Community

Assignment
Topic
Research Method use
in research
Group members
Asseer Ahmad 059
Mehran Majeed 018
Mubashir virk 151
Muhammad Jhanzaib
156
M.bilal 030
M.zeeshan 177
Shahid Sharif 186
Asim 099
Fahad Javed 015
M.sohail 129
M.Irfan 220
Adil Anwar 079
Submitted to
Mam Kanwal shahzadi
RESEARCH USED IN
RESEARCH PROCESS
INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH

THIS DOCUMENT INCLUDES INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH,

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH AND RESEARCH
METHODOLOGH, TYPES OF RESEARCH, RESEARCH PROCESS
AND RESEARCH PROPOSAL OR SYNOPSIS
Asseer Ahmad (BPD02173059)-6TH A

Someone says that necessity is

the mother of all inventions and
the person engaged in this
RESEARCH scientific investigation can be
termed as “research”.
It may be defined as

❖ To seek out the information or and knowledge on a particular topic or subject

OR
 ❖ It is an art of systemic investigation
Research is a pedagogic (educational activity) action the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
RESEARCH METHOD Vs METHADOLOGY
1. RESEARCH METHOD
❖ Research methods include all the techniques and methods which have been taken for
conducting research In this field the researcher explain
2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY himself with the different steps generally
❖ Science of studying how research is conducted systematically taken to a study a research problem.
❖ Approach in which research troubles are solved thoroughly
❖ Scientific approach which is adopted for conducting a research is called “Methodology”.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The major aim of any type of research is to find out the reality and facts which is unknown and
which has not been exposed. Although each research activity has its own particular reason, the
objectives of research can be grouped into the following reasons:
a. To achieve skillfulness with a trend or to get novel opinions into it (research with this
objective can be termed as exploratory or formulative);
b. To find out the characteristics of a particular character, condition or a grouping (research
with this objective can be termed as descriptive research);
c. To establish the relationship with which something occur or with which it is related with
something else( research with this objective are known as diagnostic research);
d. To test a hypothesis of a reasonable liaison between different variables ( this type of
research can be grouped into hypothesis-testing research)
MOTIVATION OF RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following.
i. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
ii. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e. concern over practical
problems initiates research;
iii. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
iv. Desire to be of service to society;
v. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationship, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as
well motive (or at time compel) people to perform research operations.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
1) DESCRIPTIVE Vs ANALYTICAL
Descriptive research consists of survey and fast-finding investigation of different kinds. The main
purpose of descriptive research is explanation of the set of circumstances as it is present as such.
The term Ex post facto research has been used to elaborate this type of research in different areas
or subjects of research. The main feature of this method is that the scientist does not have direct
control over the variables; he can only report what is happening or what has happened. For example
why peoples of the south side are suffering from lung cancer as compared to north-side neighbors
and investigation revealed that south side person have wood burning stoves and fire places, the
researcher could hypothesize the reason that the wood smoke is a factor of lung cancer the
techniques used in descriptive research are can be of all kinds like survey methods, comparative and
correlational methods etc. on the other hand in analytical research, the researcher could be use the
facts, information, data which is already available and analyze these sources to make a hypothesis to
evaluation of the material.
2) APPLIED Vs FUNDAMENTAL
Applied research refers to finding a solution for specific, practical problem facing by an individual,
society or an industrial or business organization, for example how to abolish hate crime, what are
the ways to market a product, what is causing increased poverty etc.
Whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with overview and with the formulation of a
theory. This is pure and basic type of research for example an investigation looking for whether
stress levels influence how often students engage in academic cheating or how caffine consumption
impacts the brain.
3) QUANTITATIVE Vs QUALITATIVE
In natural sciences and social sciences, Quantitative research is based on the aspect of quantity or
extent. It is related to the object that can be expressed in terms of quantity or something that can
be counted. Such type of research involve systemic experimental analysis of observable
phenomenon via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques in numerical form such as
statistics, percentages, etc.
Whereas Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. relating to quality or
variety. Such type of research is typically descriptive and harder to analyze than quantitative data.
Qualitative research involves looking in-depth at non-numerical data. It is more naturalistic or
anthropological.
4) CONCEPTUAL Vs EMPIRICAL
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It focuses on the concept and
theory that explain the concerned theory being studied. It is generally used by logicians,
philosophers and theorist to develop new concepts or to again understand the existing ones. On the
other hand Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone. It is way of gaining
knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. We can also refer it as
experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get the facts and data firstly,
their source, and then actively engaged to doing certain things to stimulate the production of
desired information.
5) SOME OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH
Other types of research may be of different types rather than above stated types like form the point
of view of time one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is
restricted to a single time-period, while in the latter case the research is carried on over several time
periods. Research can be field setting research or laboratory research, or model research, which will
depend upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research may be understood as
clinical or diagnostic research. such research follows case-study methods or exhaustively
approaches to reach the basic reasons behind the problems. The research may be exploratory or it
may be formalized research. The objective of exploratory research is the creation of hypotheses
rather than their testing, whereas formalized research are those with significant structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested. The term historical research is refers to that which make use of
historical resources like documents, papers, leaflets, remains etc. to study the thoughts or events of
the past including the philosophy of persons and groups at any point of time. Research can also be
classified as conclusion-oriented or discussion-oriented. while doing conclusion oriented research, a
researcher having freethinking to choose a problem, redesign the queries as he proceeds and is
prepared to conceptualize as he wants. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a
decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to get on research according to his own
preference.
RESEARCH PROCESS
Research process consists of sequence of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired progression of these steps. The chart in the figure represent a research process.
 In the research process each step is specific and they are separate and distinct from each other.
However the following order relating to various steps provides a useful procedural instruction
regarding the research process:
➢ Identification of research problem
➢ Broad literature survey
➢ Hypothesis formulation
➢ Preparation of research design
➢ Determining sample design
➢ Data collection
➢ Analysis of data
➢ Hypothesis testing
➢ Generalization and interpretations
➢ Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL OR SYNOPSIS

A research proposal or research synopsis or an outline of proposed works required by many
universities and institutions, serves as a useful basis for the evaluation of a project. The synopsis
included clear and brief account of the research problem, the hypothesis behind the research, a
justification of the research, definitions of the important terms, assumptions and restrictions, a
description of the related literature, an analysis of proposed research procedures, and a pert
chart of time schedule. This research proposal or synopsis is placed before the research degree
committee (RDC) to examine its merits. The final approval is given by this committee at
university level. It is like a blue print of the research project.

Name :
Muhammad Irfan
Registration no:
BPD02173220
Methods for collecting data
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of
knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t
be described numerically, collect qualitative data.

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research

involves hypothesis testing, collect quantitative data.

