SPE 121294

Working With Coiled Tubing in H2S and CO2 Wells: A Global Perspective

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R. Hampson, C. Moir, and T. Freeney, Halliburton

Copyright 2009, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2009 SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing and Well Intervention Conference and Exhibition held in The Woodlands, Texas, USA, 31 March–1 April 2009.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
The use of coiled tubing (CT) in wells containing hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) has associated problems because of the
potential for sulfide stress cracking (SSC) of the CT material. Carbon dioxide (CO2) can also contribute to general corrosion
or intensify any H2S-related corrosion because of chemical reactions resulting in acid. However, with the right precautions,
equipment, and procedures, this type of operation can be carried out safely and successfully.
The various problems associated with working with CT in H2S and CO2 wells are discussed and a general best practice
taken from locations working regularly with H2S and CO2 is presented. This paper shows the equipment, chemical inhibitor,
quantity and method of inhibitor application, and other precautions taken to carry out the work safely and successfully. An
alternative approach is also highlighted for some situations whereby any H2S is bullheaded into the well before coiled-tubing
intervention. This alternative approach avoids any contact of H2S with CT to prevent corrosion. A number of case histories
are shown for different H2S and/or CO2 locations around the world, which detail the type of operations, quantity of H2S and
CO2, procedures used, frequency of operations, and the overall success of these methods in ongoing operations.
This paper presents a review of methods and equipment currently being used around the world to work in potentially
corrosive and dangerous H2S and/or CO2 wells.

Introduction
The prevention of CT failure is of utmost importance for both safety and economic reasons; CT failures in acid or sour
environments can generally be avoided if certain precautions are used. Previous research done in SPE 93786 (McCoy 2005)
and SPE 99557 (McCoy and Thomas 2006) has identified acceptable working ranges of pH and partial pressure of H2S gas
(PH2S) with both 90 and 100 grades of CT.
This paper will build on this previous research and highlight the correct procedures and equipment to use when working
in H2S and CO2 environments. Case histories from the previous two years will also be presented and summarized to show the
type and frequency of work that has been done in these conditions.
Several recent cases are also presented that highlight the need to follow these guidelines when working in sour wells.

Coiled Tubing Corrosion in Acid and Sour Environments

Oilfield production fluids containing the acid gases H2S and/or CO2 can be corrosive to CT because of the resultant lowering
of the pH of the aqueous phase. Low-pH aqueous fluids accelerate corrosion by providing a plentiful supply of hydrogen
ions. Any brines in the production fluid will also increase the overall corrosivity to the CT, as well as provide an aqueous
medium for contamination. Thus, H2S and/or CO2 in brine is more corrosive than the same gasses present in oil.
Alternatively, because an aqueous phase is necessary, the risk of corrosion or cracking in dry gas wells containing these gases
is low.
Basically, H2S mixed with water will produce sulphuric acid when oxidized or a weaker acid when no oxidizer is present.
CO2 produces Carbonic acid when mixed with water. H2S is noncorrosive in the absence of moisture.
Other than wall thinning from general corrosion, there are several failure modes that can occur when CT is exposed to
H2S-containing fluids. These are detailed in Appendix A and can all be directly related to hydrogen entry into the tubing
metal structure. Unless otherwise stated, this paper will concentrate on the issues associated with SSC-type failures.

Suitable Coiled Tubing Selection

Grade 80 CT will tend to show less susceptibility to SSC as compared to higher-strength grades but is not immune to
problems in H2S-containing environments.
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Sour domain charts based on pH and PH2S are included in Appendix E of this paper to assist with suitable CT-material
selection. These are based on using CT grades 90 (90,000 psi YS) or 100 (100,000 psi YS) with or without inhibitor.
Higher-grade 100 is much more susceptible to SSC-related problems than lower grades, such as grade 90 and 80, because
of its higher strength and hardness. NACE MR0175 / ISO 15156 standard states that carbon and low-alloy steels are suitable
for sour service when their hardness is 22 HRC or less. Grade 90 and grade 80 CT should have a maximum hardness of 22
HRC, while grade 100 should be no more than 28 HRC.
Previous testing (McCoy and Thomas 2006) has shown that fatigue cycling up to 50% utilization did not appear to
increase susceptibility of CT to damage from H2S, and there was no significant increase in H2S susceptibility of grade 90 CT

