PLANT REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is the simplest form of reproduction, where an organism

produces an identical copy of itself. The new individuals, called clones, have the
same features and characteristics as the parent.

Asexual reproduction in microorganisms

Asexual reproduction is common in microorganisms. Although they are tiny and not
plants, microorganisms clearly show the stages of asexual reproduction.

Amoeba

Amoeba is made of a single cell with a nucleus in the center, containing genetic
information. Surrounding the nucleus is the cytoplasm, which forms the rest of the
cell. Amoeba reproduces asexually by dividing into two identical cells.

Fungi

Fungi are also microorganisms that reproduce asexually. A type of fungus called
trichophytes feeds on human skin and nails, causing conditions like athlete’s foot.
Fungi grow as white fibrous threads that spread and form fungal colonies. Some
fungi, such as the ones found on bread and cheese, reproduce asexually by spores,
which travel in air or water and grow into new molds when they land in a suitable
place.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Some plants reproduce asexually. Plants can be divided into two groups—plants
without flowers and flowering plants.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants Without Flowers

Bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts) reproduce asexually. They lack

true roots or vascular tissue, absorbing water and nutrients from the air. They are
often found in damp environments like forests.

Mosses reproduce asexually through fragmentation, where broken-off pieces grow

into new plants. They can also reproduce using spores.

Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Flowering plants can also reproduce asexually. A flowering plant has buds, with
lateral buds growing from nodes along the stem. Some flowering plants use their
lateral buds for asexual reproduction. More examples are covered in the next
section.

Spider Plant

The spider plant reproduces asexually through runners—stalks that grow from
lateral buds. A plantlet forms at the end of the runner, which later develops roots
when it touches the soil. The runner then withers, and the plantlet grows into a
new plant. Several plantlets can form from one parent plant.

Strawberries

Strawberries also reproduce asexually using runners, similar to the spider plant.
Tulips

Unlike spider plants and strawberries, tulips reproduce asexually using bulbs. A
tulip has a short stem that forms a disc, from which roots grow downward. Above
the disc, food-storing bulb bases support growth. The plant uses stored food to
grow a tall stem and flower. Over time, lateral buds in the bulb form new bulbs,
which later separate from the parent plant.

Garlic

Garlic is a commonly used plant in cooking and flavoring food. It reproduces

asexually through bulbs. Each bulb contains multiple cloves, which form from buds
inside the bulb. Each clove has the potential to grow into a new plant.
Potatoes

A potato is a swollen underground stem that helps the plant reproduce asexually.
Since it is part of a stem, it has side buds or lateral buds, which appear as
swellings on the skin, known as "eyes." These eyes can sprout and grow into new
potato plants.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Sexual reproduction involves passing DNA from both a male and female parent
plant to offspring. The gametes (sex cells) formed contain genetic material from
both parents.

Gametes and Cross-Fertilization

●​ There are male and female gametes.​

●​ In flowering plants, each plant may produce both types of gametes.​

●​ A gamete cannot grow into a new plant alone; it must combine with a gamete
of the opposite sex in cross-fertilization, forming a new cell that develops
into an organism.​

●​ Male gametes are in pollen grains, produced in anthers.​

●​ Female gametes are in ovules, found inside the ovary.​

Pollination

For fertilization to occur, pollen must reach the egg cell in the ovary. This happens
through cross-pollination, which is necessary for reproduction.​
There are two main types of pollination:

1.​ Insect pollination​

 2.​ Wind pollination​

Flowers have evolved different structures to suit these types of pollination.

Insect-Pollinated Flowers

Insect-pollinated flowers come in different shapes and sizes, but they commonly
have petals that either:

1.​ Form a circle (as shown in Figure 6.12).​

2.​ Form a tube (as seen in Figures 6.14 and 6.15).​

Flower Structure

●​ Sepals: Small, tough, leaf-like structures that protect the flower bud. They
form a ring called the calyx.​

●​ Petals: Large, colorful parts of the flower that attract insects. They may
produce scent and are arranged in a ring called the corolla (which may form a
circle or tube).​

●​ Stamens: The male part of the flower. Each stamen consists of:​

○​ Filament (stalk).​

○​ Anther (produces pollen).​

●​ Carpel: The female part of the flower, consisting of:​

○​ Stigma (pollen-receiving surface).​

○​ Style (connects the stigma to the ovary).​

○​ Ovary (contains ovules, which develop into seeds).​

Adaptations of Insect-Pollinated Flowers

Insect-pollinated flowers have special features to attract insects and ensure

successful pollination:

●​ Nectaries at the base of the petals produce nectar, a sugary liquid that
feeds insects.​

●​ Flowers often produce excess pollen, which insects can also consume.​

●​ Short filaments keep anthers inside the flower, ensuring insects brush
against them.​

●​ Anthers produce less pollen than wind-pollinated flowers.​

●​ Stigmas are flat and on short styles, making it easy for insects to land on
them.​

Wind-Pollinated Flowers

Wind-pollinated flowers differ from insect-pollinated flowers as they:

●​ Lack colorful petals and are often green.​

●​ Are usually smaller and do not produce nectar or scent.​

●​ Have long filaments, allowing anthers to extend outside the flower into the
wind.​

●​ Produce large amounts of pollen to increase the chances of fertilization.​

●​ Have feathery stigmas that hang outside the flower to catch airborne
pollen.​
Pollen Grains and Cross-Pollination

●​ Male gametes are in pollen grains, produced in the anthers.​

●​ Female gametes (egg cells) are in the ovules, inside the ovary.​

●​ Self-pollination: Pollen transfers within the same flower or plant.​

●​ Cross-pollination: Pollen transfers between flowers on different plants of

the same species.​

Avoiding Self-Pollination

Most plants have both male and female reproductive parts but use strategies to
prevent self-pollination:

1.​ Timing Difference – Pollen is released before the stigma is ready to receive
it.​

2.​ Stigma Readiness – The stigma is ready to receive pollen from another plant
before its own anthers release pollen.​

Methods of Cross-Pollination

Pollen can travel between flowers in two main ways:

●​ Insect Pollination – Pollen grains have a spiky surface that helps them stick
to insect hairs.​

●​ Wind Pollination – Pollen grains are small and lightweight, allowing them to be
carried by air currents.​

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SCIENCE IN CONTEXT :-

Bees and Flowers

Karl von Frisch (1886–1982) studied how bees communicate and received a Nobel
Prize in 1973 for his research on animal behavior.

How Bees Locate Flowers

●​ The scent of nectar attracts bees toward flowers.​

●​ Bees have ultraviolet-sensitive eyes, helping them see markings that guide
them to nectar. These markings are called honey guides.​

Pollen Collection and Transfer

●​ When a bee lands on a flower, it collects nectar using its proboscis.​

●​ As it moves, pollen from the anthers sticks to the bee's hairs and pollen
baskets on its legs.​

●​ The bee transfers pollen to the next flower it visits, aiding in pollination.​

Honey Production and Communication

●​ Bees return to the hive with nectar and store it in the honeycomb.​

●​ They perform a waggle dance to indicate the direction and distance of

nectar sources to other bees.​

●​ The dance helps other bees find the best nectar sources efficiently.​

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Fertilisation

●​ When a pollen grain lands on a stigma, it forms a pollen tube.​

●​ The male gamete (inside the pollen grain) travels down this tube through the
style into the ovary.​

●​ Inside the ovary, ovules contain female gametes.​

●​ When the male gamete reaches an ovule, fertilisation occurs, forming a

zygote.​

After Fertilisation

●​ The zygote divides and develops into an embryo.​

●​ Structures for the root and shoot form, and food is stored inside the ovule.​

●​ The outer layer of the ovule hardens, turning into a seed coat.​

●​ Once these changes are complete, the ovule becomes a seed.

Formation of Fruits

●​ As seeds develop, other parts of the flower undergo changes.​

●​ Petals and stamens fall away, while the ovary transforms into a fruit.​

●​ In some plants (e.g., tomato), the sepals may remain attached.​

Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds

●​ If seeds simply fell beneath the parent plant, they would compete for
resources, causing overcrowding.​

●​ Seed dispersal spreads seeds away to improve growth chances.​

●​ However, seeds might land in unsuitable environments, limiting their survival.​

Methods of Seed Dispersal

●​ Some trees, like oak and Brazil nut, have heavy fruits that drop to the
ground.​

●​ Squirrels and rodents store some of these seeds away but often forget
some, leading to germination.​

●​ The Brazil nut has a tough shell that is cracked open by animals, allowing
seed dispersal.​

Seed Dispersal Mechanisms

1. Animal Dispersal

●​ Some fruits, like goose grass and burdock, have hooks that attach to
animals' fur and travel long distances.​

