An Assignment On

Basics of Research
Course 112(B)

Submitted To
Prof. Dr. Md. Ali Haider
Submitted By
Maisha Maliha Shoshi
ID:22603038
Session: 2021-2022
Geography & Environmental Studies
 Basics of research
Definition : Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of date
documentation of critical information and analysis and interpretation of that data/information,
in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic
disciplines

The general purpose of any personal is to persuade the reader to do something - whether it is
to persuade a potential customer to purchase goods and/or services, or to persuade your
employer to fund a project or to implement a program that you would like to launch.
Any proposal offers a plan to fill a need, and your reader will evaluate your plan according to
how well your written presentation answers questions about:
1)WHAT you are proposing.
2)HOW you plan to do it.
3)WHEN you plan to do it.
4)HOW MUCH is it going to cost.
To do this you must ascertain the level of knowledge that your audience possesses and take the
position of all your readers into account.

Proposals are informative and persuasive writing because they attempt to educate the reader
and to do something. The goal of the writer is not only to persuade the reader to do what is
being requested but also to make the reader believe that the solution is practical and
appropriate. In persuasive proposal writing, the case is built by the demonstration of logic and
reason in the approach taken in the solution.

Research is the basis of any science, including both the basic sciences such as chemistry and
physics and the social (or applied) sciences such as psychology, management or education, It
refers to the organized, structured, and purposeful attempt to gain knowledge about a
suspected relationship.
The word Research originated from the old French word recherche that means to search again.
Researching-that is, exploring a problem systematically-is crucial skill for an educated person.
Research refers to systematic method consisting of facts or data, analyzing the facts and
reaching certain conclusion either in the term of solution towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalization for some theoretical formulation.

The purpose of research may b organized into three groups based on what the researcher is
trying to accomplish- explore a new tople (explorary research), describe a social phenomenon
(descriptive research), or explain why something occurs (explanatory research). The research
may also be based on prediction which seeks to answer provide a plausible explanation for the
event in question, studies may have multiple purposes (e,g,, both to explore and to describe),
but one purpose is usually dominant.

The following diagram demonstrates the research process with eight most important stages.

1. Problem identification

2. Literature review
8. Report writing

Process is
iterative
7. Data analysis 3. Objectives & hypotheses

4. Research design
6. Data collection

5. Sample design
What is the Purpose of Research

From weather forecasts to the discovery of antibiotics, researchers are constantly trying to find
new ways to understand the world and how things work – with the ultimate goal of improving
our lives.

The purpose of research is therefore to find out what is known, what is not and what we can
develop further. In this way, scientists can develop new theories, ideas and products that shape
our society and our everyday lives.

The purpose of research is to further understand the world and to learn how this knowledge
can be applied to better everyday life. It is an integral part of problem solving.

Although research can take many forms, there are three main purposes of research:

1. Exploratory: Exploratory research is the first research to be conducted around a

problem that has not yet been clearly defined. Exploration research therefore aims to
gain a better understanding of the exact nature of the problem and not to provide a
conclusive answer to the problem itself. This enables us to conduct more in-depth
research later on.

2. Descriptive: Descriptive research expands knowledge of a research problem or

phenomenon by describing it according to its characteristics and population. Descriptive
research focuses on the ‘how’ and ‘what’, but not on the ‘why’.

3. Explanatory: Explanatory research, also referred to as casual research, is conducted to

determine how variables interact, i.e. to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
Explanatory research deals with the ‘why’ of research questions and is therefore often
based on experiments.

Characteristics of Research

There are 8 core characteristics that all research projects should have. These are:

 Empirical – based on proven scientific methods derived from real-life observations and
experiments.

 Logical – follows sequential procedures based on valid principles.

 Cyclic – research begins with a question and ends with a question, i.e. research should
lead to a new line of questioning.

 Controlled – vigorous measures put into place to keep all variables constant, except
those under investigation.
  Hypothesis-based – the research design generates data that sufficiently meets the
research objectives and can prove or disprove the hypothesis. It makes the research
study repeatable and gives credibility to the results.