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after 75% fatigue utilization. Therefore, no special precautions need to be taken for used CT with regard to fatigue
accumulation alone. The main concern here is that higher usage will increase the likelihood of the CT having property-
altering surface damage.
Any surface damage (even slight gripper damage) can cause a local increase in hardness and lead to increased
susceptibility to SSC. For this reason, CT with less accumulated fatigue should be the preferred choice over a highly used
string. Even lower grades of CT (such as grade 80), which is typically less susceptible to H2S, have exhibited SSC damage
when surface damage or defects are present. For these reasons, NDE testing of the entire string should be considered if the
operation is high profile or the CT will be subjected to high pressures. There are several different types of NDE inspection
available for CT. When selecting a method, make sure it is capable of not only measuring diameter, ovality, and wall
thickness, but also any external damage and cracks, which are the most likely places for corrosion (SSC and general) and
fatigue cracking to initiate. It should be noted that, if the damage is not too deep on the OD, there is a possibility that it can be
repaired by suitably trained personnel.
Most types of CT end connectors (required to make up downhole tools to the end of the CT) induce mechanical hardening
damage, which makes the CT more vulnerable. It is recommended to cut off any connector-damaged portions between runs
after exposure to sour wells.
Manual butt welds should generally be excluded from use in wells where there is a concern of H2S problems for several
reasons, i.e., potential for higher average weld HAZ hardness and potential for variable quality caused by manual welding
attributes, etc. However, if there is very high confidence that the butt weld produced has met all essential welding variables of
a fully qualified procedure, then there can be justification for its inclusion.

Equipment Selection for Sour Environments

General
Any equipment required to work in sour environments must be made of material that satisfies NACE Standard MR 0175 /
ISO 15156: Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Materials for Oilfield Equipment. Table 1 is calculated from these
standards and simplifies the definition of the boundary between sweet or sour conditions. The calculations to produce this
simplified table result in conservative values, staying on the safe side of sour service. For more accurate information, please
consult the original document.

Table 1—Sour Service Criteria

H2S
Pressure, psi (MPa) Concentration,
ppm
Under 1,000 (6.89) >50
Under 3,000 (20.68) >15
Under 5,000 (34.47) >10
Under 10,000 (68.95) >5
Under 15,000 (103.42) >3

Although these limits are defined as a boundary for safe operations, the use of sour-service equipment should be
considered below these limits if the H2S content is deemed harmful to personnel in the event of equipment failure or there is
reason to believe that the well information is questionable or incomplete. As a guide, the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit
(PEL) for a ceiling concentration is 20 ppm hydrogen sulfide, a level which cannot ever be exceeded. The acceptable
maximum peak, for 10 minutes only, once during an 8 hour day if there is no other measurable exposure, is 50 ppm (Padron
2008). Above 200 ppm can result in collapse, coma, and death within seconds.
This table can also be used to assist in the selection of surface equipment (such as riser, lubricators, BOPs, stripper,
pump-in subs, and downhole tools. Obviously, any hydrostatic pressures need to be included when calculating the pressure
that will be present around any downhole tools.
Consideration also needs to be given to the type of operation being carried out and whether any chemical reactions will
cause production of H2S. For instance, when attempting the removal of iron-sulfide scale with hydrochloric acid, the resultant
reaction can produce high levels of H2S even in nonsour wells.
SPE 121294 3

It should also be noted that SSC susceptibility is thought to be higher at lower temperatures because of the ability of the
material to trap hydrogen. Therefore, elevated temperatures experienced downhole will not likely increase the chances of
SSC (McCoy and Thomas 2006).

Pressure Control Equipment (PCE)

If the level of H2S is high enough to be hazardous to personnel in the event of a leak, there are two main areas that can be
addressed: an additional stripper assembly is recommended, and all connections in the stack should be metal-to-metal seals as
opposed to quick unions.

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Elastomer Selection
When specifying surface or downhole equipment for H2S or CO2 service, it is also important to consider the correct
elastomers to be used. As a guide, the preferred elastomers for use in H2S environments are flourocarbon (FKM, Viton®,
Flourel) or flouroelastomer (copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and propylene). Nitrile is not recommended.
For CO2 environments, normal elastomers are suitable but are slightly affected. Particular attention should also be given
to the risk of explosive decompression.
Other usual considerations of temperature, pressure, and additional fluids still need to be considered for elastomer
selection.

