure 1 shows the nonlinear imped­ance response
pressure affect the sen­sor characteristics nonlinearly. of a ceramic humidity sensor. The desired linear
Sometimes, these en­vironmental factors modify the response (Zlin) is also shown in the same graph.
input–output relation of the sensor. These fac­tors are The response shown in Figure 1 has ∼ 29%
more critical for chemical sensors. nonline­arity. It is also caused due to inappropriate
selection of an electronic circuit.
Most of the humidity sensors fabricated using ceramic, or polymer or porous silicon materials have a
nonlinear response. A typical nonlinear response curve of a sensor can be represented by nth-order
polynomial function, the order of which depends on the nonlinearity value. A typical third-order
response (y) can be represented by
By linearization, the nonlinear response curve can be converted into a straight line fit, which simpli­fies the
calibration process. So, the calibration may be performed in the shortest time and at low cost. Hence, it is
most convenient rather than to refer a nonlinear calibration curve or to compute from a non­linear calibration
Equations (1) and (2).
Development of signal conditioning circuits to compensate the nonlinearity is a matter of investi­gations for a
long time. Many research articles are reported in the literature to explain compensation techniques. However,
to the best of our knowledge, there is hardly any review articles for this purpose. Therefore, the present work
reviews the research ar­ticles on the techniques of the sensor linearization.
Techniques can be categorized broadly into two groups. These are
(i) analog methods of signal con­ditioning, and (ii) digital methods using software linear algorithms (SLA).
This digital method can be further classified into
(i) software-based linearization, and (ii) analog and digital mixed signal conditioning cir­cuits.
Analog linearization of sensor characteristics
Linearization of thermistor response
Thermistors are suited for various industrial and con­sumer electronics applications. This is because of small size,
rugged construction, less sensitive to me­chanical shock or vibrations, low cost, low-thermal mass, and high
sensitivity. The main limitation of the thermistor is the limited temperature range and high nonlinearity of the
response curve. Many circuits both analog and digital have been developed for com­pensating the nonlinearity of the
thermistor. In many cases, to validate the schemes of linearization, the thermistor response has been used. The
nonlinearity of the response is compensated by the series-parallel resistance circuit (SPR) or Wheatstone bridge
circuit by optimizing their components values . Other methods utilize Op-amp based inverting amplifier circuits .
The third group of methods involves the linear conversion of temperature into frequency or time pe­riod of the output
signal. Linearization feature of the circuit has been realized by the correct choice of the thermistor parameters and the
frequency selective passive components. The thermistor re­sponse is linearized by identifying the linear regions and
varying the thermistor characteristics parameter (β) using a timer circuit. A one-bit sigma–delta mod­ulator circuit
modified with NTC thermistor is used to compensate the thermistor non-linearity. A timing resistor is appropriately
chosen to obtain an approximately linear relation be­tween the time-period of the output pulse train and the ambient
temperature. For high precision temper­ature measurement, Errors due to lead resistance, thermoelec­tric effect, and
amplifier offsets are also studied.
the thermistor response is linearized by identifying the linear regions and varying the thermistor characteristics
parameter (β) using a timer circuit. A one-bit sigma–delta modulator circuit modified with NTC thermistor is used to
compensate the thermistor non-linearity
Linearization of thermocouple characteristics
A thermocouple is another important class of temperature sensors for high-temperature measurement for different
industrial applications. Thermoelectric effect on which hit works is somewhat nonlinear, so the response of TC is
nonlinear with temperature variation. Different types of thermocouples having different measurement range are used but
for accurate tem­perature measurement, nonlinearity and cold junction errors are compensated by various schemes.
The re­sponse curve of the TC is represented by high-order polynomial function, which is obtained by curve fitting the
experimental data. Logarithmic amplifier-based circuits have been reported for the thermocouple line­arization and cold
junction compensation.
Linearization of smart diode temperature sensor
Because of high linearity, the diode temperature sensor is fabricated in a chip from (LM35 National semicon­ductor, AD509 by
Analog device, etc.) by several IC manufacturers. Moreover, the nonlinearity of the sen­sor characteristic is usually
compensated by replacing the diode by a bipolar transistor shorting base-collec­tor junction. When the base-emitter voltage is
used as an output signal, the exponential characteristic of the base-emitter junction is compensated by the ex­ponential
characteristic of the collector current versus the base-emitter voltage. This results in a nice linear behavior. But to maintain
linear response, the current flowing through the device should be constant and small less than 100 μA .With the increase in
temperature, the output voltage drops, so the current varies which, in turn, causes some nonlinearity. However, the main
drawback of this device is the limited temperature range.
 Linearization of RTD temperature sensor

Several works have reported the development of analog signal conditioning circuits for compensating the nonlinearity
of metallic alloy resistive sensors, which are popular as a resistance temperature detector Resistance versus
temperature characteristic for most metallic materials can be represented by high-order polynomial function, the order
of which depends on the material, the accuracy, and the temperature range to be measured. For small temperature
range from −20°C to 150°C, the platinum RTD is linear within ±0.3% The effect of nonlinearity, self-heating error, and
the lead resistance on the RTD temperature

Chemo resistive sensor for toxic gas detection

The chemo resistive sensors are another important class of resistive sensors, which are used for air pollutants
detection (Korotcenkov and Cho, 2011). The detection limit of the chemical species by the sensors such as metal
oxide, field effect, and thermoelectric gas sensors is affected by the nonlinear response of the sensor. Electrical
response (Rc) of the metal oxide gas sensor for reducing gas with the variation of concentration (Cg) can be
represented by an empirical relation. where K is the characteristic coefficient of the gas sensing film; and β is the slope
of the response curve. For oxidizing gas, the resistance value increases with increase in gas concentration.
Additionally, such sensors suffer from cross-sensitivity due to the presence of non-target gases and humidity in the
same environment. Estimation of detection limit through linearized calibration models for MOX gas sensor to detect
carbon monoxide in the presence of humidity is reported.
In commercial Figaro gas sensor, the problem of humidity is eliminated by using cyclic high and low
voltage pulse applied to the heater. At high voltage pulse, the humidity effect is eliminated, and at low
pulse, the sensor is heated at the optimum temperature to obtain the selective response to the target
gas. The logarithmic of the output and input best fits the response of the MOX sensors. But for the
small range, the response is quasi-linear. So, a logarithmic signal conditioning circuit can be used to
linearize the response curve. This work is mainly about the determination of the detection limit using
univariate and multivariate linearized modes
 Piecewise linearization method

Piecewise linearization is one of the simplest and the basic technique of linearization, where the nonlinear response curve is
divided into small linear segments. Each linear segment is then implemented by the analog signal conditioning circuits
.When the voltage signal (Vs) corresponding to a particular %RH is less than 3%, the output will be obtained from the
segment 1, otherwise, the output will be obtained from the segment 2. A piecewise linearization circuit having two slopes
with VB as breakpoint implemented using p-n junction diode is shown in Figure 4B. The first slope is formed by the
resistances Rs and R1, and the second slope is formed by Rs and the parallel combination of R1 and R2 . For better
accuracy, the nonlinear response can be divided into more number of linear pieces. But there should be a trade-off between
the accuracy and the complexity of the circuit as both the factors increase with the increase in the number of segments..the
nonlinearity of a voltage-controlled resistor used in adaptive filter for dynamic compensation of the load cell is piecewise
linearized. Important features of the circuit are fast speeds, low power dissipation but the circuit is relatively complex. Very
recently, a simple piecewise linear circuit having 2 bits flash ADC, 4X1 multiplexer (MUX), and four analog circuits. The
ADC and the MUX are used to select one of the linear pieces implemented by op-amp analog circuits. With the help of the
combined interfacing and the linearization circuits, the nonlinearity of the capacitive humidity sensor is reduced to less than
1% value. Hardware implementation of the circuit is simple and can be implemented in chip form. The proposed scheme is
shown in Figure 5. The nonlinear signal is divided into four approximate linear pieces. This technique can be used to
linearize any type of nonlinear response curves such as parabolic, sigmoidal, hyperbolic, etc
Due to the advancement of IC chip technology, digital methods nowadays are most commonly used when high
performance and high accuracy is demanded. Another advantage of this method is the programmability, which helps
to process signals from different sensors. In case of smart sensors, most often analog output signal is converted into
binary data. The digital
data are then manipulated to have a linear relation. There are two common approaches such as (i) deriving a linear
equation, and (ii) look-up table.

