Reproduction in Plants

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Reproduction in Plants

Types of reproduction

i. Asexual Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction is defined as a process resulting in the production of genetically
identical offspring from one parent.
• Asexual reproduction does not involve sex cells or fertilization.
• Only one parent is required so there is no fusion of gametes and no mixing of genetic
information.
• As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each other (clones).
• Asexual reproduction is quick and efficient producing many new plants identical to each
other.
• In crop plants, asexual reproduction can be advantageous as it means that a plant that has
good characteristics (high yield, disease-resistant, drought resistant) can be made to
reproduce asexually and the entire crop will show the same characteristics.
• Plants can reproduce asexually using bulbs and tubers e.g. potatoes which reproduce using
stem tubers.
• When temperatures are warm, plant stems grow normally frim the tuber o produce leaves
which undergo the process of photosynthesis.
• Sucrose is transported from the leaves to underground stems (tubers) where it is converted
to scratch and stored increasing the tuber size.
• Harvested tubers are used as a source of food. However, some of them are saved to produce
the following year’s crop.
• Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction
called binary fission.
• One bacterial cell split into two cells which are identical and carry the same genetic
makeup.
ii. Sexual Reproduction

• Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form
a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other.
• The parent organisms produce sex cells called gametes which join and their nuclei fuse
together by a process called fertilization.
• The new cell formed by fertilization is called a zygote, which divides again and again and
eventually grows into a new organism.
• The zygote contains chromosomes from both parents leading to a combination of genes
producing offsprings which are genetically different from each other and from their
parents.

• A gamete is a sex cell (in animals: sperm and ovum; in plants pollen grain and ovule)
• Female gametes are relatively large and do not move.
• Gametes are made when cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis. Other cells (body
cells/somatic cells) divide by mitosis.
• Gametes differ from normal cells as they contain half the number of chromosomes found
in other body cells - we say they have a haploid nucleus
• This is because they only contain one copy of each chromosome, rather than the two
copies found in other body cells
• In human beings, a normal body cell contains 46 chromosomes but each gamete
contains 23 chromosomes
• When the male and female gametes fuse, they become a zygote (fertilized egg cell)
• This contains the full 46 chromosomes, half of which came from the father and half from
the mother - we say the zygote has a diploid nucleus
• One organism can only produce one type of gamete i.e. male or female. However, there are
organisms which produce bot male and female gametes and called hermaphrodite for
example flowering plants.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Flower

• Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant


• They usually contain both male and female reproductive parts
• Plants produce pollen which contains a nucleus inside that is the male gamete
• Unlike the male gamete in humans (sperm), pollen is not capable of locomotion (moving
from one place to another)
• This means plants have to have mechanisms in place to transfer pollen from the anther
to the stigma
• This process is known as pollination and there are two main mechanisms by which it
occurs: transferred by insects (or other animals like birds) or transferred by wind
• The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are slightly different as each is adapted
for their specific function

The structure of a simple flower


*Stamen- male parts of the flower (anther & filament)
*Carpel- the female parts of the flower (stigma, style, ovary, ovules)
*Receptacle-The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached.
Pollination
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower.
• Its is carried out by insects such as bees and wind.
• Insects are attracted by the colour and strong sweet scent of the flowers.
• As the bee follows the guidelines running from the top to the bottom of the petals
(which lead them to the nectaries), the insects brush past the anthers and pollen sticks
to its body.
• The pollen picked up from the first flower sticks onto the stigma of the second flower
when the bee brushes past it.
• If the second flower is from the same species as the first, pollination has taken place.
Adaptations for Pollination
i. Insect pollinated flowers
ii. Wind pollinated flowers

The pollen produced by insect and wind-pollinated flowers is also different:

• Insect pollinated flowers produce smaller amounts of larger, heavier pollen grains that
often contain spikes or hooks on the outside so they are better able to stick to insects
• Wind pollinated flowers produce large amounts of small, lightweight pollen grains that
are usually smooth so that the wind blows them with ease.

Cross & Self-Pollination

• Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma
of another plant of the same species
• This is the way most plants carry out pollination as it improves genetic variation.
• Occasionally, the pollen from a flower can land on its own stigma or on the stigma of
another flower on the same plant - this is known as self-pollination
• Self-pollination reduces genetic variety of the offspring as all the gametes come from the
same parent (and are therefore genetically identical)
• Lack of variation in the offspring is a disadvantage if environmental conditions change, as
it is less likely that any offspring will have adaptations that suit the new conditions well
• On the other hand, cross-pollination relies completely on the presence of pollinators and
this can be a problem if those pollinators are missing (e.g. the reduction in bee numbers is
of great importance to humans as bees pollinate a large number of food crops) - this doesn’t
apply to wind-pollinated plants
Fertilisation

• Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with an ovum nucleus in the ovule.
• As the pollen has no ‘tail’ to swim to the ovary of a plant, in order to reach the ‘female’
nucleus in the ovary it has to grow a pollen tube
• This only happens if the pollen grain has landed on the right kind of stigma (i.e. of the same
species as the flower the pollen came from)
• The nucleus inside the pollen grain slips down the tube as it grows down the style towards
the ovary.
• The ovary contains one or more ovules which each contain a female nucleus that a male
pollen nucleus can fuse with.
• Once the nuclei (pl) have joined together, that ovule has been fertilised and a zygote has
been formed.
• The zygote will start to divide by mitosis and eventually the ovule becomes a seed.
• Many parts of the flower (sepals, petals, stamen) dry, shrink and fall off after fertilization.
• Seeds contain little amounts of water (dehydrated) to minimise any metabolic activities.
• The seed is dormant allowing it to survive harsh conditions such as cold or drought.
• Germination takes place when conditions become favourable.

How a male gamete travels to a female gamete in the flower


Factors Affecting Germination

• Three factors are required for successful germination:

i. Water
• Activate the enzymes in the seed.
• Help the conversion of stored starch to sugar, and proteins to amino acids.
• Transport the sugar in solution from the cotyledons to the growing regions.
• Expand the vacuoles of new cells, causing the root and shoot to grow and the leaves to
expand.
• Maintain the turgor of the cells and thus keep the shoot upright and the leaves expanded.
• Provide the water needed for photosynthesis once the plumule and young leaves are
above ground.
• Transport salts from the soil to the shoot.

ii. Oxygen
• When a seed is soaked in water, it swells and the testa split open allowing oxygen to
enter.
• The oxygen is used in aerobic respiration, which provides the energy for the many
chemical changes involved in mobilising the food reserves and making the new
cytoplasm and cell walls of the growing seedling.

iii. Suitable Temperature


• Germination occurs more rapidly at high temperatures, up to about 40°C.
• Above 45°C, the enzymes in the cells are denatured and the seedlings would be
killed.
• Below certain temperatures (e.g. 0–4°C) germination may not start at all in some
seeds.

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