Inhibitor Surface Application Equipment

There are two main locations that inhibitor needs to be injected into the system, depending on the type of operation and the
well conditions.
1. Into an injection sub in the surface PCE
2. Into a tee injection-point for the circulating fluid (through the CT or down the annulus)

Injection Sub
This injection sub is designed to uniformly distribute Inhibitor CG around the CT OD during RIH. This sub needs to
incorporate a check valve to prevent any backflow of well fluids in the event of pump or line failure. The pump and line to
the injection sub need to be rated to safely handle the maximum anticipated surface pressures (MASP).
These subs come in standalone form to make up as part of the lubricator or can also be integrated into other components,
such as the stripper, to avoid extra height and connection makeup time of the PCE stack. An example of a stripper with built-
in injection sub is shown in Fig. 1. The pump-in port with check valve can be seen along with the internal gallery, which
directs the flow to several small holes that spray inhibitor evenly around the pipe.

Fig. 1—Cutaway view of inhibitor injection point within the PCE stack.

When incorporated into a stripper, these subs are generally located above the seal elements, whereas standalone injection
subs are generally located below the stripper elements. For application of SSC inhibitor, less liquid would be lost if the
injection point is below the seals, but because these types of subs often have other purposes (applying storage corrosion
inhibitor while POOH or lubrication while RIH), this location above the seal is perhaps more suitable. Although untested,
field experience has shown that when applied above the stripper element, enough SSC inhibitor remains coated to the CT OD
4 SPE 121294

for effective inhibition. It is believed that a continuous layer of Inhibitor CG of at least molecular thickness should be
sufficient to create the barrier required to separate the H2S from the steel.
There are also subs on the market that have more than one inlet to allow for multiple fluids to be applied to the pipe, such
as a SSC inhibitor while RIH and general-storage corrosion inhibitor while POOH.
Because of surface-equipment availability, some locations apply their SSC inhibitor to the CT OD at the level-wind
mechanism on the reel; this is done with a wiper mechanism as opposed to an injection sub, but has also proved effective.

Tee Injection Point

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To mix inhibitor with the circulating fluid, this injection tee should be downstream of the nitrogen and/or fluid pumps. A
check valve needs to be incorporated into the line to avoid backflow of the inhibitor to the fluid/nitrogen pumps. The pump
and line to this injection sub need to be rated to safely handle the maximum anticipated working pressure (MAWP), which
might be higher than the MASP because of pump friction through the CT.
To inject inhibitor at either of these locations, some sort of pump is required. Typically, a positive-displacement
chemical-injection pump, such as an air-powered diaphragm pump, is suitable for this application.

Pumping-Iron Considerations
All flowback iron and components, such as chokes, should satisfy NACE MR 0175 / ISO 15156 requirements. However, the
use of H2S-service iron decreases the pressure rating. Take, for example, the most common iron used in CT operations.
Standard service Fig. 1502 treating iron has a cold-working-pressure (CWP) rating of 15,000 psi. However, H2S service
Fig. 1502 treating iron has a CWP rating of 10,000 psi. For higher-pressure use, Fig. 2002 is only suitable for std service and
has a CWP rating of 20,000 psi, whereas Fig. 2202 is for H2S service with a CWP rating of 15,000 psi. It should be noted that
for the same size nominal pipe, Fig. 2002 and 2202 have a smaller ID than Fig. 1502, therefore restricting the maximum flow
rates available.
Between the pumps and the circulating swivel on CT reels, normal practice is to use standard service iron. The swivels
themselves are also generally only for standard (non-H2S) service, along with the iron inside the reel and the connection
welded to the end of the CT.

Inhibitors
Lab testing and field experience has shown that the use of chemical inhibition to mitigate hydrogenation and the possibility
of environmental cracking plays an important role in helping prevent unexpected failures. In general, there are two different
types of inhibitor for use in sour applications.
Inhibitor CG is an organo sulfur anticracking agent used in conjunction with corrosion inhibitors in a hydrocarbon
solvent. This is suitable for most applications, except with acid. When used in treating fluids, the recommended concentration
for Inhibitor CG is 0.2 vol%. It is difficult to specify an exact thickness to apply for coating the outside of CT; however, for
calculating volumes to bring to location, a coating thickness of around 0.2 mm is suggested. See Appendix B for methods to
calculate this volume. Inhibitor CG is not suitable for adding to acid, and, at this time, is not suitable for use in the North Sea.
Inhibitor SCA is an aldehyde blend that acts as a sulfide scavenger and cracking inhibitor for acid blends. It acts as an
anti-sulfide cracking agent by first reacting (scavenging) with the H2S and forming a compound that then coats the pipe.
Ideally, it should be added to the acid blend on-the-fly as it is being pumped or mixed into the blend at the last possible
moment, no more than two hours before pumping. Inhibitor SCA cannot be run in a non-acid environment. It reacts
downhole with both the acid and H2S to form the anti-cracker. In forming the anti-cracker, it also functions as a scavenger
when it reacts with H2S.
When deciding on a concentration of Inhibitor SCA to use, the requirements need to be given some thought. A
concentration of 0.4 vol% is suitable for anti-cracking, regardless of the level of H2S. However, if also trying to scavenge the
H2S, which results in lower general corrosion losses and reduced H2S at surface, then the concentration should be calculated
based on its scavenging power. Completely scavenging all the H2S from the wellbore is often not practical, so the
concentration is usually based on lowering the general corrosion. For instance, with higher levels of H2S, Inhibitor SCA
would not be expected to scavenge all of the H2S but would reduce the corrosion significantly. In this respect, inhibitor SCA
is being used similarly to a regular inhibitor.