 Analytical – data is generated, recorded and analysed using proven techniques to

ensure high accuracy and repeatability while minimising potential errors and anomalies.

 Objective – sound judgement is used by the researcher to ensure that the research
findings are valid.

 Statistical treatment – statistical treatment is used to transform the available data into
something more meaningful from which knowledge can be gained.

Types of Research

The basic types of research are as follows:

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research consists of survey and fact-finding
investigation of different kinds. The main purpose of descriptive research is explanation
of the set of circumstances as it is present as such. The term Ex post facto research has
been used to elaborate this type of research in different areas or subjects of research.
The main feature of this method is that the scientist does not have direct control over
the variables.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Applied research refers to finding a solution for specific,
practical problem facing by an individual, society or an industrial or business
organization, for example how to abolish hate crime, what are the ways to market a
product, what is causing increased poverty etc. whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with overview and with the formulation of a theory. This is pure and
basic type of research, for example an investigation looking for whether stress levels
influence how often students engage in academic cheating or how caffeine
consumption impacts the brain.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: In natural sciences and social sciences, quantitative
research is based on the aspect of quantity or extent. It is related to object that can be
expressed in terms of quantity or something that can be counted. Such type of research
involve systematic experimental analysis of observable phenomenon via statistical,
mathematical or computational techniques in numerical form such as statistics,
percentages, etc. whereas Qualitative research, , is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., relating to quality or variety. Such type of research is typically
descriptive and harder to analyze than quantitative data.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It focuses on the concept and theory that explain the concerned theory being
studied. It is generally used by logicians, philosophers and theorist to develop new
concepts or to again understand the existing ones. On the other hand, empirical
 research relies on experience or observation alone. It is a way of gaining knowledge by
means of direct and indirect observation or experience.