Linearization by functional relationship

If the relation between the sensing parameter and the digital data is nonlinear, an equation can be developed to
obtain the linearized value of the parameter. For example, the voltage output of a gas sensor is related to ppm gas
concentration
Look-up table method
Simplest digital method is to store a look-up table having a pair of sensor output in digital form and its corresponding
linear value into the μC memory. This method has been extensively used to compensate the nonlinearity of many
sensors including the capacitive sensor. This sensor is used to develop prototype dew point meter for ppm moisture
measurement . This method suffers from more memory space for better accuracy, otherwise, requires interpolation
algorithm in case of fewer data. Some articles have been published to optimize the table to reduce its size for small
embedded applications . In some cases, the look-up table size is optimized by the evolutionary genetic algorithm .
Another effective method is the use of nonlinear ADC, which provides flexibility and better performance. The digital
output of the ADC is the ratio of the input voltage to an arbitrary reference input voltage. A nonlinear programmable
ADC having two 3 bits and 11 bits flash ADCs, the input–output characteristic of which is piecewise linear has been
proposed. It can be employed to linearize the inverse model of the actual sensor characteristic. Such type of ADC
has been utilized to linearize the inverse response of a humidity sensor. However, the hardware circuit is complex for
implementation. But the scheme is suitable for VLSI integration for different types of smart sensors. linear value into
the μC memory. This method has been extensively used to compensate the nonlinearity of many sensors including
the capacitive sensor. This sensor is used to develop prototype dew point meter for ppm moisture measurement .
This method suffers from more memory space for better accuracy, otherwise, requires interpolation algorithm in case
of fewer data . Some articles have been published to optimize the table to reduce its size for small embedded
applications . In some cases, the look-up table size is optimized by the evolutionary genetic algorithm . Another
effective method is the use of nonlinear ADC, which provides flexibility and better performance. The digital output of
the ADC is the ratio of the input voltage to an arbitrary reference input voltage. a nonlinear programmable ADC
having two 3 bits and 11 bits flash ADCs, the input–output characteristic of which is piecewise linear has been
proposed. It can be employed to linearize the inverse model of the actual sensor characteristic. Such type of ADC
has been utilized to linearize the inverse response of a humidity sensor. However, the hardware circuit is complex for
implementation. But the scheme is suitable for VLSI integration for different types of smart sensors.
In the interpolation method, the value of an intermediate point between two known given points is determined
using a straight-line approximation . This method offers fast execution speed, less memory requirement, but
accuracy depends on the number of segments. A piecewise nonlinear ADC scheme using PWM is proposed.
To improve the accuracy of temperature measurement (±0.08°C), the ninth-order polynomial fitted curve of TC
is implemented using a microcontroller- based signal conditioning unit. The circuit is complex to implement and
the accuracy depends on the fast and advanced ADC. Few works describing auto-calibrated smart temperature
sensor with nonlinearity compensation have been reported . In such smart sensors, the nonlinearity is
compensated by piecewise linearization or parallel compensating oscillator circuit but the range is. Applications
of embedded microcontrollers for interfacing and signal conditioning of the sensor’s output are discussed

Recently, conventional dual slope analog to digital converter with necessary signal conditioning circuits have
been employed to linearize the response of thermistor, Hall effect sensor, and single or double resistive
element Wheatstone bridge In such schemes, the sensors are the integral parts of the dual slope ADC, which
directly converts the sensing parameters into digital form with linearized output.This is to note that if the
nonlinear sensor is digitized before its linearization, the ADC will require higher bit resolution than that required
for a linearized version of the sensor. On the other hand, a look-up table will fit the linearization requirements
only when the memory size required to store the table is moderate. But the size of the look-up table
depends on the level of the sensor nonlinearity.

.
A digital operation can require high computing resources, so that some of the proposed solutions can
be more expensive than the sensor itself. The execution time of a linearization scheme may also be an
important parameter for certain applications. This is an important parameter when the sensor is part of
a feedback/manual control system, where control action depends on the measured value. Even for
monitoring purpose, the response time is important. So, the response of the sensor including a
necessary signal conditioning circuit should be fast in many applications. It is true that the response
time of many sensors is much larger than the linearization time. For example, most of the gas sensors,
which work on adsorption and desorption principle have long response and recovery time and the
sensor is also having high nonlinearity . The response time may be several tens of seconds to a
minute. To reduce the overall response time of the sensor and the signal conditioning circuit, efforts
should be made to design the linearization circuit, which provides low response time. The linearization
time can be minimized by judicious selection of electronics devices and reducing hardware
components as far as possible.
 Soft computing methods of linearization

The software algorithms implemented by the digital system efficiently perform the
linearization job with greater efficiency, utility, and flexibility than other methods discussed
above. Various software algorithms like spline or polynomial curve fitting techniques, and
intelligent soft-computing techniques such as artificial neural networks (ANNs), fuzzy logic,
neuro-fuzzy logic, support vector machine, etc., are extensively employed for the purpose of
sensor linearization
Redundant Measurement Systems
 Redundant Measurement Systems.
Flapper-nozzle assembly. Pneumatic relays, air filter regulator, pneumatic force balance systems,
introduction to compressed air supply systems.
redundant measurement systems
Reliability in process control computing can be defined as the correct operation of a system up to a time t = T, given that it was
operating correctly at the starting time t = 0.1 However, correct operation can have many meanings, depending on the
requirements previously established for the system. A common attitude today is that single or multiple failures can be accepted as
long as the system does not go down or the desired operation is not interrupted or disturbed.
Reliability is therefore a goal to be expected of a system and is set by the users. To obtain a certain measure of reliability, the term
fault tolerant computing can be used. It may be defined as “the ability to execute specified algorithms correctly regardless of
hardware errors and program errors.”
Since different computers in different applications have widely different requirements for reliability, availability, recovery time, data
protection, and maintainability, an opportunity exists for the use of many different fault-tolerant techniques. The understanding of
fault tolerance can be helped by first understanding faults. A fault can be defined as “the deviation of one or more logic
variables in the computer hardware from their design-specified values.”
A logic value for a digital computer is either a zero or a one. A fault is the appearance of an incorrect value such as a logic gate
“stuck on zero” or “stuck on one.” The fault causes an “error” if it, in turn, produces an incorrect operation of the previously correctly
functioning logic elements.
Therefore, the term fault is restricted to the actual hardware that fails. Faults can be classified in several ways. Their most
important characteristic is a function of their duration.
They can be either permanent (solid or “hard”) or transient (intermittent or “soft”). Permanent faults are caused by solid failures of
components.4 They are easier to diagnose but usually require the use of more drastic correction techniques than do transient
faults.
Transient faults cause 80 to 90% of faults in most systems. Transient faults, or intermittents, can be defined as random
failures that prevent the proper operation of a unit for only a short period of time—not long enough to be tested and
diagnosed as a permanent failure. Often, transient faults become permanent with further deterioration of the
equipment. Then, permanent fault-tolerant techniques must be used for system recovery.
The goal of system reliability or of fault-tolerant computing therefore is to either prevent or be able to recover from
faults and continue correct system operation. This also includes immunity to software faults induced into the
system. To achieve a high reliability, it is essential that component reliability be as high as possible.
“As the complexity of computer systems increase, almost any level of guaranteed reliability of
individual elements becomes insufficient to provide a satisfactory probability of successful task
completion.”