Inhibitor Use Procedures

During RIH, when Inhibitor CG is required to be injected into the annulus to coat the OD of the CT, the required rate [see
Appendix B] of Inhibitor CG is calculated during RIH, and the displacement pump is set accordingly. This might need to be
done by using the pump stroke or displacement as a guide. Setup should be done before opening the well to ensure everything
is working and a stable injection rate can be achieved.
Once target depth has been reached, the appropriate inhibitor should be pumped with the treatment fluid at the required
concentration. This should provide additional protection as fluid- or gas-containing inhibitor is circulated up the annulus.
When nitrogen alone is being pumped, the inhibitor should be periodically injected into the nitrogen stream at rates of ¼ to 1
gal/hr (1 to 4 L/hr).
SPE 121294 5

Case Histories
Figs. 2 through 10 are a summary of 153 CT operations in wells containing H2S and/or CO2 carried out across the world in
the last two years.

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Fig. 2—Summary of CT operation types.

Fig. 3—Operations split by H2S %vol.

Fig. 4—Operations split by H2S partial pressure.

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SPE 121294

Fig. 6—Operations split by CT material and SSC inhibitor use.

Fig. 5—Operations split by CO2 %vol.

Fig. 7—Operations split by location.

6
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Fig. 8—Operations plotted on SSC domain chart for grades 80 and 90 material with no SSC inhibitor.

Fig. 9—Operations plotted on SSC domain chart for grade 100 material with no SSC inhibitor.
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Fig. 10—Operations plotted on SSC domain chart for grade 80, 90, and 100 materials with SSC inhibitor.

Analysis of Recent Failures

Because of various reasons stated below, circumstances have led to three CT failures in the last two years caused by working
in a sour-service environment. These failures have all occurred in different geographical locations.

Failure No. 1—1.5-in. Grade 90, 0.156–0.109-in. Tapered Wall Thickness

This failure happened between the reel and gooseneck close to surface while POOH after a nitrogen-lift operation. The string
had previously performed ten operations, eight of which were acid jobs and five on wells containing H2S.
The well where the failure occurred contained no H2S, but the previous well did contain H2S, which was not known until
the job was completed. As it was not known that the well contained H2S, no suitable inhibitor was used during this operation
to protect the CT. Additionally, the partial pressure of H2S was calculated to be 0.4 bar and, although the well-fluid pH was
unknown, given this was an acidizing job, a low pH was expected. These conditions place the well environment within the
expected “SSC region” of the pH vs. H2S partial-pressure chart. In addition, this was the last job the string had been on before
failure, and once cracks are present it usually does not take long for a failure to occur, given the large strains exerted on CT.
Laboratory testing of the failed sample showed both the intergranular and branching nature of the cracks found by
metallography and the quasi-cleavage found by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are typical of SSC. The presence of
sulfur found in the scale by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) also supports this claim. The overall fracture-surface
morphology, lack of beech marks, and low use of this string segment all dismiss fatigue as the cause of failure. Wall-thinning
corrosion and pitting were observed on the sample, but neither was found to contribute to the failure.
Figs. 11 through 15 are pictures taken of and around the area of failure that give more detail of the failure.
SPE 121294 9

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Fig. 11—Photograph of the fracture surface with the initiation area and small OD cracks labeled.

Fig. 12—Stereoscope photograph of the initiation area showing the agglomeration of multiple cracks.
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Fig. 13—Multiple cracks were found on the OD of the tubing. This stereoscope photograph shows OD cracks which were present
next to the fracture surface. The scale on the left is in 0.010-in. divisions.