Qualitative • Flexible – you • Can’t be

can often adjust analyzed
your methods as statistically or
you go to generalized to
develop new broader
knowledge. populations.
• Can be • Difficult to
conducted with standardize
small samples. research.

Quantitative • Can be used to • Requires

systematically statistical
describe large training to
collections of analyze data.
things. • Requires
• Generates larger samples.
reproducible
knowledge.

You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and
quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary data

Primary data is any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering
your research question (e.g. through surveys, observations
and experiments). Secondary data is information that has already been collected by
other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary
data. But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or
identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Primary • Can be • More expensive

collected to and time-
answer your consuming to
specific collect.
research • Requires training
question. in data collection
• You have methods.
control over
the sampling
and
measurement
methods.

Secondary • Easier and • No control over

faster to how data was
access. generated.
• You can collect • Requires extra
data that processing to
spans longer make sure it
timescales and works for your
broader analysis.
geographical
locations.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research, you collect data about your study subject without intervening.
The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method.

In experimental research, you systematically intervene in a process and measure the

outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design.

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable,

precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables. If it’s
practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions
about cause and effect.

Descriptive • Allows you to • No control

describe your over
research subject confounding
 without variables.
influencing it. • Can’t
• Accessible – you establish
can gather more cause and
data on a larger effect
scale. relationships.

Experimental • More control • You might

over influence your
confounding research
variables. subject in
• Can establish unexpected
cause and effect ways.
relationships. • Usually
requires more
expertise and
resources to
collect data.

Examples of data collection methods

Research methods for

collecting data
Experiment Primary Quantitative To test cause-
and-effect
relationships.

Survey Primary Quantitative To understand

general
characteristics of
a population.

Interview/focus Primary Qualitative To gain more in-

group depth
understanding of
a topic.
Observation Primary Either To understand
how something
occurs in its
natural setting.

Literature review Secondary Either To situate your

research in an
existing body of
work, or to
evaluate trends
within a research
topic.

Case study Either Either To gain an in-

depth
understanding of
a specific group
or context, or
when you don’t
have the
resources for a
large study.

Name:
Muhammad Asim
Registration no
BPD02173099
Types of Method
In any form of research, you will be required to either count things and/

or talk to people. We can broadly classify research methods using this

distinction.

These two types of research method and their output data

are classified as:

Quantitative - as the name suggests, is concerned with trying to

quantify things; it asks questions such as ‘how long’, ‘how many’

or ‘the degree to which’. Quantitative methods look to quantify

data and generalise results from a sample of the population of

interest. They may look to measure the incidence of various

views and opinions in a chosen sample for example or aggregate

results.

Qualitative – concerned with a quality of information,

qualitative methods attempt to gain an understanding of the

underlying reasons and motivations for actions and establish

how people interpret their experiences and the world around

them. Qualitative methods provide insights into the setting of a

problem, generating ideas and/or hypotheses.

The following table provides a breakdown of the key features of each of

these categorisation of research method and data.

Name:
Muhammad Jhanzaib
Registration no
BPD02173156
Quantitative methods
are research techniques that are used to gather

quantitative data, data that can be sorted, classified, measured. This

following section outlines the core quantitative research methods used

in social research.

Quantitative survey
What is the method?
Surveys are a popular method of collecting primary data. The broad

area of survey research encompasses any measurement procedures that

involve asking questions of respondents. They are a flexible tool, which

can produce both qualitative and quantitative information depending

on how they are structured and analysed. In this section we focus on

the quantitative use of surveys, and in later sections we explore the

more qualitative use of survey methods.

When should it be used?

When you need to generate primary data from a large number of

sources to answer your research question. Surveys are a useful a means

of gathering data from businesses, community organisations and residents, and survey research is one
of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research. However, health warnings need
to

be attached to the use of quantitative surveys and careful consideration

needs to be taken before embarking on any large-scale survey.

What do I need to consider?

In undertaking a survey it is important to understand who you want to

survey, how you are going to select them, how you are going to survey

them, what you want to ask them and how you are going to organise

the task. The following section outlines some key considerations that

need to be made before embarking on a large-scale survey.

Population – A number of questions about the proposed population for a survey need to be considered.
Such

Can the population be counted? Some populations will

be easy to count, in a given geographical area there will be

secondary data sources that will give you a population count

(Census), in a membership organisation there may be a list of all

members, however in a newly arrived ethnic community such as

the recent arrivals of Polish and Eastern European communities

there is less chance that you can obtain a reliable count of the

population. A bias in your survey results can occur if the survey

sample does not accurately represent the population. Having a

count of the population is also important in order to establish

the significance of your results to allow a generalisation to the

population as a whole.

Are there language issues? Respondents may have varying capacities

for being able to complete written surveys or

questionnaires. While telephone and street surveys do not

require the respondent to be able to read or write in English,

postal surveys involve respondents completing the survey or

questionnaire themselves. You should consider the offer of help

in self-administered surveys for respondents to complete a form

either in person or over the telephone, this will help address

potential language or basic skills issues. If surveying an ethnic

minority population you may wish to translate questionnaires

into community languages, or have people who speak the communities’ language to assist where
necessary.

What are the geographic restrictions?

The geographic spread of the population to be surveyed will determine the method

used for collecting your data. If you are surveying people from a

particular location or organisation it may be possible to conduct

a survey using an interviewer, however if you have a population

sample that is geographically dispersed then you would look to

use a different method, such as a telephone or postal survey.

Sampling
The sample is the section of the wider population that will be engaged

in the survey and sampling is the process of identifying who you will

aim to contact from that population. The word ‘population’ is used to

describe the target group, and while this may be the national popula

tion as a whole, it may also be a smaller group such as lone parents, or

business members of a Chambers of Commerce in a particular location.

Detailed consideration of sampling needs to be made to ensure the

validity of your results, and the following issues need consideration:

Who is the respondent? The first thing you need to understand is

who your respondent is going to be. This is the person

that will provide the data you are asking for. If the survey is

distributed amongst households, who in particular will be filling

in the survey? Do you want to specify who the survey is to be

completed by? And do you understand why you are specifying

this person? The same is true when surveying organisations or

groups. A survey will have much greater success if it is directed

to the right respondent. Identifying the person best suited to

completing a survey will help to increase the response rate and

generate more accurate data.

What is your sampling frame? A sampling frame is a list of

members of a population from which members of a sample are
then selected. A sampling frame needs to be accurate, complete,

up-to-date and relevant to the purposes of the survey for

which it is to be used. Once you have an established sampling

frame, depending on its size you may need to adopt a sampling

technique to extract your final sample. For example random

sampling, simple random sampling.

Are response rates likely to be a problem?