Therefore, successful fault-tolerant computers must use a judicious selection of protective redundancy to help
meet the reliability requirements. The three redundancy techniques are as follows:
1. Hardware redundancy
2. Software redundancy
3. Time redundancy
These three techniques cover all methods of fault tolerance.

Hardware redundancy can be defined as any circuitry in the system that is not necessary for normal computer
operation should no faults occur. Software redundancy, similarly, is additional program instructions present solely
to handle faults. Any retrial of instructions is known as time redundancy.
 Hardware Redundancy
Hardware redundancy can be described as the set of all hardware components that need to be
introduced into the system to provide fault tolerance with respect to operational faults.
These components would be superfluous should no faults occur, and their removal would not
Redundant
diminishtechniques allowpower
the computing recovery andsystem
of the are thusinvery
the important
absence ofinfaults.
achieving fault-tolerant systems. The
techniques used in achieving hardware redundancy can be divided into two categories:
In achieving hardware fault tolerance, it is clear that one should use the most reliable
static (or masking) redundancy and dynamic redundancy.
components available. However, increasing component reliability has only a small impact on
Static techniques are effective in handling both transient and permanent failures. Masking is virtually
increasing system reliability. Therefore, it is “more important to be able to recover from failures
instantaneous and automatic tech. It can be defined as any computer error correction method that is
than to prevent them.”
transparent to the user and often to the software. Redundant components serve to mask the effect of
hardware failures of other components. Many different techniques of static redundancy can be applied. The
simplest or lowest level of complexity is by a massive replication of the individual components of the system.
For example, four diodes connected as two parallel pairs that are themselves connected in series will not fail
More sophisticated systems use replication at higher levels of complexity to mask failures. Instead of using a
if any one diode fails “open” or “short.” Logical gates in similar quadded arrangements can also guard against
mere massive replication of components configured in fault-tolerant arrangements, identical nonredundant
single faults, and even some multiple faults, for largely replicated systems.
computer sections or modules can be replicated and their outputs voted upon. Examples are triple
modular redundancy (TMR) and more massive modular redundancy (NMR), where N can stand for any
odd number of modules.
With the use of some codes, data that has been garbled (i.e., bits changed due to hardware errors)
can sometimes be recovered instantaneously with the use of redundant hardware.
Dynamic recovery methods are, however, better able to handle many of these faults. Higher levels of
fault tolerance
This union of thecan
twobe achieved
methods more to
is referred easily through
as hybrid dynamic
redundancy. redundancy
Additional and implemented
hardware is needed for thethrough
detectionthe
and
dual actions
switching out ofoffaulty
faultmodules
detection
and and recovery.
the switching This
in of goodoften
sparesrequires
within thesoftware
system byhelp in conjunction
this technique. with
Error detecting
and error correcting
hardware redundancy.codes can be used to dynamically achieve fault tolerance in a computing system.
Many of these methods are extensions of static techniques. Massive redundancy in components can
Coding refers to the addition of extra bits to and the rearranging of the bits of a binary
often be better utilized when controlled dynamically. Redundant modules, or spares, can have a word that contains information.
The strategy of coding is to add a minimum number of check bits, the additional bits, to the message in such a way that a
better fault tolerance when they are left unpowered until needed, since they will not degrade while
given degree of error detection or correction is achieved. Error detection and correction is accomplished by comparing
awaiting use. This technique, standby redundancy, often uses dynamic voting techniques to achieve
the new word, hopefully unchanged after transmission, storage, or processing, with a set of allowable configurations of
abits.
high degree of fault tolerance.
Discrepancies discovered in this manner signal the existence of a fault, which sometimes be corrected if enough of
the original information remains intact.
Encoding and decoding words with the use of redundant hardware can be very effective in detecting errors. Through
hardware or software algorithms, incorrect data can also often be reconstructed. Otherwise, the detected errors can be
handled by module replacement and software recovery actions. The actions taken depend on the extent of the fault and
of the recovery mechanisms available to the computing system.
Software Redundancy refers to all additional software installed in a system that would not be needed for a fault-free
computer. Software redundancy plays a major role in most fault tolerant computers.
Even computers that recover from failures mainly by hardware means use software to control their recovery and
decision-making processes. The level of software used depends on the recovery system design. The recovery design
depends on the type of error or malfunction that is expected. Different schemes have been found to be more
appropriate for the handling of different errors. Some can be accomplished most efficiently solely by hardware
means. Others need only software, but most use a mixture of the two.
For a functional system, i.e., one without hardware design faults, errors can be classified into two varieties: (1) software
design errors and (2) hardware malfunctions.
Computers
The may be
first category candesigned to detect
be corrected several
mainly software
by means errors. Examples
of software. include
The software the use though,
methods, of illegalare
instructions
often used(i.e.,
to
instructions
correct that do
hardware not exist), the use
faults—especially of privileged
transient ones.instructions when
The reduction thecorrection
and system has ofnot been authorized
software to process
design errors can be
them, and address
accomplished violations.
through This latteroutlined
the techniques refers tobelow.
reading or writing into locations beyond usable memory. These limits
can often be set physically on the hardware.
Computers capable of detecting these errors allow the programmer to handle the errors by causing interrupts. The
interrupts route the program to specific locations in memory. The programmer, knowing these locations, can then add
his own code to branch to his specific subroutines, which can handle each error in a specified manner.
Software recovery from software errors can be accomplished via several methods. As mentioned before, parallel
programming, in which alternative methods are used to determine a correct solution, can be used when an incorrect
solution can be identified.
Some less sophisticated systems print out diagnostics so that the user can correct the
program off-line from the machine. This should only be a last resort for a fault-tolerant
machine. Nevertheless, a computer should always keep a log of all errors incurred, memory
size permitting.
Preventive measures used with software methods refer mainly to the use of redundant
storage. Hardware failures often result in a garbling or a loss of data or instructions that are
read from memory. If hardware techniques such as coding cannot recover the correct bit
pattern, those words will become permanently lost. Therefore, it is important to at least
duplicate all necessary program and data storage so that it can be retrieved if one copy is
destroyed.
In addition, special measures should be taken so that critical programs such as error
recovery programs are placed in nonvolatile storage, i.e., read-only memory. Critical data as
well should be placed in nondestructive readout memories.
An example of such a memory is a plated-wire memory. The second task of the software in
fault tolerance is to detect and diagnose errors. Software error-detection techniques for
software errors often can be used to detect transient hardware faults. This is important,
since “a relatively large number of malfunctions are intermittent in nature rather than
solid failures.” Time-redundant processes, i.e., repeated trials, shall be used for their
recovery.
 Software detection techniques do not localize the sources of the errors. Therefore, diagnostic test programs are
frequently implemented to locate the module or modules responsible. These programs often test the extent of the faults
at the time of failure, or perform periodic tests to determine malfunctions before they manifest themselves as errors
during program execution. Almost every computer system uses some form of diagnostic routines to locate faults.
In a fault tolerant system, the system itself initiates these tests and interprets their results, as opposed to the outside
insertion of test programs by operators in other systems
Fault-Tolerant Computer System Design
Maintenance
The design of is available in
a fault-tolerant an industrial
industrial computerenvironment
system should beto replace
different fromany
thatmodules
of a similar that
systemmay
for ahave
space
failed.
borneIn addition,
computer the system may be much larger, and a hierarchy of many computers of
system.
different sizes may be necessary to handle the various operations.
Therefore, a fault tolerant communication network may be required as well.
Valid future designs must incorporate provisions for these advances and allow for larger
replacement modules for quicker and simpler fault location and maintenance. The ways in
which faults manifest themselves have not changed. They may be summarized as the
following:
1. Intramodule data errors 2. Intermodule data transfer errors 3. Address errors 4.
Control signal errors
5. Power failure 6. Timing failure 7. Reconfiguration faults
The two main designs considered here are that of a duplex system with two identical
computers operating in parallel and that of a triplex system (see Figure 1.10a). The triplex
system has three computers operating synchronously. In addition to those error detecting
and correcting capabilities already built into the computers, fault-tolerant features will be
present in software for both systems. The duplex system will feature a comparison of data
for fault detection with rollback and recovery to handle transient errors. The triplex system
will incorporate a software voting scheme with memory reload to recover from transient
failures. This removes the overhead of rollback. Each duplicated system of computers will
communicate internally via a parallel data bus that will allow high-speed communication,
plus a parallel control bus that will initiate interrupts to handle any faults within the system.
All computer elements will communicate with higher level systems via a full-duplex
synchronous serial bit bus, a bus that will permit simultaneous message transfer in both
directions, through the protocol microprocessor. With these components, a fully reliable
system should be realized
 FIELD INSTRUMENT REDUNDANCY AND VOTING
the above concepts apply not only to process computers but also to basic process control
systems (BPCSs) and safety instrumented systems (SISs), where they also improve performance,
availability, and reliability. In the case of field instruments and final control elements, they
mainly guarantee continuity of operation and increase uptime, whereas, in SIS systems, they
minimize nuisance or spurious interventions and alarms. The techniques used in BPCS and
SIS systems are similar and have initially been developed for the inherently more demanding
SIS applications. For SIS systems, the need of international regulations has been recognized
(ANSI/ISA84.01-1996,18 IEC 61508-1998/2000,19 and IEC 61511,20 in draft version) while, for
non-safety related control loops, this is left to good engineering practice. Therefore, the
Assuming that the
discussion oftransmitters
redundancyhaveand been properly
voting specified,
techniques, selected,
as applied toand
the installed, one can further
field instruments improve
of BPCS
total performance
systems, will bybemeasuring the SIS
based on the same variable as
standards with more thanThe
guidelines. oneBPCS
sensor.
goalDepending on the
is to improve importance
control
of theloop
measurement, redundancy can involve two or more detectors measuring the same
availability such that the trigger point for the intervention of the associated SIS system is process variable.
Whenunlikely
three orever
moretosensors are used, one can select the “majority view” by voting.
be reached. Thereby, redundancy in BPCS also improves safety. This is With this approach, one
would select m measurements out of the total n number of signals so, that m > n/2. In industrial practice, n is
because increased availability reduces the number of shutdowns, which tend to shorten the
normally 3 so that m is 2. The redundant and voting techniques have been standardized in various SIS-related
life of the plant due to the resulting thermal and other stresses. One of the main objectives of
documents, including ANSI/ISA84.01, IEC 61508, and IEC 61511. The SIS systems usually evaluate on–off signals
measurement and control specialists is to improve the availability and accuracy of
or threshold limits of analog signals whereas, in process control, redundancy and voting is obtained by the
measurements. To achieve that goal and to minimize systematic uncertainty while
evaluation of multiple analog signals. The main difference between BPCS and SIS systems is that SIS is a
increasing
reliability,
“dormant” correct
system, specification,self-checking,
but continuously instrument selection, and upon
and it is called installation are essential.
to operate only in an emergency.
In addition, the SIS is fail safe; i.e., if it fails, it brings the plant to a safe status. SIS malfunctioning is
inferred from diagnostic programs and not from plant conditions, because the plant cannot be shut
down or brought to unsafe conditions just to test the SIS system. All international regulations follow
this approach. In contrast to SIS systems, the BPCS control loops are always active and, if they
malfunction, they actuate alarms, which the operator immediately notices. The consequence is that the
SIS-based definitions developed in IEC 61508, to some extent, can also be used as guidelines for
control loops that require high uptime and whose unavailability would, within a short time, drive the
plant to conditions requiring plant shutdown. IEC 61508 Part 6 gives the definition of the various
architectures most commonly used in the safety instrumented systems. They apply for use with one,
two, or three elements and their various combinations. The elements that are used in a single or
multiple configuration can be either transmitters or final control elements, but they are mainly for
transmitters, and only very rarely for control valves, because of the substantial difference in costs. The
control system, such as a DCS system, is usually configured with multiple controllers and redundant
other system components (e.g., system bus, I/O bus, HMI). IEC 61508 considers and gives definitions
to the configurations described below