Fig. 14—Photographs of a large crack found on the OD very close to the fracture surface measuring ~1/2 in. in length.
SPE 121294 11

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Fig. 15—Stereoscope image of the above crack after it was broken open. (The gray surfaces are fresh surfaces created by opening.)
The crack extended through more than 80% of the wall thickness.

Failure No. 2—1.75-in. Grade 90, 0.20 –0.156-in. Tapered Wall Thickness
During the second run of a salt cleanout operation with acid, multiple pinholes appeared, causing the operation to be
terminated. The well was a gas well with 2% H2S and 1.5% CO2. Previously, this string had performed only one other
operation, which also involved the pumping of acid in an H2S and CO2 well (1.8% H2S/3.5% CO2. Neither of these
operations was performed with SSC inhibitors in either the treatment fluid or for coating the CT OD. Analysis in the
laboratory showed several cracks originating at roughly the same circumferential location around the seam weld and scarf flat
(Figs. 16 and 17).

Fig. 16—Image of as-received tubing showing one of the cracks through the seam weld

Fig. 17—Stereographic image of the primary fracture showing the approximate fracture-initiation point. The fracture surface shows
brittle features and chevron markings on the right side of the image.

The fracture initiated at the tubing OD and propagated to the tubing ID. The fracture surface shows evidence of a brittle
fracture with chevron markings visible on the right side of image. To determine whether all of the cracks exhibited similar
features, a secondary crack was opened and can be seen in Fig. 18.
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Fig. 18—Stereographic image of the secondary fracture with the approximate scarf flat and initiation labeled.

The fractures at both examined cracks appeared to have initiated from outside of the scarf area in the HAZ of the seam
weld. This is perhaps because of the increased susceptibility of the HAZ to hydrogen embrittlement.
All other tests indicated that dimensional, chemistry, or mechanical properties were as expected, leading to the conclusion
that the multiple cracks (pinholes) were most likely caused by SSC.
Previously, this location has worked without problem on many wells containing H2S without the use of SSC inhibitors.
However, different kinds of operations in a different field were also assumed to be acceptable. In fact, the different conditions
pushed the operation into a sour-service domain considered severe sour service. Future operations at this location will pay
closer attention to the sour-service domains and use appropriate SSC inhibitors when required.

Failure No. 3—1.5-in. Grade 100, 0.203–0.109-in. Tapered Wall Thickness

This location was performing its twelfth job with the same string on an H2S / CO2 well before the CT developed a pinhole.
H2S concentration for these wells was between 0.1 and 3.9%, resulting in PH2S of between 0.055 and 16 bar. Because no acid
(only 2% KCl brine) was being pumped on any of these jobs, it was considered safe to use grade 100 pipe. However, 2% KCl
brine has an approximate pH of 6.6 and could easily have been lowered further by the presence of H2S and CO2. This
combination of partial pressure and pH could easily have placed the environment into the SSC zone for grade 100 without
SSC inhibitor.
Lab analysis found multiple cracks that initiated at the tubing ID, one of which propagated to the surface. The cracks were
brittle in appearance, and traces of sulfur in the tubing ID led to the conclusion that the cracks were likely caused by SSC.
Fig. 19 shows the as-received tubing section with visible transverse depressions and the pinhole marked. Fig. 20 shows an
image of the pinhole from the OD, while Fig. 21 shows the pinhole from the ID. The transverse marks at the tubing OD are
thin spots aligned on the seam weld resulting from cracks forming from the tubing ID. Crack initiation starting from the
inside of the CT also suggests that the check valves normally found in the BHA might have been leaking and caused ingress
of H2S into the CT string. This was not confirmed.

Fig. 19—Image of the tubing after a light cleaning.

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Fig. 20—Stereographic image of the pinhole from the tubing OD.

Fig. 21—Stereographic image of the pinhole from the tubing ID. Scale is 1/50th in.

Since this failure, this location has now adopted the use of SSC inhibitors during any kind of operation on wells
containing H2S.

Alternative Approach to SSC Inhibitor Use

An alternative approach to using SSC inhibitors has been demonstrated multiple times in Kazakhstan and Canada.
In Kazakhstan, wells have shown H2S levels as high as 30%, with CO2 approaching 5%. The main type of operation
required on these wells has been perforating under HPHT conditions. When perforating previously unperforated wells, the
risk of H2S is obviously low until the first perforation has been done. So long as the well is not allowed to flow while the CT
14 SPE 121294

is still in the well any exposure to H2S will be negligible during POOH. Before any subsequent perforating work, the well is
bullheaded to push any H2S back into the reservoir, allowing CT operations to be done in clean fluid that has been pumped
into the well. This is only possible because of the high permeability present in these wells. Following perforating, it is also
common to acidize the formation; so long as this is done by bullheading the acid as opposed to circulating it, no H2S is
introduced to the wellbore.
In Canada, a particular type of abrasive cutting- and fracturing-operation is often done in wells containing H2S levels
between 0.05–0.15% with reservoir pressures of 3,000–4,000 psi (200–275 bar). This has been carried out at least 100 times
in the last two years without the use of inhibitors (not included in the case histories presented).