●​ Succulent fruits (e.g., berries, apricots) attract animals with bright colors.​

○​ Small seeds pass through the digestive system and are excreted.​

○​ Large seeds (e.g., apricot stones) are discarded after eating.​

2. Wind Dispersal

●​ Fruits with hairs:​

○​ Dandelions have parachute-like hairs, helping them float.​

○​ Willow herbs also have hairy fruits that aid in wind travel.​

●​ Winged fruits:​

○​ Sycamore (maple) and South American tipu have wing-shaped seeds.​

○​ These structures help them glide away from the parent tree.​

3. Mechanical Dispersal

●​ Some plants (e.g., lupin, gorse) have twisting seed pods that explode,
forcefully releasing seeds.​

Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction

Advantages:

●​ Quick and efficient reproduction, allowing rapid colony formation.​

●​ No need for a mate.​

Disadvantages:

●​ All offspring have the same DNA, making them vulnerable to environmental
changes or diseases.​
Sexual Reproduction

Advantages:

●​ Genetic variation increases adaptability and survival chances.​

Disadvantages:

●​ Requires time and energy to find a mate.​

●​ Only one offspring per individual in most cases.

Propagation of Plants

1. Natural Propagation

●​ Some plants, like spider plants, tulips, and potatoes, naturally increase
their numbers through side buds.​

2. Artificial Propagation

●​ Humans help increase plant numbers using techniques like cloning.​

●​ Example: Potatoes can be propagated from tubers with surface buds.​

●​ Cloning ensures uniform and high-yield crops, beneficial for agriculture.​

Artificial Propagation: Cuttings

●​ A cutting is a small side shoot taken from a plant.​

●​ The cutting is placed in water or soil to develop roots.​

 ●​ It grows into a new plant identical to the parent.​

Advantages:

●​ Simple and effective method for plant propagation.​

●​ Produces genetically identical plants with desired traits.​

Layering

A shoot is bent down and fastened in the soil, forming a separate plant over time.

Budding

A bud from one plant is inserted into another, where it grows into a copy of the
original plant.

Grafting

Used for plants that do not root easily, a side shoot is joined to the lower stem of
another plant.

Rootstocks

These are plants to which buds or grafts are attached. They may not share
features of the graft but can provide advantages like disease resistance.

Tissue Culture

A method of growing plants from small tissue parts, helping produce plants
efficiently for global food supply.
Professions Associated with Plants

Plants are essential for life, providing food and oxygen. Studying and working with
plants is important for survival. Here are two professions related to plants:

Farmer

Farmers grow crops like sugar cane, rice, cotton, maize, and fruits. They must
understand plant care to maximize food production.
Plant Biologist

Plant biologists study different plant types to improve farming and conservation.
They research ways to sustain and enhance plant life worldwide.

Botanist

Botanists study plants worldwide, identifying new species and recording known
ones. Some, like medical botanists, research plants for medicinal purposes.

Plant Scientist

Plant scientists conduct experiments with botanists and biologists, sharing

discoveries to improve plant care in nature and agriculture.

Ecologist

Ecologists study plant and animal interactions, food chains, and the effects of
weather and climate on habitats.

Conservationist

Conservationists study land, water, and plant life, examining human impacts like
pollution and urbanization to find ways to protect natural resources.

Summary

There are two ways plants and other living things can reproduce: asexual (without a
partner) and sexual (with a partner).

In asexual reproduction, the offspring are identical copies of the parent.

Some tiny organisms (like bacteria), fungi, and certain plants (both flowering and
non-flowering) can reproduce asexually.

Flowers have the plant’s reproductive parts:

- The male part is called the stamen, which makes pollen.

 - The female part is the ovary, which holds ovules (tiny egg cells).

Pollination happens when pollen moves from the stamen to the stigma (the female
part). This can happen with the help of wind or insects.

Fertilization is when the male and female cells join to form a new cell called a
zygote (the start of a new plant).

Both asexual and sexual reproduction have good and bad sides.

Plants can grow in two ways: naturally (on their own) or artificially (with human
help). Examples of artificial methods are:

- Taking a cutting (planting a piece of a stem)

- Layering (bending a branch to grow roots)

- Budding and grafting (joining two plants together)

- Tissue culture (growing plants from tiny pieces in a lab)

Many jobs involve working with plants, like “farmers, botanists, plant scientists,
ecologists, and conservationists”.