*** IEC 61508 is an international standard published by the International Electrotechnical Commission
consisting of methods on how to apply, design, deploy and maintain automatic protection systems called
safety-related systems. It is titled Functional Safety of Electrical/Electronic/Programmable Electronic
Safety-related Systems (E/E/PE, or E/E/PES)
1oo1
Single-Transmitter Configuration (Figure 1.10b)
A single transmitter is used, as in many control loops. These loops consist of an
analog transmitter and an analog controller (pneumatic or electronic). This
configuration is the most prone to overall malfunctioning. Errors and failures can be
caused by a sticking control valve or transmitter or by an out of range signal (up or
down scale). In these loops , diagnostic protection is very limited. Remember, in the
past, the burn-out feature of thermocouples was almost the only diagnostic function
implemented in the mV/psi converters or mV/mA transducers.
1oo1D : A single transmitter is used, with diagnostic coverage integral to the
transmitter (e.g., self validating transmitters) and/or external in the control system.
1

1oo2: Two-Transmitter Configuration (Figure 1.10c)

Two transmitters in parallel are used; the failure of one determines the loss of
control. In principle, this definition cannot be borrowed from IEC 61508. 1oo2D Two
transmitters in parallel are used, with diagnostic coverage mainly residing in the
control system. The type of diagnostic functions will be covered afterward. 2oo2
2oo3
Three-Transmitter Configuration (Figure 1.10d)
Three transmitters in parallel are used. The concurrent value indicated by two of
them is a as correct and representative of the process conditions. Concurrency
means that they differ by no more than X%.
Diagnostic Coverage
The diagnostic coverage in the BPCS is much less than in the SIS, for
reasons outlined previously, and is provided mainly in and by the DCS,
which has the capability of comparing the signals received from the
transmitters and determining whether they are within the imposed limits
so as to consider them to be concurrent. If an inconsistency is detected,
the DCS is capable of signaling the abnormal situation and to maintain
control, at least in some instances, without operator intervention. 1oo1D
The diagnostic coverage can be partly integral to the transmitter and/or
external in the control system (rate of change alarms, overrange alarms
detecting the individual fault). I