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This type of operation involves perforating cased wells by pumping abrasive fluids through the CT and then fracturing
with proppant down the annulus. After a change of bottomhole assembly, the excess proppant is cleaned out and experience
has shown that no H2S is present in the returns until at least a day from starting to flow the well. This is because of the large
volumes pumped into the reservoir during the frac operation.

Work in Wells Containing or Pumping CO2

When conducting CT operations in wells that contain CO2 but no H2S, the following guidelines need to be followed.
Although not a source of embrittlement, CO2 on its own should still be treated as a source of potential corrosion. CO2 will
form weak carbonic acid when mixed with brines, and jobs should therefore be handled accordingly to account for this.
Corrosion inhibitors should be used, depending on the type of fluid (brine, acid, etc.) that is being pumped.
A common operation in Canada involves pumping liquid CO2 down the annulus while acid and gel stages are pumped
through the CT to produce a CO2 foam frac. In these instances, mineral oil is used to protect the stripper rubber to avoid any
damage from the liquid CO2.

Fatigue Life of Coiled Tubing Exposed to H2S and CO2

Previous testing done in this field (McCoy and Thomas 2006; Luft et al. 2007; Padron 2008) observed that fatigue life is not
significantly affected by H2S concentration, provided there is no mechanical damage on the CT and correct inhibitors are
used. Unfortunately, mechanical damage is very difficult to quantify, especially in the field. For this reason, a conservative
approach has been taken that has resulted in no unexplained failures in the field so far. The effect of CO2 is generally less
severe, so a similar approach is adopted. The current methodology adds 1.11 times more fatigue per job than operations
without H2S or CO2. This is equivalent to a de-rating of 0.90 and applies to the entire length of the CT string and not just the
exposed area.

Conclusions
Many different types of CT operations are taking place regularly across the world in wells containing H2S and/or CO2. The
equipment and procedures presented in this paper are available to do these types of operations safely and effectively.
Recent failures have also highlighted the fact that these are valid procedures required to protect the integrity of the CT
and, therefore, the safety of personnel working on these types of operations.

Acknowledgments
Halliburton individuals:
Artur Ishkulov
Cody Trebing
Deborah Flores
Hampton Fowler
Ismael Martinez
Jay Elliot
Jose Noguera
Juanita Cassidy
Nelson Coba
Peter Main
Terry McCoy
Timothy Freeney
Yusri Azizan

National Oilwell Varco Individuals:

William Taylor

Nomenclature
EDS Energy dispersive spectroscopy
HAZ Heat affected zone (around a weld)
HRC Material hardness using the Rockwell “C” scale
SPE 121294 15

MASP Maximum anticipated surface pressure

MAWP Maximum anticipated working pressure
PH2S Partial pressure of H2S gas (%H2S) (Total Pressure, psia) (where %H2S is in mol%)
PCE Pressure control equipment. Generic term to include riser, BOPs, lubricator, pump-in subs, strippers, etc.
POOH Pull out of hole
RIH Run in hole
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
YS Yield strength

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Definitions
Acid Gas A gas mixture that contains significant amounts of H2S, CO2 or similar contaminants. (To clarify, CO2 is
considered an acid gas but not a sour gas.)
Sour Gas A gas mixture that contains significant amounts of H2S. Natural gas is usually considered sour if there is more
than 4ppm H2S by volume at atmospheric pressure.

Reference List
API RP5C7: Recommended Practice for Coiled Tubing Operations in Oil and Gas Service Well Services
Luft, H., Padron, T., Kee, E., and Szklarz, E. 2007. Sour-Well Serviceability of Higher Strength Coiled Tubing. Paper SPE 107014
presented at the SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing and Well Intervention Conference and Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, 20–21 March.
McCoy, T. 2005. SSC Resistance of QT-900 Coiled Tubing. Paper SPE 93786 presented at the SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing Conference and
Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, 12–13 April.
McCoy, T. and Thomas, J. 2006 SSC Resistance of QT-900 and QT-1000 Coiled Tubing. Paper SPE 99557 presented at the SPE/ICoTA
Coiled Tubing Conference & Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, 4–5 April.
NACE MR0175 / ISO 15156: Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Materials for Oilfield Equipment
NORSOK M-506: CO2 Corrosion Rate Calculation Model (Rev. 1, June 1998)
OSHA Standard 1910.1000 Table Z-2
Padron, T. 2008. Effect of External Mechanical Damage on the Fatigue Life of Coiled Tubing Exposed to Sour Environments. Paper SPE
113149 presented at the SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing and Well Intervention Conference and Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, 1–2
April.