With any survey,

you need to look at the profile of the people who did responded

and satisfy yourself that they are about the same as the people

who didn’t respond – and also, that they’re about the same as

the overall population that you’re sampling. If you send out a

survey to a population, which is 50% male, and 50% female, but

your responses are 80% from females then your findings will
not represent your target population. Response rates can be

low for surveys, under 20% for a postal survey is not uncommon. However, all the considerations in this
section can help to improve your response rate.
Name:
Muhammad Mehran
Registration no
BPD02173018

Statistical significance:
Understanding your population,

sample size, and response rates are important for calculating interval and confidence levels, which are
vital in determining

how many people you need to interview in order to get results

that reflect the target population as precisely as needed. You

can use online calculators to establish this type of information,

but it is important to understand the terms and the reasons for

doing this (see section on statistical analysis for

Secondary data collation and analysis

What is the method?

This method refers to the review of existing information, and in the

quantitative context may involve the manipulation of statistical data.

It differs from primary research techniques in that the researcher does

not collect the data directly and cannot control the actual data collected, but can bring to bear new
insights through interpretation or

presentation. Managing large data sets and large amounts of quantitative material does require some
specialist skill. The Policy Action Team

Reports in the early Blair Administration described the lack of availability of relevant datasets in order to
support neighbourhood working,

and over the last decade more statistics have been made more readily

accessible to a wider range of people.

When should it be used?

The collection of secondary data can be an important first stage. The

main use for this sort of information is that it can provide a starting

point for an evaluation or analysis to gain some background knowledge

and understanding. Secondary data collection is also useful for contributing to the analysis and
commentary throughout a research report.

What do I need to consider?

What types of data sources are there?

There are a number of different types of secondary information.

Some of the most common types are identified as follows:

Official statistics - This refers to national data sets relating to

issues such as population, employment and unemployment and

businesses.

Other statistics - A wide range of other types of numerical data

can be drawn on for evaluation purposes. e.g. project monitoring information of beneficiaries, funding
information, service
data.

Key principles
There are a number of key principles it is useful to follow when collecting and analysing secondary
information.

1. Think about the key issues and topics that need to be addressed. Having a clear idea of what
information is required will

make the collection of secondary information a lot easier;

2. Search for the information and data sources;

3. Having collected the information, the next step is to read it

and analyse it;

4. Collate information from secondary data into key headings.

Referencing
A key issue when using secondary data is ensuring that all information

is properly referenced and that it is clear where the information has

come from. You must be very careful that comparisons are genuine and

meaningful.

What is the output?

The information gathered from secondary data analysis can produce

various outputs depending on the type of information collated and reviewed. Some of the most
common types include statistics, data tables

and charts and maps.

The information may show how changes have occurred over time in a

particular area. It could also be comparative, which allows the researcher to make comparisons between
a number of different areas.

How should it be analysed?

Secondary data can be analysed using the same techniques as for

primary data.

See the following section on statistical analysis for more

Statistical analysis
What is the method?

Statistical analysis is a mathematical method of interrogating data.

This is done by looking for relationships between different sets of data.

Statistical analysis can be complex, and this following section aims to

explain some of the basic considerations, to an audience without an assumed mathematical

background. At the end of this section there are a

wide variety of links to further reading, which can help you through the

process of statistical analysis.

There are two types of statistics:

• Descriptive statistics: numerical summaries of samples (what

was observed);

• Inferential statistics: from samples of populations (what could

have been or will be observed).

It is important to understand which type of statistics you are working

with before embarking on analysis.

When should it be used?

The general idea of statistical analysis is to summarise and analyse data

so that it is useful and can inform decision-making. You would analyse

descriptive statistics if you wanted to summarise some data into a

shorter form, where as, you would use inferential statistical analysis

when you were trying to understand a relationship and either generalise or predict based on this
understanding. Statistical analysis, through
a range of statistical tests, can give us a way to quantify the confidence

we can have in our inferences or conclusions.

Statistical analysis should only be used where there is a clear understanding of the
reasons for doing so. The use of statistical tests (as

detailed above) will provide you with valuable findings if you know how

to interpret the results and use them to inform your research.

What do I need to consider?

Variables
A variable is any measured characteristic or attribute that differs for

different subjects. Quantitative variables are measured on an ordinal,

interval, or ratio scale, whereas qualitative variables are measured on

a nominal scale (note in SPSS the Interval and Ratio levels are grouped

together and called scale). There are a range of variables that need to be

understood, dependent/independent, controlled/continuous/discrete

in the application of statistical tests. The independent variable answers

the question “What do I change?”, the dependent variable answers the

question “What do I observe?” and the controlled variable answers the

question “What do I keep the same?”. A variable which can have any

numerical value is called a continuous variable (e.g. time). A variable

which can only have whole numbers (integers) is called a discrete variable (e.g. the number of people in
a group). It is important to understand the variable you have for analysis of data in statistical packages

such as SPSS.

Inference
If working with inferential statistics you need a sound understanding
of your population (the set of individuals, items, or data, also called

universe) and your sample (a subset of elements taken from a population). See the section on
quantitative surveys for further discussion on

populations and samples. We make inferences (conclusions) about a

population from a sample taken from it, therefore it is important that

population and sampling is well understood, as any error will influence

your inferences (conclusions). In some situations we can examine the

entire population, then there is no inference from a sample.

Confidence & Significance

• The confidence interval is an interval estimate of a population parameter, this is the plus-or-minus
figure reported in, for

example, newspaper or television opinion poll results. If you

use a confidence interval of 4 for example, and 54% percent of

your sample picks one answer, you can be “sure” that if you had

asked the question of the entire relevant population, between

50% and 58% would have picked that answer (plus or minus 4).

There are three factors that determine the size of the

Qualitative methods are generally associated with the evaluation of

social dimensions. Qualitative methods provide results that are usually

rich and detailed, offering ideas and concepts to inform your research.

Qualitative methods can tell you how people feel and what they think,

but cannot tell you how many of the target population feel or think

that way as quantitative methods can.

Name:
Mubashir virk
Registration no
BPD02173018

Social survey/questionnaire
What is the method?
Social surveys are a questionnaire-based method of research that can

produce both qualitative and quantitative information depending on

how they are structured and analysed. This section focuses on the use

of surveys to collect and analyse qualitative data. Many of the issues

and considerations are the same as for the quantitative use of surveys,

and more detail can be found in the earlier section of this handbook.

When should it be used?

Questionnaire surveys can be used in a wide range of settings and to

gather a variety of different types of information. You may be evaluating a programme in which a wide
range of projects have been commissioned, and want to gather the views of a wide range of project

managers, or you may be measuring the impact of an initiative on the

business community in a specific geographical area. A small-scale qualitative survey may be conducted
to explore in more detail the findings

of qualitative research.