In a broader sense, in addition, the material balance (data reconciliation) performed in the DCS can contribute to
detect a failure in the flow transmitters or their unreliable reading. 1oo2D The signal from each transmitter is checked
to verify if it is within the validity limits (i.e., 4-20 mA). If a transmitter is outside the validity range, its signalis
discarded, the controller receives the value from the other transmitter and an alarm is issued to warn the operator
about the malfunctioning. If both transmitters are within validity limits, the difference among their signals is
calculated. In case the difference is within a preset value (in the range of few percent), the average value is assumed as
good and used for the control function (Figure 1.10e) The acceptable discrepancy between the two transmitters
depends on the measurement conditions; for instance, the acceptable discrepancy in the level measurement in a steam
drum is larger than in the case of a pressure measurement. As an indication, for two level transmitters installed at
different ends of the steam drum, 5% discrepancy is acceptable. However, for pressure measurement, 2% should not be
exceeded. Normally, in the process industry, it is not necessary to select a very small discrepancy (such as twice the
declared accuracy) between the transmitted values, because the difference could be the result of many causes other
than a transmitter failure or the need for recalibration (the main reason could be the installation). Sometimes
a common percentage discrepancy value is chosen and used for all measures, because experience has shown
that it is unlikely that a transmitter fails to a value close to the correct one. When the discrepancy is beyond the
preset value, but both signals are within validity limits, it is not possible to determine which one is invalid. In this
case, an alarm is produced, and the controller is automatically forced to manual, with output frozen at the last
valid value. The operator then has the responsibility to discard one of the two transmitters and use the other as
the input to the controller, then switch to auto again.
2oo3
The signal from each transmitter is checked to verify whether it is within the validity limits (i.e., 4 to 20 mA). If a
transmitter is outside the validity range, its signal is discarded as invalid, and the remaining two are used as if
they were in 1oo2D configuration. If no invalid signal is detected, then the discrepancy between the values is
calculated. Supposing the three signals are X, Y, and Z, the differences X − Y, Y − Z, and Z − X are calculated. If
each of them is within the preset limits, the median value is taken as good and used as process variable by the
controller. If one difference exceeds the preset limit, an alarm is issued to the operator, and the median value is
used as process variable for the controller. If two differences exceed the preset limit, the value of the
transmitter involved in both the excessive differences is discarded, an alarm is issued to the operator, and the
average value of the remaining two is used as process value. If all three differences exceed the preset limit, this
means that at least two transmitters are not reliable. In this case, the controller is automatically forced to
manual, with output equal to last valid value (Figure 1.10f). The operator has the responsibility to select one of
the three transmitters as the good one, use it as input to the controller, and switch to auto again. There are
some possible variations in the algorithms used for the selection of the valid signals and the discarding of the
unreliable ones, and they depend on the available control blocks of the involved DCS.
Engineering Redundant Measures
When redundant measures are performed, attention shall be given to avoid common-mode failures. A possible
common mode cause of inaccuracy in flow measurement is the primary flow element, which can be erroneously
calculated, wrongly installed, or show wear after extended operation. This situation is not easily corrected but can be
detected by material balance and/or maintenance (i.e., by checking the size of the orifice or throat and the sharpness
of the orifice edge). Starting from the tapping point on the process, the most usual common-mode failures are
examined. Two or three pressure transmitters connected to the same valved branch on a pipe or vessel are prone to
common-mode failure, because the closing or clogging of the root valve puts all transmitters out of service. Such an
installation is therefore to be avoided. The same multicore cable containing the 4 to 20 mA signals of redundant
transmitters is a possible cause of common mode failure because, if it is cut, all the signals are lost at the same time.
Therefore, the signals should be contained in different cables, and the cables themselves should be routed on
different cable racks. The same input card receiving the signals from redundant transmitters is a possible cause of
common-mode failure because, even if only a single channel (even different from the ones under consideration) of
the input card fails and the card is then replaced, all the transmitter inputs are lost simultaneously. It is appropriate
to connect the redundant transmitters to different input cards. If the multiloop controller in the DCS is not redundant
(or fault tolerant), the input cards connected to the redundant transmitters should belong to different multiloop
controllers to avoid common-mode faults. It is, however, highly preferable to use redundant multiloop controllers
(rather than two independent non-redundant multiloop controllers) because of the increased traffic in the system
bus and of a loop failure consequent to the system bus failure. Because all the transmitters are powered from the
DCS, redundant power supplies to the DCS modules should be provided, coming from different sources. For an
exhaustive evaluation of failure modes, Tables B.5.1 and B.5.2 of ANSI/ISA-84.01-1996 provide a useful guideline,
even though they cover the SIS. These simple examples clearly indicate that it is not sufficient to duplicate or
triplicate the transmitters and that, to obtain the best possible results, the complete engineering of the system shall
be carried out correctly. However, it is necessary to evaluate properly to what extent it is necessary to avoid
common-mode failures as a factor of the criticality of the application. If, for instance, all the cables are installed on
the same tray, distributing the redundant transmitters in different cables does not improve the situation; it would be
unusual for only one cable to break while the others remain in operation.
 Complex Control Loops

In the power generation industry, two or three transmitters in redundant or voting configuration are
commonly used for all control loops. As the boiler control requires complex loops, a question to be
answered is to what extent can it be justified that the transmitters be duplicated or triplicated.
Consider the steam drum level control, and suppose that duplicated measurements are the
contractual requirement. Of course, the level transmitters, the relevant steam and water flow
transmitters, are duplicated to allow for a fully redundant three-element control. What about the
pressure transmitter used to compensate the level measurement for density? If the boiler is
operating at constant pressure, a single transmitter should be sufficient. If it fails, the last valid value
could be frozen and used, obviously sending an alarm to the operator. If the boiler is operating in
sliding pressure, then it must also duplicate the pressure transmitter.
Consider the steam flow compensation for pressure and temperature. If the flow transmitter is
duplicated, the pressure and temperature transmitters do not always require duplication; if these
variables are allowed to vary only slightly and the measure is not used for custody transfer, it should
be sufficient to freeze the last valid value for compensation, with a warning to the operator. But,
again, if the boiler is operating in sliding pressure mode or could possibly have a variable steam
temperature, then the transmitters should be duplicated. Notwithstanding these considerations, if a
plant is supplied as a turnkey operation, the specifications uniformly will call for redundancy without
closely examining the real need for duplication or triplication of the transmitters.
Pneumatic Relay
An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the
self-balancing system. A “self-balance” system continuously balances an adjustable
quantity against a sensed quantity, the adjustable quantity becoming an indication
of the sensed quantity once balance is achieved. If the task of balancing is given to
an automatic mechanism, the adjustable quantity will continuously change and
adapt as needed to balance the sensed quantity, thereby becoming a
representation of that sensed quantity. In the case of pressure instruments,
pressure is easily converted into force by acting on the surface area of a sensing
element such as a diaphragm or a bellows. A balancing force may be generated to
exactly cancel the process pressure’s force, making a force-balance pressure
instrument. Like the laboratory balance scale, an industrial instrument built on the
principle of balancing a sensed quantity with an adjustable quantity will be
inherently linear, which is a tremendous advantage for measurement purposes.
Here, we see a diagram of a force-balance pneumatic pressure transmitter,
balancing a sensed differential pressure with an adjustable air pressure which
becomes a pneumatic output signal:
Differential pressure is sensed by a liquid-filled diaphragm “capsule,” which
transmits force to a “force bar.” If the force bar moves out of position due to this
applied force, a highly sensitive “baffle” and “nozzle” mechanism senses it and
causes a pneumatic amplifier (called a “relay”) to send a different amount of air
pressure to a bellows unit. The bellows presses against the “range bar” which
pivots to counter-act the initial motion of the force bar. When the system returns to
equilibrium, the air pressure inside the bellows will be a direct, linear representation
of the process fluid pressure applied to the diaphragm capsule.
 advantages and disadvantages

A distinct advantage of force-balance pressure instruments (besides their inherent linearity) is the constraining
of sensing element motion. Unlike a modern diaphragm-based pressure transmitter which relies on the spring
characteristics of the diaphragm to convert pressure into force and then into motion (displacement) which is
sensed and converted into an electronic signal, a force-balance transmitter works best when the diaphragm is
slack and has no spring characteristics at all. Balance with the force of the process fluid pressure is achieved by
the application of either an adjustable air pressure or an adjustable electric current, not by the natural tensing of
a spring element. This makes a force-balance instrument far less susceptible to errors due to metal fatigue or
any other degradation of spring characteristics.
Unfortunately, force-balance instruments have significant disadvantages as well. Force-balance mechanisms
tend to be bulky, and they translate external vibration into inertial force which adds “noise” to the output signal.
Also, the amount of electrical power necessary to provide adequate balancing force in an electronic force-
balance transmitter is such that it is nearly impossible to limit below the level necessary to ensure intrinsic
safety (protection against the accidental ignition of explosive atmospheres by limiting the amount of energy the
instrument could possibly discharge into a spark).
 Introduction to Compressed Air Systems
Compressed air systems consist of a number of major subsystems and components. Compressed air systems can be
subpided into the Supply and Demand side.
The Supply side includes compressors, air treatment and primary storage. A properly managed supply side will result in
clean, dry, stable air being delivered at the appropriate pressure in a dependable, cost effective manner. Major
compressed air supply subsystems typically include the air intake, air compressor (fixed speed and/or variable
speed), aftercooler, motor, controls, treatment equipment and accessories.
Controls serve to adjust the amount of compressed air being produced to maintain constant system pressure and
manage the interaction between system components. Air filters and air dryers remove moisture, oil and contaminants
from the compressed air. Compressed air storage (wet and dry receivers) can also be used to improve system
efficiency and stability. Accumulated water is manually or automatically discharged through drains. Optional pressure
controllers are used to maintain a constant pressure at an end use device.
The Demand side includes distribution piping, secondary storage and end use equipment. A properly managed demand
side minimizes pressure differentials, reduces wasted air from leakage and drainage and utilizes compressed air for
appropriate applications. Distribution piping systems transport compressed air from the air compressor to the end use
point where it is required. Compressed air storage receivers on the demand side can also be used to improve system
pressure stability.
As a rule of thumb, for every horsepower (HP) in the nameplate capacity, the air compressor will produce approximately
4 standard cubic feet per minute (scfm).
A simplified diagram illustrating how some of the major components are connected is shown in Figure 5.
 Compressed Air Use