Appendices
Appendix A: Failure Modes of Coiled Tubing when Exposed to H2S-Containing Fluids
Sulfide stress cracking (SSC)—Brittle cracking of metal involving corrosion and tensile stress (residual and/or applied) in the
presence of water and H2S. Experience indicates that this is the primary failure mode of CT in H2S environments.
Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC)—Planar cracking that occurs in carbon and low-alloy steels when atomic hydrogen
diffuses into the steel and then combines to form molecular hydrogen at trap sites. This can occur in CT if it
contains centerline segregation. HIC can also be called step-wise cracking (SWC).
Hydrogen embrittlement—Brittle cracking or fracture of a ductile alloy during plastic deformation in an acidic or H2S-
containing environment.
Hydrogen blistering—Internal blisters in the CT steel that are caused by the accumulation of molecular hydrogen. Experience
with CT field failures indicates this is a rare problem but has been seen in laboratory tests.
Stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking (SOHIC)—Staggered small cracks formed approximately perpendicular to the
principal stress (residual and/or applied), resulting in a “ladder-like” crack array linking (sometimes small) pre-
existing HIC cracks. Note: This mode of cracking can also be categorized as SSC caused by a combination of
external stress and local strain around hydrogen-induced cracks. SOHIC is related to SSC and HIC/SWC. It has
been observed in the seam weld of CT strings.
Surface fissuring—Surface fissuring is characterized by shallow longitudinal surfaces that are less than about 0.005 in. (0.13
mm) in depth and are perpendicular to the applied tensile loading. Usually, cracking is initiated but then becomes
blunted by the corrosion process.

Appendix B: Calculation of Required Inhibitor to Coat the CT OD while RIH

For coating the outside of CT with neat inhibitor, it is difficult to specify an exact thickness to apply. However, for
calculating volumes to bring to location, a coating thickness of around 0.2 mm should be used. To calculate this volume, the
following equations can be used for an approximation.
Using the following variable names:
D = CT OD
L = CT Length going into the Well
t = Inhibitor Thickness Required – eg. 0.2 mm ≈ 0.008 in.
V = CT Running Speed
16 SPE 121294

Metric
Total Volume Required (Liters) = π × D (mm) × t (mm) × L (m) / 1,000
Inhibitor Application Rate (Liters / Min) = π × D (mm) × t (mm) × V (m/min) / 1,000
For example, with 50.8mm CT, running at a speed of 10 m/min to a depth of 3,000 m. The total inhibitor required would
be 96 L, which should be applied at an approximate rate of 0.32 L/min.

Imperial

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Total Volume Required (gals) = π × D (in.) × t (in.) × L (ft) / 19.25
Inhibitor Application Rate (gal/min) = π × D (in.) × t (in.) × V (ft/min) / 19.25
For example, with 2 in. CT running at 30ft/min to a depth of 10,000ft, the total inhibitor required would be 26 gal, which
should be applied at an approximate rate of 0.078 gal/min (4.7 gal/hr).

Appendix C: Calculation of H2S Partial Pressure, PH2S

PH 2 S (psia) = (%H2S / 100) × BHP (psia)
Example: If %H2S=0.01% and BHP=10,000 psia, then
PH 2S =1 psia or 0.07 bars.

PH 2 S (psia) = ppm H 2 S ×10 −6 × BHP (psia)

Example: If H2S=100 ppm and BHP=10,000 psia, then
PH 2S =1 psia or 0.07 bars.