What do I need to consider?

Many of the considerations for a social survey are the same as for a

quantitative survey, however we define a social survey as one where

less statistical rigour is required, where sample sizes are not as large,

and with results not expected to be significant of the wider population.

A social survey may have a greater focus on collecting rich and detailed

qualitative data.

Population

A number of questions about the proposed population for a social

survey need to be considered. Such as are there language

Interviews

What is the method?

One of the most popular and frequently used methods of gathering

information from people about anything is by interviewing them. It is

also the most popular method used within the social sciences. There is

a continuum of formality around interviewing and it covers a multitude

of techniques, from informal “chats” maybe arranged as “vox-pops”

right through to highly structured, formal interviews, taped and transcribed.

The different types and styles of interview elicit very different types of

information. Conducting interviews is an interpersonal process and

as an investigator you must be very aware of your own behaviours and

assumptions in the context. Interviews are not “neutral” social spaces

and you must be respectful and maintain appropriate boundaries at all

times.

What do I need to consider?

Interviews are a qualitative method of research often used to obtain

the interviewees’ perceptions and attitudes

Interview Style

There are three clearly identifiable styles of interview- structured, semistructured and unstructured:

Structured - Follows a set of specific questions, which are

worked through systematically. This type of interview is used

when the researcher wishes to acquire information where the

responses are directly comparable.

Semi-structured - This is a more commonly used interview

technique that follows a framework in order to address key

themes rather than specific questions. At the same time it allows a certain degree of flexibility for the
researcher to respond

to the answers of the interviewee and therefore develop the

themes and issues as they arise.

Unstructured - This method of interview does not follow

any predetermined pattern of questions or themes. Rather,

the interviewer will address the issues as they emerge in the

interview. The method is useful when the researcher wishes to

explore the full breadth of a topic

 Name :
M.Bilal
Registration no
BPD02173030

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

Qualitative data can be collected by three (3) ways.

1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Focus group discussion
➢ Observation:
The researcher gets close enough to study subjects to observe (with or
without participation) usually to understand whether people do what they say
and to access tacit knowledge of subjects.
➢ Interview:
This involves asking questions, listening to and recording answers from an
individual or group on a structured, semi-structured or un-structured format
in an in-depth manner.
➢ Focus group discussion:
Focused (guided by a set of questions) and interactive session with a group
small enough for everyone to have chance to talk and large enough to provide
diversity of opinions.
Name:
M.Zeeshan Ali
Registration no
BPD02173177

What is data analysis in research?

Definition of research in data analysis:

According to LeCompte and Schensul, research data analysis is a process used by

researchers for reducing data to a story and interpreting it to derive insights. The
data analysis process helps in reducing a large chunk of data into smaller
fragments, which makes sense.
 We can say that “the data analysis and interpretation is a process representing the
application of deductive and inductive logic to the research and data analysis.”

Why analyze data in research?

Researchers rely heavily on data as they have a story to tell or problems to solve. It
starts with a question, and data is nothing but an answer to that question. But, what
if there is no question to ask? Well! It is possible to explore data even without a
problem – we call it ‘Data Mining’ which often reveal some interesting patterns
within the data that are worth exploring.

Irrelevant to the type of data, researchers explore, their mission and audiences’
vision guide them to find the patterns so they could shape the story they want to
tell. One of the essential things expected from researchers while analyzing data is
to stay open and remain unbiased towards unexpected patterns, expressions, and
results. Remember, sometimes, data analysis tells the most unforeseen yet exciting
stories that were not at all expected at the time of initiating data analysis.
Therefore, rely on the data you have at hand and enjoy the journey of exploratory
data analysis in research.

Types of data in research:

Every kind of data has a rare quality of describing things after assigning a specific
value to it. For analysis, you need to organize these values, processed and
presented in a given context, to make it useful. Data can be in different forms, here
are the primary data types

• Qualitative data: When the data presented has words and descriptions, then
we call it qualitative data. Although you can observe this data, it is subjective
and, therefore, harder to analyze data in research, especially for
comparison. Example: Quality data represents everything describing taste,
experience, texture, or an opinion is considered as a quality data. This type of
data is usually collected through focus groups, personal interviews, or using
open-ended questions in surveys.
• Quantitative data: Any data expressed in numbers of numerical figures are
called quantitative data. This type of data can be distinguished into categories,
grouped, measured, calculated, or ranked. Example: questions such as age, rank,
cost, length, weight, scores, etc. everything comes under this type of data. You
can present such data in graphical format, charts, or you can apply statistical
analysis methods to this data. The (Outcomes Measurement Systems) OMS
questionnaires in surveys are a significant source of collecting numeric data.
 Data analysis in qualitative research
Data analysis and research in qualitative data work a little differently than the
numerical data as the quality data is made up of words, descriptions, images,
objects, and sometimes symbols. Getting insight from such complicated
information is a complicated process, hence is typically used for exploratory
research and data analysis.

Finding patterns in the qualitative data:

Although there are several ways to find patterns in the textual information, a word-
based method is the most relied and widely used global technique for research and
data analysis. Notably, the data analysis process in qualitative research is manual.
Here the researchers usually read the available data and find repetitive or
commonly used words.

For example: while studying data collected from African countries to understand
the most pressing issues faced by people, researchers might
find “food” and “hunger” are the most commonly used words and will highlight
them for further analysis

The keyword context is another widely used word-based technique. In this method,
the researcher tries to understand the concept by analyzing the context in which the
participants use a particular keyword.

For example, researchers conducting research and data analysis for studying
the concept of ‘diabetes’ amongst respondents might analyze the context of when
and how the respondent has used or referred to the word ‘diabetes.’

Scrutiny based technique is also one of the highly recommended text

analysis methods used to identify a pattern in the quality data. Compare and
contrast is the widely used method under this technique to differentiate how a
specific text is similar or different from each other.

For example: to find out the “importance of resident doctor in a company,” the
collected data is divided into people who think it is necessary to hire a resident
doctor and those who think it is unnecessary. Compare and contrast is the best
method that can be used to analyze the polls having single answer questions types.
 Data analysis in quantitative research
Preparing data for analysis:
The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the analysis so that
the nominal data can be converted into something meaningful. Data preparation
consists of four phases

Phase I: Data Validation:

Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per the pre-set
standards, or it is a biased data sample again divided into four different stages

• Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the survey or
the questionnaire
• Screening: To ensure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in
compliance with the research criteria
• Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data
sample
• Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an
online survey. Else, the interviewer had asked all the questions devised in the
questionnaire.
Phase II: Data Editing:
More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with errors.
Respondents sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them
accidentally. Data editing is a process wherein the researchers have to confirm that
the provided data is free of such errors. For that, they need to conduct necessary
checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and make it ready for analysis.