Compressed air is used for a perse range of commercial and industrial applications. As it is widely employed throughout industry, it is sometimes
considered to be the “fourth utility” at many facilities.
In many facilities, compressed air systems are the least energy efficient of all equipment. There is a tremendous potential to implement compressed air
energy efficiency practices.
It has been common practice in the past to make decisions about compressed air equipment and the end uses based on a first cost notion. Ongoing
energy, productivity and maintenance costs need to be considered for optimal systems. In other words, best practice calls for decisions to be based on the
life cycle cost of the compressed air system and components.
Improving and maintaining peak compressed air system optimization requires addressing both the supply and demand sides of the system and
understanding how the two interact.
Properly managing a compressed air system can not only save electricity, but also decrease downtime, increase productivity, reduce maintenance, and
improve product quality.
Optimal performance can be ensured by properly specifying and sizing equipment, operating the system at the lowest possible pressure, shutting down
unnecessary equipment, and managing compressor controls and air storage. In addition, the repair of chronic air leaks will further reduce costs.
For a typical compressed air end use, like an air motor or diaphragm pump, it takes about 10 units of electrical energy input to the compressor to produce
about one unit of actual mechanical output to the work.
For this reason other methods of power output, such as direct drive electrical motors, should be considered first before using compressed air powered
equipment. If compressed air is used for an application, the amount of air used should be the minimum quantity and pressure necessary, and should only
be used for the shortest possible duration. Compressed air use should also be constantly monitored and reevaluated.
NTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSOR:
Compressors are work-absorbing devices that are used for increasing the pressure of the fluid ( Air, oil, Refrigerant ) at the expense of work done on fluid.
The compressors used for compressing air are called air compressors. Compressors are invariably used for all applications requiring high-pressure air.
Some of the popular applications of compressors are, for driving pneumatic tools and air operated equipments, spray painting, compressed air engine,
supercharging in internal combustion engines, material handling (for transfer of material), surface cleaning, refrigeration and air conditioning, chemical
industry, etc. Compressors are supplied with low-pressure air (or any fluid) at inlet which comes out as high-pressure air (or any fluid) at the outlet. Work
required for increasing pressure of air is available from the prime mover driving the compressor. Generally, electric motor, internal combustion engine or
steam engine, turbine, etc. are used as prime movers.
There are two basic types of air compressors:
Compressor Type
There are two ways to increase the pressure of a gas. One is to reduce the volume of the gas. The other is to increase the velocity of the gas. Positive
displacement compressors reduce the gas volume. There are several different types of positive displacement compressors. They include:
• Reciprocating
• Rotary or helical screw, or rotary lobe
• Sliding vane
• Liquid piston
• Diaphragm
Of these, reciprocating compressors and rotary screw or helical screw compressors are most often used in gas plant and refinery compressed air
systems. Centrifugal compressors and axial compressors increase pressure primarily by increasing the gas velocity. centrifugal compressors are more
often used in compressed air systems.
Rotary Screw Compressors
Rotary screw compressors have gained popularity and market share (compared to reciprocating compressors) since the 1980s. These units are most
commonly used in sizes ranging from about 5 to 900 HP. The most common type of rotary compressor is the helical twin, screw compressor. Two mated
rotors mesh together, trapping air, and reducing the volume of the air along the rotors. Depending on the air purity requirements, rotary screw
compressors are available as lubricated or dry (oil free) types.
Reciprocating Compressor :
A reciprocating compressor is a positive-displacement machine that uses a piston to compress a gas and deliver it at high pressure. Various
compressors are found in almost every industrial facility.
Reciprocating compressors have been the most widely used for industrial plant air systems. The two major types are single acting and double
acting, both of which are available as one or two-stage compressors. The Single acting cylinder performs compression on one side of the piston
during one direction of the power stroke. Two-stage compressions reach the final output pressure in two separate compression cycles, or stages,
in series.
The double-acting compressor is configured to provide a compression stroke as the piston moves in either direction. This is accomplished by
mounting a crosshead on the crank arm which is then connected to a double-acting piston by a piston rod. Distance pieces connect the cylinder to
the crankcase. They are sealed to prevent the mixing of crankshaft lubricant with the air, but vented so as to prevent pressure built up.
Air for compressed tool and instrument air systems
Hydrogen, oxygen, etc. for chemical processing
Light hydrocarbon fractions in refining
Various gases for storage or transmission
Other applications
SINGLE-CYLINDER RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Piston compressors are available as single or double-acting, oil-lubricated or oil-free with
different numbers of cylinders in different configurations. With the exception of really small
compressors with vertical cylinders, the V configuration is the most common for small
compressors. On double-acting, large compressors the L type with vertical low-pressure cylinder
and horizontal high-pressure cylinder, offer immense benefits and is why this the most common
design. The construction and working of a piston-type reciprocating compressor is very much
similar to that of an internal combustion engine.
Parts Of Reciprocating Compressors :
Piston type compressor consists of cylinder, cylinder head, and piston with piston rings, inlet and
outlet spring-loaded valves, connecting rod, crank crankshaft and bearings.
Working of Reciprocating Compressor
Compression is accomplished by the reciprocating movement of a piston within a cylinder. This motion alternately fills the cylinder and
then compresses the air. A connecting rod transforms the rotary motion of the crankshaft into the reciprocating motion of the piston in the
cylinder. Depending on the application, the rotating crank (or eccentric) is driven at constant speed by a suitable prime mover (usually
electric motor). Schematic diagram of the single-cylinder compressor is shown in Figure
Inlet stroke: –
Suction or inlet stroke begins with the piston at the top dead center (a position providing a minimum or clearance volume). During the
downward stroke, piston motion reduces the pressure inside the cylinder below the atmospheric pressure. The inlet valve then opens against
the pressures of its spring and allows air to flow into the cylinder. The air is drawn into the cylinder until the piston reaches a maximum
volume position (bottom dead center). The discharge valve remains closed during this stroke
Outlet stroke:
During compression stroke piston moves in the opposite direction (Bottom dead center to top dead center), decreasing the volume of the
air. As the piston starts moving upwards, the inlet valve is closed and pressure starts to increase continuously until the pressure inside the
cylinder is above the pressure of the delivery side which is connected to the receiver. Then the outlet valve opens and air is delivered during
the remaining upward motion of the piston to the receiver.
Multistage Reciprocating Compressor :
It is not always desirable or possible to achieve the required rise in pressure in a single compression stage. In multistage gas discharge from
the first stage is cooled in the intercooler up to a suction temperature of the first stage before going to the second stage. This is called as
perfect intercooling.
Parts Of Multistage Reciprocating Compressor :
ig shows various parts of three-stage (V type) reciprocating air compressor with the receiver (air tank). The pressure
switch is connected to the electric motor. When the desired pressure in the air tank is reached it stops the motor and hence
the compressor. The safety valve opens when the pressure in the air tank exceeds the set safe pressure.
Advantages of multi staging:
1. Good volumetric efficiency as compression is done in more than one stage and hence compression ratio is controlled.
2. Lower discharge temperature and hence selection of the material of construction for cylinder and its components and
results in smaller size of subsequent stages.
3. Reduced work of compression, as due to intercooling, compression is closer to isothermal (gives rise to minimum work
of compression). This results in to saving of power and smaller sizes of subsequent stages.
4. Limits pressure differential. This reduces excess strains in the frame.
The drain valve drains the condensate produced at the condenser and the receiver. Cylinders and intercoolers are either
air-cooled (with fins) or water-cooled (with water jackets in the cylinder). The air-cooled compressor is used for low-
pressure applications and water-cooled compressors are used for high
pressure applications.
R
Range: Used of pressures up to 4-30 bar and low delivery volumes (< 10000 m3/h). For pressures
exceeding 30 bar multi-stage compressors are required. The multi-stage compressors are available with
pressure up to 250-350 bar.
Advantages of Reciprocating compressor
1. Piston type compressors are available in a wide range of capacity and pressure
2. Very high air pressure (250 bar) and air volume flow rate is possible with multi-staging.
3. Better mechanical balancing is possible by a multistage compressor by proper cylinder arrangement.
4. High overall efficiency compared to another compressor
Disadvantages of Reciprocating compressor
1. Reciprocating piston compressors generate inertia forces that shake the machine. Therefore, a rigid
frame, fixed to a solid foundation is often required
2. Reciprocating piston machines deliver a pulsating flow of air. Properly sized pulsation damping
chambers or receiver tanks are required.
3. They are suited for small volumes of air at high pressures.
Some lubricant will enter the air; therefore, some air/lubricant separation is necessary
Limited application for high pressure ratio demands
Difficult and high-cost multi-staging
Limited discharge pressure (up to 200 psig (1,378 kPag) for high pressure models)
Not flexible to capacity control
Rotary Vane Compressors vs. Screw Compressors
Image from Chemical Engineering World
Rotary vane compressors came around a lot earlier than their screw counterparts. They are simpler in
design and have almost double the life expectancy of screw compressors. Nonetheless, screw compressors
dominate
Rotary vane compressors
Rotary vane compressors are used in the agricultural industry to supply compressed air for applications such as operating farm equipment or
planting. They can also be used for so many tasks in food and beverage industry such as product handling or air knives. The dry-cleaning
industry also enjoys using rotary vane compressors to provide the compressed air they need for proper incorporation of chemicals they use
during the dry cleaning.
Rotary vane compressors could be used anywhere that there are air-operated tools. All sorts of metal and wood working businesses such as
automotive industry that use these compressors to supply compressed air for welding, cutting, etc. or furniture manufacturers benefit from
rotary vane compressors.
Sliding vane compressors are also used in the energy sector in applications such as drilling rigs or turbine operation. They can also be used for
vapor recovery, gas transfer, etc. as well as purging and cleaning equipment.
These types of compressors are also useful in pharmaceutical, medical, and dental applications. For instance, rotary vane compressors can be
used to provide the compressed air used for accelerated drying in pharmaceutical industries. As an example of medical and dental applications
of rotary vane compressors, they can be used for air-driven tools and devices such as breathing equipment and air-driven dental units that are
used for drilling, cutting, or polishing of teeth.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Rotary Vane Compressors
The advantages of rotary vane compressors include:
Simple design and not so many moving parts
Versatile and efficient
Relatively low initial costs
Long life expectancy of as long as 100K hours
Continuous air supply
Easy on-site maintenance
Very small amount of oil needed for lubrication
Relatively compact size
The disadvantages of rotary vane compressors include:
 Limit switch