Appendix D: Estimation of in situ pH

The in situ pH is required to use the SSC zone graphs to determine which operating sour-service domain is likely. This
should be known by the operator for any existing well fluids or fluids supplied to be pumped. On site analysis is preferred,
but if this is not possible, an estimation should be suitable.
For example, in production fluids with acid gases (H2S + CO2), the pH of the aqueous phase can be very low. For
temperatures of 68 to 212ºF (20 to 100ºC), pH ≈ 3.4 at PH2S + PCO2 = 0.147 kpsi (10.1 bar); pH ≈ 3 at PH2S + PCO2 = 1.47
kpsi (101 bar); and pH ≈ 5 at PH2S + PCO2 = 0.147psi (0.0101 bar) (API RP5C7).
Depending on the type and concentration of treatment fluid, such as brine, the pH will often be around neutral, but the
addition of CO2 or H2S can make this acidic. More accurate estimations are difficult without specialist software models, so a
conservative worst case should be used if unknown. When acid is used, one can assume that the worst in situ pH will be less
than 3, which is as low as the charts go on the pH scale.
If there is significant doubt where the downhole environment resides on the pH-PH2S diagram, then suitable precautions
should be taken to increase reliability of CT in sour wells.
SPE 121294 17

Appendix E: SSC Zone Graphs for Coiled Tubing

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Fig. 22—No SSC and SSC zones for Grade 90 CT, no inhibitor.

Grade 90 CT can be used without environmental precautions in the mild or intermediate sour service “No SSC Zones”
shown in Fig. 22. Environmental precautions (either excluding contact with H2S and/or using correct inhibitor) should be
taken when the downhole environment falls into the severe sour service “SSC Zone.”

Fig. 23—No SSC and SSC zones for Grade 100 CT, no inhibitor.

The dashed red line indicates the start of the SSC zone. Above this line the color fades, indicating an area of slight
uncertainty as pH increases and PH2S decreases.
Grade 100 CT should be used without environmental precautions only in very mild sour-service conditions, as indicated
by the dashed red line in Fig. 23. Generally, because of its higher hardness and strength, environmental precautions (either
excluding contact with H2S and/or using inhibitor) are recommended for grade 100 CT in sour wells.
18 SPE 121294

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Fig. 24— No SSC and SSC zones for Grade 90 and Grade 100 CT with 0.2 Vol% Inhibitor CG.

Appendix F: Example Scenarios

Two possible scenarios are presented with guidelines on a course of action.

Scenario 1:
Question:
What is the recommendation for using grade 90 CT in oil reservoirs with 3,000 to 5,000 ppm H2S in the gas phase (GOR =
175 sm3/m3 or 983 scf/bbl) and the reservoir is producing above the bubble point. Generally, because the wells are being
acidized, free H2S gas would not be expected during this phase of the operation. However, gas lift is planned to follow the
acidizing, so a portion of the grade 90 tubing would be contacted by free H2S gas and acid by-products from the stimulation
treatment. The reservoir temperature is 90ºC (194ºF) and reservoir pressure is 4,800 psi (330 bar).
Answer:
PH2S calculates to be 24 psia (1.65 bars) worst case, which puts the reservoir environment in the severe sour-service domain
(SSC Zone) because acid is involved.
On the positive side, there is a relatively low GOR, so environmental cracking is potentially reduced because of the
inhibiting effect of an oil film on the pipe. On the negative side, the well is being acidized and it is known that low pH
significantly increases the possibility of environmental cracking if wet H2S gas is present. Recommendation would be to use
Inhibitor SCA in the acid treatment fluid while coating the OD of the CT while RIH with Inhibitor CG.

Scenario 2:
Question:
Contractual obligations have created a situation in the region where we have to perform a CT job in a well that has a BHT of
275°F (135°C), and the well is producing 2,000 ppm H2S. The job does not involve pumping any acid, just brine. The only
string available is a new string of 1 ½-in. OD grade 100 CT. This job is critical enough that if necessary, the CT string can be
junked after this one and only job. The question is whether or not this one job can be done without developing sulfide stress
cracks in the CT.
Answer:
Although only the ppm H2S and temperature is given, PH2S is very likely to be in the SSC Zone of Fig. 23. For example, if
pressure was only 1,000 psia (69 bars), the PH2S would be 2 psia (0.14 bars). This would mean that the environment was in
the SSC Zone up to pH of ≈6 (near the red dashed line). Therefore, it is recommended in this case that precautions be taken to
exclude H2S fluids from contacting the CT and use Inhibitor CG in treating fluids as well as coating the tubing OD. It is
likely that new grade 100 CT will survive the job after taking appropriate environmental precautions. The effect of the
relatively high temperature of 275ºF only means that the environmental cracking susceptibility of grade 100 CT is lessened
downhole, but as the CT is POOH, the metal temperature will drop, which makes the tubing more susceptible to SSC as it is
plastically deformed over the gooseneck and reel. However, if the tubing has avoided being hydrogenated downhole, then no
environmental cracking will occur.