Phase III: Data Coding

Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation, which is
associated with grouping and assigning values to the survey responses. Suppose a
survey is completed with a 1000 sample size, then the researcher will create an age
bracket to distinguish the respondents based on their age. Thus, it becomes easier
to analyze small data buckets rather than to deal with the massive data pile.

Descriptive statistics:
This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile types of data in
research. It presents the data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the data
starts making sense. Nevertheless, the descriptive analysis does not go beyond
 making conclusions. The conclusions are again based on the hypothesis researchers
have formulated so far. Here are a few major types of descriptive analysis methods.

Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used

to analyze a single variable.

Inferential statistics:
Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger population after
research and data analysis of the collected sample of the representing population.
For example, at a movie theater, you can ask some odd 100 audiences if they like
the movie they are watching. Researchers then use inferential statistics on the
collected sample to reason that about 80-90% of people like the movie they are
watching.

Here are some of the commonly used methods for data analysis in research

• Correlation: When researchers are not conducting experimental

research wherein the researchers are interested to understand the relationship
between two or more variables, they opt for correlational research methods.
• Regression analysis: For understanding the strong relationship between two
variables, researchers do not look beyond the primary and commonly
used regression analysis method, which is also a type of predictive analysis used.
In this method, you have an essential factor called the dependent variable, and
you also have multiple independent variables in regression analysis, you
undertake efforts to find out the impact of independent variables on the
dependent variable. The values of both independent and dependent variables are
assumed as being ascertained in an error-free random manner.
• Frequency tables: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to
which two or more vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of
variation means research findings were significant. In many contexts, ANOVA
testing and variance analysis are similar.
• Analysis of variance: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree
to which two or more vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of
variation means research findings were significant. In many contexts, ANOVA
testing and variance analysis are similar.
 Considerations in research data analysis
• Researchers must have the necessary skills to analyze the data, Getting trained to
demonstrate a high standard of research practice. Ideally, researchers must
possess more than a basic understanding of the rationale of selecting one
statistical method over the other to obtain better data insights.
• Usually, research and data analytics methods differ by scientific discipline;
therefore, obtaining statistical advice at the beginning of analysis helps in
designing a survey questionnaire, selecting data collection methods, selecting
samples.
• The primary aim of data research and analysis is to derive ultimate insights that
are unbiased. Any mistake in or keeping a biased mind to collect data, selecting
analysis method, or in choosing audience sample il to result in drawing a biased
inference.
• Irrelevant to the sophistication used in research data and analysis is enough to
rectify the poorly defined objective outcome measurements. It does not matter if
the design is at fault or intentions are not clear, but lack of clarity might mislead
readers, therefore avoid the practice.

Name:
 Shahid Sharif
Registration no
BPD02173186

Statistical Data:
An Introduction
The bedrock of data analysis and interpretation is formed by the collection of data.
‘Data’ is basically unorganized statistical facts and figures collected for some specific
purposes, such as analysis. There can be different sources of data, such as statistical
and non-statistical sources.

Also, there are different methods of data collection, depending on the type of data.
There are two main types of data: primary and secondary. Understanding the
difference between the two is important in deciding which method of data collection
to use. Tremendous amounts of statistical analyses are carried out continuously in
countries for publication purposes or even for policy framing.
Sources of Data
There are two sources of data in Statistics. Statistical sources refer to data that are
collected for some official purposes and include censuses and officially conducted
surveys. Non-statistical sources refer to the data that are collected for other
administrative purposes or for the private sector.

Browse more Topics under Collection Of Data

• Census and Sample Surveys

• Sampling Errors and NSSO

Statistical Survey

A statistical Survey is normally conducted using a sample. It is also called Sample

Survey. It is the method of collecting sample data and analyzing it using statistical
methods. This is done to make estimations about population characteristics. The
advantage is that it gives you full control over the data. Y

ou can ask questions suited to the study you are carrying out. But, the disadvantage is
that there is a chance of sample error creeping up. This is because a sample is chosen
and the entire population is not studied. Leaving out some units of the population
while choosing the sample causes this error to arise.
Census
Opposite to a sample survey, a census is based on all items of the population and
then data are analyzed. Data collection happens for a specific reference period. For
example, the Census of India is conducted every 10 years. Other censuses are
conducted roughly every 5-10 years. Data is collected using questionnaires that may
be mailed to the respondents.

Responses can also be collected over other modes of communication like the
telephone. An advantage is that even the most remote of the units of the population
get included in the census method. The major disadvantage lies in the high cost of
data collection and that it is a time-consuming process.

Register
Registers are basically storehouses of statistical information from which data can be
collected and analysis can be made. Registers tend to be detailed and extensive. It is
beneficial to use data from here as it is reliable. Two or more registers can be linked
together based on common information for even more relevant data collection.

From agriculture to business, all industries maintain registers for record-keeping.

Some administrative registers also serve the purpose of acting as a repository of data
for other statistical bodies in a country.

Types of Data and Data Collection

Like stated earlier, there are two types of data: primary and secondary.

Primary data
As the name suggests, are first-hand information collected by the surveyor. The data
so collected are pure and original and collected for a specific purpose. They have
never undergone any statistical treatment before. The collected data may be
published as well. The Census is an example of primary data.

Methods of primary data collection:

• Personal investigation: The surveyor collects the data himself/herself. The data so
collected is reliable but is suited for small projects.

• Collection Via Investigators: Trained investigators are employed to contact the

respondents to collect data.

• Questionnaires: Questionnaires may be used to ask specific questions that suit

the study and get responses from the respondents. These questionnaires may be
mailed as well.

• Telephonic Investigation: The collection of data is done through asking questions

over the telephone.to give quick and accurate information.
Secondary data

Secondary data are opposite to primary data. They are collected and published
already (by some organization, for instance). They can be used as a source of data
and used by surveyors to collect data from and conduct the analysis. Secondary data
are impure in the sense that they have undergone statistical treatment at least once.

Methods of secondary data collection:

1. Official publications such as the Ministry of Finance, Statistical Departments of
the government, Federal Bureaus, Agricultural Statistical boards, etc. Semi-
official sources include State Bank, Boards of Economic Enquiry, etc.

2. Data published by Chambers of Commerce and trade associations and boards.

3. Articles in the newspaper, from journals and technical publications.

Name:
Fahad Javed
Registration no
BPD02173015
Secondary Research: Definition
Secondary research or desk research is a research method that involves using already
existing data. Existing data is summarized and collated to increase the overall
effectiveness of research.
Secondary research includes research material published in research reports and
similar documents. These documents can be made available by public libraries,
websites, data obtained from already filled in surveys etc. Some government and non-
government agencies also store data, that can be used for research purposes and can
be retrieved from them.
Secondary research is much more cost-effective than primary research, as it makes use
of already existing data, unlike primary research where data is collected first hand by
organizations or businesses or they can employ a third party to collect data on their
behalf.