In the research process, each step is specific and they are separate and distinct from each
other. However, the following order relating to various steps provides a useful procedural
instruction regarding the research process:
1) Identification of research problem
2) Broad literature survey
3) Hypothesis formulation
4) Preparation of research design
5) Determining sample design
6) Data collection
7) Analysis of data
8) Hypothesis testing
9) Generalizations and interpretation
10) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results,
1. Identification of research problem: There are two types of research problems like, those
which relate to states of nature means that denote the hypothetical conditions of what the
lives of people might have been like before societies came into existence and those which
relate to relationships between different variables. Initially the researcher must recognize the
problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or part of a subject-
matter that he would like to inquire into. At the onset the problem may be discussed in a broad
way and then the doubts, if any, relating to the problem may be resolved.
2. Broad literature survey: After the identification of research problem, the researcher must at
study all available literature to get himself familiar with the selected problem. He may review
two types of literature first is the conceptual literature which is related to the concepts and
theories, and second is the empirical literature which consisting of previous studies similar to
the proposed research problem. The researcher should undertake vast literature survey
concerned with the problem.
3. Hypotheses formulation: After the literature survey, researcher should make a hypothesis or
working hypothesis. Working hypothesis is a guess made to test the logical or empirical
outcome of a research. A hypothesis assists to explain the research problem and objective into
a comprehensive explanation or prediction of the expected results of the study. Hypothesis is
derived from the research problem, literature review and conceptual framework.
Hypothesis formulation could be done by using the following approaches: (a) Discussions with
colleagues and experts about the research problem, its source, cause and the objectives in
search of a solution; (b) Assessment of data and records, (c) Evaluation of similar previous
studies in the area similar problems; and (d) Personal investigation which involves original field
survey Thus, any hypotheses take place as a result of a-prior thinking about the subject,
assessment of the available data and material including related previous studies. Formulation of
working hypotheses is a basic step of any research process.
4. Preparation of research design: A good research design will be prepared if a research
problem should be stated clearly. In other words, the purpose of research design is refers as
general procedure that you choose to combine the various components of the study in a
consistent and logical way. It comprises the outline for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data. A flexible research design which offers the opportunity for allowing the
different aspects of a problem is considered suitable if the purpose of the research study is to
be clear
5. Determining sample design: Every object that involve in any type of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete detail of any object in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. It can be supposed that in such type of inquiry all the items are covered and not
a single element is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practical way this may not be
true because a single element of bias in such inquiry will get larger the number of observations
increases.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or choose a sample design for his
study. In other words, a sample design is a exact sketch determined prior to any type of data
collection for obtaining a sample from a given universe. There are two types of sampling: non-
probability and probability sampling. Non-probability sampling uses a subjective method of
selecting units from a universe, and is generally easy, quick, and economical. Therefore, it is
useful to perform preliminary studies, focus groups or follow-up studies.
Collecting the data
Data collection is any process of preparing and collecting data, for example, as part of a process
improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to keep
on record, to make decisions about important issues, or to pass information on to others. Data
are primarily collected to provide information regarding a specific topic.
Execution of the project
After the researcher has collected the data, the next step in the research process is the
execution of the project (i.e., implementation phase of the project). This step is very important
in the research process as it ensures that the research is being executed systematically and in
time. If the execution of the research proceeds on correct lines, then the collected data would
be adequate and dependable
Analysis of data
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the
goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making.
Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a
variety of names, in different business, science, and social science domains.
Hypothesis testing
A researcher uses hypothesis testing to support beliefs about comparisons (i.e., variables or
groups). Basically, it is how we empirically test our research hypotheses for ‗accuracy‘. We
never prove beyond the shadow of a doubt that a comparison is true. Rather, we conclude that,
based on some collected data and assumptions, the probability of the comparison being true is
very high (i.e., around 95 – 99% sure). In all hypothesis testing, the hypothesis being tested is a
hypothesis about equality. The researcher thinks the equality hypothesis is not true, and by
showing how the data do not fit it, the equality hypothesis can be rejected.
Preparation of the report
Oral presentation of the report is the final stage of the research, and its purpose is to convey to
the intended audience the whole result of the study in sufficient details and to enable each user
of research to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusion.
Having analysed the data that you collected through either quantitative or qualitative
method(s), the
next task is to present your findings to your readers. The main purpose of using data display
techniques
is to make the findings easy and clear to understand, and to provide extensive and
comprehensive
information in a succinct and effective way. There are many ways of presenting information.
The choice
of a particular method should be determined primarily by your impressions/knowledge of your
likely
readership’s familiarity with the topic and with the research methodology and statistical
procedures. If
your readers are likely to be familiar with ‘reading’ data, you can use complicated methods of
data
display; if not, it is wise to keep to simple techniques. Although there are many ways of
displaying data,
this chapter is limited to the more commonly used ones. There are many computer programs
that can
help you with this task.
Broadly, there are four ways of communicating and displaying the analysed data. These are:
1. text;