A limit switch is an electro-mechanical device used to send an electrical signal based on a physical interaction. Limit Switches
are used to detect the presence of objects, thus allowing the system to take desired action.
Limit Switches can be found in a number of everyday devices:
They are used in microwaves to check that the door is closed before operation is allowed.
They are used in elevators to notify the system that the cabin has reached the desired floor.
Limit Switches are used in washing machine lids as a permissive to start the wash cycle.

Countless limit switches are found in manufacturing. They are used as control devices and safety devices for machinery and personnel.
In all cases, the limit switches will send a digital signal to the control system. Based on the hardware and software tied to said switches,
the system is able to take appropriate action.
Why is the limit switch important?
Limit switches are an inexpensive way to create a link between the physical and electrical domains. They have been developed a number
of decades ago and the mass adoption of their use significantly lowered their cost for the end user. They thus play an important role in
manufacturing due to their simplicity and low cost.
 Limit Switch - Box Detection on a Conveyor E

Use Cases of Limit Switches

1. Product Detection & Count - As a product pushes against a limit switch, a signal is sent to the control system.
Through simple PLC ladder logic, the user can count the number of times the product goes by the limit switch and
display the counter for the operator.
2. Personnel Safety - A limit switch can be used to detect the opening of a safety guard that stops and de-energizes
the machine. If the guard is opened during operation, the machine stops. If the guard is opened while the machine is
stopped, the limit switch prevents the machine from starting. In both cases, the limit switch is used to safeguard the
operator from potential harm.
3. Machine Safety - A limit switch can be used to protect machinery from unintentional damage. This includes
components that are part of changeovers (end of arm tools), components that may wear-out over time (motor
clutch) and components that may damage others if they fail (gears, shafts, etc.).
Operation of a Limit Switch
As discussed above, a limit switch is used to translate a change in mechanical state into an electrical signal.
How does the device actually accomplish that?
A limit switch is a simple device. The lever is used to close a contact within the switch. When the contact is
closed, it allows the electrical signal to go through. The mechanical operation is similar to that of a light
switch. However, a spring is added to return the limit switch into its original position.
The critical parameter of a limit switch is at which point it closes the contact within. This parameter will vary
between switch types as well as brands. It is important to verify the datasheet to confirm this position. It will
influence the system design that will utilize the limit switch.
As discussed previously, once the actuator is displaced a certain distance, the switch is made. At this point,
it needs to transmit a signal to an electrical device which may be a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC),
relay, control circuit, or an additional limit switch. A limit switch is similar to a relay in the sense that it can be
purchased in one of the following configurations:
Normally Open | The switch will allow the current to pass through once it is actuated. In resting state,
no current will pass through the switch.
Normal Closed | The switch will stop the current once it is actuated. In resting state, current will flow
freely.
Combination of Two | The switch will provide a set of contacts that can be used in Normally Open (NO)
and Normally Closed (NC) circuits.
There is an argument to be made for either configuration. However, when it comes to limit switches
being used for safety purposes, it’s always advised to have current circulating in “resting state”. This is
important as during a problem in the circuit, the safety should trigger. Should it be set to no-power in
the “resting state”, the circuit may fail to prevent injury or damage.
Proximity Sensor