Secondary Research Methods with

Examples
Secondary research is cost effective and that’s one of the reasons that makes it
a popular choice among a lot of businesses and organizations. Not every organization is
able to pay huge sum of money to conduct research and gather data. So, rightly
secondary research is also termed as “desk research”, as data can be retrieved from
sitting behind a desk.
Following are popularly used secondary research methods and examples:
1.Data available on the internet: One of the most popular
ways of collecting secondary data is using the internet. Data is readily available on the
internet and can be downloaded at the click of a button.
This data is practically free of cost or one may have to pay a negligible amount to
download the already existing data. Websites have a lot of information that businesses
or organizations can use to suit their research needs. However, organizations need to
consider only authentic and trusted website to collect information.
2.Government and nongovernment agencies: Data
for secondary research can also be collected from some government and non-
government agencies. For example, US Government Printing Office, US Census
Bureau, and Small Business Development Centers have valuable and relevant data that
businesses or organizations can use.
There is a certain cost applicable to download or use data available with these
agencies. Data obtained from these agencies are authentic and trustworthy.
3. Public libraries: Public libraries are another good source to search for data for
secondary research. Public libraries have copies of important research that were
conducted earlier. They are a storehouse of important information and documents from
which information can be extracted.
The services provided in these public libraries vary from one library to another. More
often, libraries have a huge collection of government publications with market statistics,
large collection of business directories and newsletters.
4. Educational Institutions: Importance of collecting data from educational institutions
for secondary research is often overlooked. However, more research is conducted in
colleges and universities than any other business sector.
The data that is collected by universities is mainly for primary research. However,
businesses or organizations can approach educational institutions and request for data
from them.
5. Commercial information sources: Local newspapers, journals, magazines, radio
and TV stations are a great source to obtain data for secondary research. These
commercial information sources have first-hand information on economic developments,
political agenda, market research, demographic segmentation and similar subjects.
Businesses or organizations can request to obtain data that is most relevant to their
study. Businesses not only have the opportunity to identify their prospective clients but
can also know about the avenues to promote their products or services through these
sources as they have a wider reach.
Key Differences between Primary Research and Secondary Research
Primary Research Secondary Research

Research is conducted Research is based on

first hand to obtain data. data collected from
 Researcher “owns” the previous researches.
data collected.

Secondary research is
based on tried and tested
Primary research is based data which is previously
on raw data. analyzed and filtered.

The data collected fits the

needs of a researcher, it is
customized. Data is
collected based on the Data may or may not be
absolute needs of according to the
organizations or requirement of a
businesses. researcher.

As opposed to primary
research, secondary
Researcher is deeply research is fast and easy.
involved in research to It aims at gaining a
collect data in primary broader understanding of
research. subject matter.

Secondary research is a
quick process as data is
Primary research is an already available.
expensive process and Researcher should know
consumes a lot of time to where to explore to get
collect and analyze data. most appropriate data.

How to conduct Secondary Research?

Here are the steps involved in conducting secondary research:
1. Identify the topic of research: Before beginning secondary research, identify the
topic that needs research. Once that’s done, list down the research attributes and its
purpose.
2. Identify research sources: Next, narrow down on the information sources that will
provide most relevant data and information applicable to your research.
3. Collect existing data: Once the data collection sources are narrowed down, check
for any previous data that is available which is closely related to the topic. Data related
to research can be obtained from various sources like newspapers, public libraries,
government and non-government agencies etc.
4. Combine and compare: Once data is collected, combine and compare the data for
any duplication and assemble data into a usable format. Make sure to collect data from
authentic sources. Incorrect data can hamper research severely.
4. Analyze data: Analyze data that is collected and identify if all questions are
answered. If not, repeat the process if there is a need to dwell further into actionable
insights.
Advantages of Secondary Research
1. Most information is secondary research is readily available. There are many sources
from which relevant data can be collected and used, unlike primary research, where
data needs to collect from scratch.
2. This is a less expensive and less time-consuming process as data required is easily
available and doesn’t cost much if extracted from authentic sources. A minimum
expenditure is associated to obtain data.
3. The data that is collected through secondary research, gives organizations or
businesses an idea about the effectiveness of primary research. Hence, organizations
or businesses can form a hypothesis and evaluate cost of conducting primary research.

Disadvantages of Secondary Research

1. Although data is readily available, credibility evaluation must be performed to
understand the authenticity of the information available.
2. Not all secondary data resources offer the latest reports and statistics. Even when the
data is accurate, it may not be updated enough to accommodate recent timelines.
3. Secondary research derives its conclusion from collective primary research data. The
success of your research will depend, to a greater extent, on the quality of research
already conducted by primary research.

THE ROLE OF THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCHER

In the following, we'll explore how the researcher conducting qualitative research becomes
responsible for maintaining the rigor and credibility of various aspects of the research. In a way, this
is analogous to the role statistics, validated and reliable instruments, and standardized measures and
methods play in quantitative research.

Objectives

After reviewing this document, you will be able to:

• Compare the role of the qualitative researcher with the role of standardized
instruments, measures, and methods in quantitative analysis.
• Apply qualitative standards of credibility, dependability, and transferability to the
processes of:
o Monitoring and reducing bias,
o Developing competence in one's methods,
o Collecting the data,
o Analyzing the data, and
 o Presenting the findings.

Integrity of the Research is the Issue

Recall from other qualitative courses that qualitative researchers are as concerned about the integrity
of their research as quantitative researchers, but they face different challenges. Before examining
how the researcher is key to research integrity in qualitative research, let's note some terminology
differences between the methodologies. The below provides them at a glance. These are terms
related to research integrity:

In Quantitative: designs, validity, reliability, and generalizability (or external validity) are based on
the integrity of the design, and of the methods, and instruments used, and only to a lesser extent to
the person of the researcher.

In Qualitative: on the other hand, credibility, dependability, and transferability rely on the person and
performance of the researcher.

This is why we talk about the role of the researcher in qualitative research.

The Integrity of the Research Equals The Integrity of the Researcher

Of course, this is true of both quantitative and qualitative research. Researchers make errors, and
these threaten the validity, reliability, and utility of their studies.

Qualitative researchers, however, lack many of the protections against errors that the statistical
methods, standardized measures, and classical designs afford. They must rely on their own
competence, openness, and honesty. That is, on their person. Thus, their role, the role of the
researcher is more open to scrutiny.