2. tables;
3. graphs; and
4. statistical measures.
Because of the nature and purpose of investigation in qualitative research, text becomes the
dominant
and usually the sole mode of communication. In quantitative studies the text is very commonly
combined with other forms of data display methods, the extent of which depends upon your
familiarity
with them, the purpose of the study and what you think would make it easier for your
readership to
understand the content and sustain their interest in it. Hence as a researcher it is entirely up to
you to
decide the best way of communicating your findings to your readers.
Text
Text, by far, is the most common method of communication in both quantitative and qualitative
research
studies and, perhaps, the only method in the latter. It is, therefore, essential that you know
how to
communicate effectively, keeping in view the level of understanding, interest in the topic and
need for
academic and scientific rigour of those for whom you are writing. Your style should be such that
it
strikes a balance between academic and scientific rigour and the level that attracts and sustains
the
interest of your readers. Of course, it goes without saying that a reasonable command of the
language
and clarity of thought are imperative for good communication.
Tables
Structure
Other than text, tables are the most common method of presenting analysed data. According
to The
Chicago Manual of Style (1993: 21), ‘Tables offer a useful means of presenting large amounts of
detailed information in a small space.’ According to the Commonwealth of Australia Style
Manual
(2002: 46), ‘tables can be a boon for readers. They can dramatically clarify text, provide visual
relief,
and serve as quick point of reference.’ It is, therefore, essential for beginners to know about
their
A table has five parts:
1. Title – This normally indicates the table number and describes the type of data the table
contains.
It is important to give each table its own number as you will need to refer to the tables when
interpreting and discussing the data. The tables should be numbered sequentially as they
appear in
the text. The procedure for numbering tables is a personal choice. If you are writing an article,
simply identifying tables by number is sufficient.
2. Stub – The subcategories of a variable, listed along the y-axis (the left-hand column of the
table).
According to The McGraw-Hill Style Manual (Long year 1983: 97), ‘The stub, usually the first
column on the left, lists the items about which information is provided in the horizontal rows to
the
right.’ The Chicago Manual of Style (1993: 331) describes the stub as: ‘a vertical listing of
categories or individuals about which information is given in the columns of the table’.
3. Column headings – The subcategories of a variable, listed along the x-axis (the top of the
table).
In univariate tables (tables displaying information about one variable) the column heading is
usually the ‘number of respondents’ and/or the ‘percentage of respondents’
In bivariate tables (tables displaying information about two variables) it is the subcategories of
one
of the variables displayed in the column headings
4. Body – The cells housing the analysed data.
5. Supplementary notes or footnotes – There are four types of footnote: source notes; other
general
notes; notes on specific parts of the table; and notes on the level of probability (The Chicago
Manual of Style 1993: 333). If the data is taken from another source, you have an obligation to
acknowledge this. The source should be identified at the bottom of the table
Graphs
Graphic presentations constitute the third way of communicating analysed data. Graphic
presentations
can make analysed data easier to understand and effectively communicate what it is supposed
to show.
One of the choices you need to make is whether a set of information is best presented as a
table, a graph
or as text. The main objective of a graph is to present data in a way that is easy to understand
and
interpret, and interesting to look at. Your decision to use a graph should be based mainly on
this
consideration: ‘A graph is based entirely on the tabled data and therefore can tell no story that
cannot be
learnt by inspecting a table. However, graphic representation often makes it easier to see the
pertinent
features of a set of data’
Graphs can be constructed for every type of data – quantitative and qualitative – and for any
type of
variable (measured on a nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio scale). There are different types of
graph, and
your decision to use a particular type should be made on the basis of the measurement scale
used in the
measurement of a variable. It is equally important to keep in mind the measurement scale
when it comes
to interpretation. It is not uncommon to find people misinterpreting a graph and drawing
wrong
conclusions simply because they have overlooked the measurement scale used in the
measurement of a
variable. The type of graph you choose depends upon the type of data you are displaying. For
categorical variables you can construct only bar charts, histograms or pie charts, whereas for
continuous
variables, in addition to the above, line or trend graphs can also be constructed.
Statistical measures
Statistical measures are extremely effective in communicating the findings in a precise and
succinct
manner. Their use in certain situations is desirable and in some it is essential, however, you can
conduct
a perfectly valid study without using any statistical measure.
There are many statistical measures ranging from very simple to extremely complicated. On
one end
of the spectrum you have simple descriptive measures such as mean, mode, median and, on
the other;
there are inferential statistical measures like analysis of variance, factorial analysis, multiple
regressions.
Because of its vastness, statistics is considered a separate academic discipline and before you
are able
to use these measures, you need to learn about them.
Use of statistical measures is dependent upon the type of data collected, your knowledge of
statistics,
the purpose of communicating the findings, and the knowledge base in statistics of your
readership.

What does Research Involve?

Research often follows a systematic approach known as a Scientific Method, which is carried

out using an hourglass model.

A research project first starts with a problem statement, or rather, the research purpose for

engaging in the study. This can take the form of the ‘scope of the study’ or ‘aims and objectives’

of your research topic.

Subsequently, a literature review is carried out and a hypothesis is formed. The researcher then

creates a research methodology and collects the data.

The data is then analysed using various statistical methods and the null hypothesis is either

accepted or rejected.

In both cases, the study and its conclusion are officially written up as a report or research

paper, and the researcher may also recommend lines of further questioning. The report or

research paper is then shared with the wider research community, and the cycle begins all over

again.

Although these steps outline the overall research process, keep in mind that research projects

are highly dynamic and are therefore considered an iterative process with continued

refinements and not a series of fixed stages.