"Proximity Sensor" includes all sensors that perform non-contact detection in comparison to sensors, such as limit
switches, that detect objects by physically contacting them. Proximity Sensors convert information on the movement or
presence of an object into an electrical signal.
There are three types of detection systems that do this conversion:
* systems that use the eddy currents that are generated in metallic sensing objects by electromagnetic induction,
* systems that detect changes in electrical capacity when approaching the sensing object,
* systems that use magnets and reed switches.
Definition of non-contact position detection switches. JIS gives the generic name "proximity switch" to all sensors that
provide non-contact detection of target objects that are close by or within the general vicinity of the sensor, and
classifies them as inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic, photoelectric, magnetic, etc.
This Technical Explanation defines all inductive sensors that are used for detecting metallic objects, capacitive sensors
that are used for detecting metallic or non-metallic objects, and sensors that utilize magnetic DC fields as Proximity
Sensors.
1. Proximity Sensors detect an object without touching it, and they therefore do not cause abrasion or damage to the
object. Devices such as limit switches detect an object by contacting it, but Proximity Sensors are able to detect the
presence of the object electrically, without having to touch it.
2. No contacts are used for output, so the Sensor has a longer service life (excluding sensors that use magnets).
Proximity Sensors use semiconductor outputs, so there are no contacts to affect the service life.
3. Unlike optical detection methods, Proximity Sensors are suitable for use in locations where water or oil is used.
Detection takes place with almost no effect from dirt, oil, or water on the object being detected. Models with fluororesin
cases are also available for excellent chemical resistance.
4. Proximity Sensors provide high-speed response, compared with switches that require physical contact. For information
on high-speed response
5. Proximity Sensors can be used in a wide temperature range. Proximity Sensors can be used in temperatures ranging
from −40 to 200°C.
6. Proximity Sensors are not affected by colors. Proximity Sensors detect the physical changes of an object, so they are
almost completely unaffected by the object's surface color.
7. Unlike switches, which rely on physical contact, Proximity Sensors are affected by ambient temperatures, surrounding
objects, and other Sensors. Both Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensors are affected by interaction with other
Sensors. Because of this, care must be taken when installing them to prevent mutual interference. (Refer to the
Precautions for Correct Use in the Safety Precautions for All Proximity Sensors.) Care must also be taken to prevent the
effects of surrounding metallic objects on Inductive Proximity Sensors, and to prevent the effects of all surrounding
objects on Capacitive Proximity Sensors.
8. There are Two-wire Sensors. The power line and signal line are combined. If only the power line is wired, internal
elements may be damaged. Always insert a load. (Refer to the Precautions for Safe Use
CAPACITIVE SENSORS Operating Principles

In these sensors, a high frequency oscillator creates a field in the surroundings of the sensing surface. The
presence of any capacitive object in these surroundings causes a change in the oscillation amplitude, and a
threshold circuit detects that change and generates the output. The triggering distance depends on the size,
shape, and material of the object. If the sensitivity to metals is taken as 1.0, the sensitivity to water is also
1.0, plastic or glass is 0.5, and wood is 0.4. Usually a screw is placed on the capacitive sensor, which allows
regulation of the operating distance. Capacitive sensors are more often used for linear than angular
proximity measurements. Either the dielectric or one of the capacitor plates is movable for displacement
measurement. Capacitive proximity sensors use the measured object as one plate, and the sensor contains
the other plate. The capacitance changes according to the question
C= k/d
Capacitive
where k = istransducers
a constant,are availableon
depending with
thepackaged signal
area of the conversion
plates circuitry for
and the dielectric DC output
constant operation.
d = the distance
between
Capacitivethesensors
plate are widely used for dimensional inspections in large-volume manufacturing operations,
such as the filling of containers or the monitoring of the wearing of moving surfaces. In nonconductive
materials (glass, plastics, wood), the switch detects the change in dielectric constant; in conductive
materials, an additional signal is produced by terminal conductivity. The proximity switches illustrated in
Figure 7.14a can detect liquids, glass, plastic, wood, or metallic objects. For the proximity switches shown,
the sensing distance can be fixed or adjustable between 0.1 and 1.0 in. (3 to 25 mm). Proximity switches
provided with sensing plates can operate over a range of 0.2 to 5 in. (5 to 127 mm), can detect capacitance
changes down to 0.02 pF, and can detect more than 100 operations/s. The switch is operated when the
capacitance caused by the approaching object exceeds the reference level set to trigger the switch.
 INDUCTIVE SENSORS
In this type of proximity switch, similar to the capacitive one, an electromagnetic field is generated by a high
frequency (radio frequency) oscillator circuit in front of a coil. If a metallic object moves inside the field
generated by the sensor, an eddy current is generated in the metallic object, which loads the oscillator and
causes a voltage drop in it. Figure 7.14b shows the sensing envelope of the switch for a particular target
size. The envelope increases with target size and decreases with nonferrous metals. The target can enter
this envelope axially or laterally and is detected when they first touch the envelope. This switch is also
called a self-contained proximity switch or an eddy-current killed oscillator design. The outside appearance
is similar to the capacitance units shown in Figure . The sensing face of the probe contains the coil. The
switch has no moving parts and therefore its mean time between failure is long, about 200,000 hours. It is
also immune to shock and vibration and can be connected directly to programmable logic controllers.
Detection ranges can vary from 0.1 to 2 in. (2 to 50 mm). Typical application include machine tools, material
handling, packaging, and conveyors.
 MAGNETIC SENSORS
Magnetic sensors are actuated by the presence of permanent magnets. The magnetically
actuated reed switch consists of two low reluctance ferromagnetic reeds enclosed in glass
bulbs filled with inert gas. The reciprocal attraction of both reeds in the presence of a magnetic
field, caused by magnetic induction, closes an electric contact. For this design to function, the
object to be detected must contain a magnet. When the actuating magnet reaches the
actuating distance from the reed switch, the contact is closed. These switches can operate the
loads directly (without relays) because their contact ratings are around 15 VA. Their natural
applications are in the area of counting the rotation or reciprocation of objects. Their speed of
closure can approach 100/s, and their life expectancy is in the tens of millions of operations. A
proximity switch that is used less often is the variable reluctance sensor, which alters the
voltage generated at its coil terminals as an object distorts its magnetic flux. This principle is
more often applied in connection with rotating machinery, such as tachometers for speed
measurement.

Hall-Effect Sensors

One of the most successful magnetic proximity switches is actuated by the field of magnets
due to the Hall effect. Their most common actuator is a moving permanent magnet. As shown
in Figure, the magnet movement can be headon or slide-by. The curves are based on a
microswitch standard magnet, which is 1.25 in. (31.8 mm) long and 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) in
diameter. The induction (gauss) of the Hall-effect sensor varies with the distance to the magnet.
This switch eliminates the contact-bounce problem of mechanical limit switches and provides a
directly computer-compatible output. Speed of operation is about 25 kHz. The Hall-effect
switch is not recommended for use in areas where high magnetic fields are present, and its
connecting wires should not be run in the same conduit with high-power lines
OPTICAL SENSORS
These sensors consist of a light source (emitter) and light receiver and depend on light-sensitive
elements to detect the presence of objects. Three types are available:
1. Direct Reflection—The emitter and receiver are housed together and use the reflected light
directly from the detected object.
2. Reflector with Reflector—The emitter and receiver are housed together and require a reflector. In
this design, the object is detected when it interrupts the light beam between the sensor and the
reflector.
3. Thru Beam—The emitter and receiver are housed separately and they detect the object when it
interrupts the light beam between them.
Photoelectric and laser devices are capable of measuring position, thickness, flatness, length, and
other dimension related properties. The available proximity switch designs can be grouped
according to the:
1. Light source (incandescent, light emitting diodes [LED], infrared, laser)
2. Detector used (photocells, photo-transducers)
3. Light path (thru-beam or the reflective mode, which can be implemented in the diffuse; specular,
retroreflective, or fiber-optic configurations)
Photoelectric sensors can detect the presence or absence of opaque or translucent objects at
distances from a few millimeters to several hundred feet or meters. They do not require physical
contact; are relatively inexpensive; and are well suited for counting, mail and package handling,
security surveillance, and many other applications
Here’s a simple way remember how to wire up a 3-wire DC PNP
or NPN sensor:
PNP = Switched Positive
NPN = Switched Negative
“Switched” refers to which side of the controlled load (relay,
small indicator, PLC input) is being switched electrically. Either
the load is connected to Negative and the Positive is switched
(PNP), or the load is connected to Positive and the Negative is
switched (NPN). These diagrams illustrate the differences
between the two connections.
A transmitter is an electronic device used in telecommunications to produce radio waves in order to
transmit or send data with the aid of an antenna. The transmitter is able to generate A radio
frequency alternating current that is then applied to the antenna, which, in turn, radiates this as
radio waves.