Role of Researcher: Monitoring and Reducing Bias

The researcher's ideas—about the study, her knowledge, about the topic from the literature review,
hopes for the study, and simply human distractibility—crop up constantly and can distort what she
hears. Confirmation bias—(the name for this) afflicts quantitative researchers, too, but more often
when they are analyzing data and seeing what they are disposed to see. Qualitative researchers,
whose human brains are trained to find meaning in everything, encounter confirmation bias in every
interaction with both participants and data.

Therefore, monitoring and reducing one's disposition to interpret too quickly is an essential part of
the researcher's role. Qualitative researchers have evolved a variety of methods for this, such as the
famous phenomenological reduction and epoché, but every design within qualitative methodology
requires an explicit description of how the researcher will remain conscious of his or her previous
knowledge and dispositions and how he or she will control the intrusion of bias.

For example, many qualitative researchers practice mindfulness meditation as a means to become
aware when their thoughts are about previous knowledge rather than open and receptive to the
information from the participant.

Role of Researcher: Developing Competence in Methods

Many novice researchers think they are competent to do qualitative research. Unfortunately, they are
usually wrong.

Qualitative methods, like quantitative methods, require implementing specialized skills correctly.
Competence in these skills is required at all these points:

• Explaining the study without biasing the potential participants.

• Conducting interviews properly, according to the design.
• Making appropriate field observations.
• Selecting appropriate artifacts, images, journal portions, and so on.
• Handling data per design.
• Analyzing and interpreting the data per the design.

This competence is not taught in most methods courses; novice researchers are often expected to
obtain training and practice on their own. What should they do?

Role of Researcher: Developing Competence in Methods

Here are some ideas, although they are not prescriptions and you may find many other ways to
develop competence.

The first step: is to self-assess your competence. Assume you do not have competence in each of the
skill areas unless you have demonstrated it to someone who knows. If you perform interviews of
clients, for example, but have never been taught to do interviews for research, assume you do not
have the competence until a researcher who uses interviews tells you that you do.

The next step: is to talk with your mentor— about a plan to get training. For example, many learners
who need to demonstrate competence in qualitative interviews do a few practice interviews and ask
their mentors to critique their technique. The coaching not only amounts to a kind of training, but the
mentor can then attest to the researcher's baseline competence. Another common plan is to attend
training workshops in the actual design—such as grounded theory—conducted in research
organizations or universities.

For each skill set your design requires you to have, including practicing the analysis methods, create
a training plan that includes demonstrating competence to someone.

Is this more work? Maybe so, maybe not. If you were conducting a multiple regression analysis and
did not know how to do that, you'd have to learn it, practice it, and demonstrate your competence to
someone. So, it's all a matter of perspective.

Role of Researcher: Collecting and Analyzing Data

There are far too many complications in collecting and analyzing qualitative data to cover in this
presentation. Have you ever:

• Wired someone with a microphone and inadvertently touched a sensitive body part?
• Sat in a schoolyard to make field observations amid the chaos and swirl of 200
hundred children at recess and known where to start?
 • Been confronted with 500 pages of a single-spaced transcript and, known where to
start?
• Brought a straying interviewee back to the topic in a way that not only did not
offend but actually improved rapport?
• Asked questions that didn't betray what you think the answer should be?
• Sorted through 10,000 sentences or 500 pictures to identify which ones should be
retained as data and which ones could be discarded?
• Recognized when you have an actual finding. In other words, can you spot a finding
in qualitative analysis?

These are but a few of the challenges that the qualitative researcher faces.

• Acknowledge that you are a novice. A dissertation is an apprenticeship or internship

in research. No one expects the apprentice or intern to be a master.
• Ask for help from your:
o Mentor.
o Committee members.
o Other dissertators, those in your mentor's courseroom, but also others
around the world. Read similar dissertations and write to their authors asking for
tips and tricks. Authors love knowing that someone is reading their work.
o Professional researchers. These professionals are scholars, and they will
help, at least many of them will. Two or three e-mails that yield excellent advice—
and perhaps an ongoing relationship—are well worth the investment of anxiety
and time.

Role of Researcher: Presenting the Findings

Most of us present findings in writing. While a few will also present their findings in posters and oral
presentations, everyone in Track 3 will at least present them in writing.

Develop and demonstrate competence in writing!

Dr. James Meredith of the Capella Writing Program points out that you have to write your way out of
the doctoral program.

Capella makes an extraordinary effort to provide support and instruction in scholarly writing,
primarily through the Capella Writing Program and the Online Writing Center. Failing to take
advantage of all these resources will result in your findings being sent back to you for revision. Why
waste the time? Right now, you can and should start to make use of:

• The Scholarly Communications Guide; it's available in the Dissertation Research

Seminar courseroom for you.
• Review and get familiar with the Dissertation Chapter Four Guide (qualitative or
quantitative); this too is available in the Dissertation Milestone Resources area on iGuide. It
offers a conventional way to structure the findings chapter of the dissertation. By learning it
now, you'll have in mind a set of ideas about what sort of competence in writing and in
analyzing your data you'll need at this point in the project.
 • Resources for writing in the Capella Writing Program; these are broad and deep—you
will be ignoring a treasure that would help you succeed if you fail to take advantage of
these.
• And, perhaps most important, read dissertations and articles; read dozens in your
specific methodology and design (for example, phenomenology or grounded theory). Get to
know what other novice researchers are doing and how well they are doing it. Open your
mind to learning from them, and remain critical of their errors and foibles: we all have
them. Make it your goal to absorb the style and conventions of writers using your
methodology and design.
• Learn APA style; again, Dr. Meredith reminds us that the correct use of APA format
and style is an automatic claim to credibility! Remember that the converse is also true: APA
errors, or even ignoring the format and style rules, automatically deprive your writing of
credibility and trustworthiness.

Conclusion

We've covered the importance of evaluating your own role as the researcher, in the various elements
of a qualitative study:

• Monitoring and reducing bias.

• Developing competence in one's methods.
• Collecting the data.
• Analyzing the data.
• Presenting the findings.

Name: M.Suhail
Roll No: Bpd02173129

Section: 6A
Basic Principles Of Research Design

Some Principles of Research Design in Public Health

1. Formulating the Problem

The Tuberculosis Program officials were asked for their best hunches concerning
the nature of the problem. A variety of reactions was obtained. We learned, for
example, that every concerted effort had already been made to inform the
population in surveyed localities. We further learned that in so far as possible,
mobile X-ray units used for the programs had been placed in convenient
neighborhood locations; that their hours of operation generally were set to fit in
with the living habits of the local population; that cost was not a factor since the X-
rays were provided free of charge; that for the individual, obtaining the X-ray was
a quick procedure which did not require much of his time. Factors such as
knowledge, cost, time, convenience, and the like had one important characteristic
in common. They all dealt with potential barriers against participating in the
screening program; failure to plan adequately for any of these factors might have
prevented some people from coming in…. In short, they [tuberculosis program
officials] were implicitly asking for a study around the question: “Why, despite our
best efforts, are some people still not coming in for screening?” …
Hochbaum's approach was to turn the question around. Instead of asking why
people are not coming in for screening, he chose to direct his attack to the
question: Why are people coming in for screening? By asking the question in this
way, he was insuring a concern with the positive forces that impel people to take
action and thus avoided limiting the study to factors which might prevent it….

2. Review of Literature
After formulating the research problem, a rather comprehensive review of the
literature was undertaken. The review failed to uncover any previous research
which had approached the problem from the point of view of the present study….

3. Formulating Hypotheses and Making Assumptions

Explicit
The principal investigator then formulated a series of hypotheses as explicitly as
possible…. In general they concerned, first, the individual's psychological
readiness to participate in the screening program (itself based on 3 separate
psychological factors); second, the role of situational factors in facilitating or
inhibiting the readiness; and, third, the role of certain cues or stimuli to action….
Is the person who obtains X-ray only after the appearance of suspicious symptoms
taking the same action as the person who obtains it in the absence of symptoms? Is
the person who obtains the X-ray at a mobile unit behaving in a way similar to the
person who turns to his physician or to the hospital? The action itself appears
identical on the surface, but the motivation, the context, the very nature of the
behavior can be regarded as very different. This consideration led to defining the
phrase, “obtaining a chest x-ray,” in terms of 4 factors: (1) whether the X-rayed
person had voluntarily obtained a chest X-ray without compulsion or pressure, (2)
under what specific circumstances he had sought X-ray, (3) to what kind of X-ray
facility he had turned, and (4) the time period in which he had obtained X-ray….

4. Specification of Needed Data

Following the definition of terms used and a formulation of explicit hypotheses, it
was necessary to specify precisely the kinds of data that would have to be obtained
to test the hypotheses…. each and every hypothesis and each and every part of the
hypothesis had to be subjected to careful scrutiny for an analysis of the specific
data that would have to be obtained to test it adequately.
By this time in the history of the case-finding project, the ultimate purpose had
been identified and the research problem had been defined. Relevant literature had
been reviewed and assumptions, definitions, and hypotheses had already been
made explicit and defined in measurable terms. Finally, the detailed data that
would be needed to test the hypotheses were specified. At this point and not
before, methods were selected to obtain the needed data; and at this point, it was
determined what kinds of samples should be selected for the study…. [T]he
research design as developed required that the sample studied encompass people
who had never obtained chest X-rays as well as people who had obtained X-rays
voluntarily and under certain other conditions….
[I]t was decided to select 3 specific large cities for study and to draw representative
samples in each totaling about 1200 persons. Data were collected in this case
through the use of a personal but standardized questionnaire consisting of about 90
principal questions.
… [A] finding obtained from a sample may be generalized to a

5. Planning the Analysis

It may be expected that with the development of a questionnaire the case finding
study would have been ready to go into the field, but it was not. It was known that
time would be saved in the long run and serious errors avoided if a few additional
steps were undertaken before the field phase. One of these steps involved an
attempt to plan the kind of analysis that the principal investigator intended to make
later with the data he expected to obtain. The mere step of setting up blank or
dummy tables that show which data to be obtained will have to be related to what
others and in what manner, occasionally will show gaps in the data that are being
sought and may occasionally show that more data are being sought than are
actually needed. Moreover, indicating the kinds of statistical procedures one
intends to employ in the analysis helps to determine the minimum sample size
needed. Finally, the analysis plans frequently show that the form in which the data
are to be obtained will not render them susceptible to the specific kind of an
analysis being designed….

6. Pretesting Study Design

Normally, in the development of a project, one would at this point pretest this
instruments on a small but representative sample of the population with which he is
concerned. Unfortunately, as is so often true, in the case of the present example,
inadequate time was available for thorough pretesting although some was done.
And there was reason to regret the inadequate pretesting, for a simple clerical error
in the instructions to the interviewer later resulted in the failure to obtain certain
important information from about 150 respondents….

7. Collection of Data
After all these steps had been accomplished, the study was taken into the field, the
interviewers were trained intensively, and the data were collected. In all,
approximately 7 months had been required for the detailed planning of the study
and 3 weeks were required to collect all the data. Thus approximately 90% of the
time spent on the study before analysis was devoted to planning….

8. Analysis of Data
The complex content analysis that had been developed was applied to the collected
data, and the latter were summarized….

9. Interpretation and Reporting

In a study whose hypotheses have been stated clearly, the interpretation of data are
always simpler than in one whose hypotheses are vaguely stated or not stated at all.
In the latter case, one is required to rationalize the data after the fact, a process
always fraught with some danger. As indicated, the study discussed here had a
number of fairly well defined hypotheses with questions specifically designed to
gather data relevant to the hypotheses. As a consequence, the interpretations of
data were almost automatic in most cases….
One of the most important obligations of the research specialist is to communicate
his methods and findings to his colleagues so that their research efforts may be
built upon his. In the area of administrative research in public health this obligation
is even more pressing, since soundly originated research should produce findings
that can be applied to the improvement of public health programs even in localities
outside the one than has been studied….
Name:
Adil Anwar
Reg No:
BPD02173079
Designing Research:-
Definition:-Research design is the framework of research

methods and techniques chosen by a researcher. The design

allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are

suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for

success.

The design of a research topic explains the type of research

(experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review)

and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem,

descriptive case-study).

There are three main types of research design:

Data collection,

measurement, and analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will

determine the research design and not vice-versa. The design

phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they

are used.

An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in

data and increases trust in the accuracy of collected data. A

design that produces the least margin of error in experimental

research is generally considered the desired outcome.

The essential elements of the research design are:

1)Accurate purpose statement

2)Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing

research

3)The method applied for analyzing collected details

4)Probable objections for research

5)Settings for the research study

6)Timeline

7)Measurement of analysis

What is Sample ?

When you collect any sort of data, especially quantitative data,

whether observational, through surveys or from secondary data,

you need to decide which data to collect and from whom.

This is called the sample.

Principles Behind Choosing a Sample

The idea behind selecting a sample is to be able to generalise your

findings to the whole population, which means that your sample must

be:

• Representative of the population. In other words, it should contain similar

 proportions of subgroups as the whole population, and not exclude any

particular groups, either by method of sampling or by design, or by who

chooses to respond.

• Large enough to give you enough information to avoid errors. It does not

need to be a specific proportion of your population.

Sampling Design

Sampling design is a mathematical function that gives you the probability of any given sample
being drawn