CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES…

• To provide learners with sufficient conceptual background of Chemistry, which will make them
competent to meet the challenges of academic and professional courses after the higher secondary
stage.
• To promote understanding of basic facts and concepts in chemistry while retaining the excitement
of chemistry.
• To make students capable of studying chemistry in academic and professional courses (such as
medicine, engineering, technology) at tertiary level.
• To expose the students to various emerging new areas of chemistry and apprise them with their
relevance in their future studies and their application in various spheres of chemical sciences and
technology.
• To equip students to face various changes related to health, nutrition, environment, population
weather, industries, and agriculture.
• To develop problem solving skills in students.
• To expose the students to different processes used in industries and their technological
applications.
COMPETENCIES TO BE FOCUSED ON…
The general objectives at this stage are to:

• promote understanding of basic facts and concepts in chemistry while retaining the excitement
of chemistry.
• make students capable of studying chemistry in academic and professional courses (such as
medicine, engineering, technology) at tertiary level.
• expose the students to various emerging new areas of chemistry and apprise them with their
relevance in future studies and their application in various spheres of chemical sciences and
technology.
• equip students to face various challenges related to health, nutrition, environment, population,
weather, industries and agriculture.
• develop problem solving skills in students.
• expose the students to different processes used in industries and their technological applications.
• apprise students with interface of chemistry with other disciplines of science such as physics,
biology, geology, engineering etc.
• acquaint students with different aspects of chemistry used in daily life. develop an interest in
students to study chemistry as a discipline.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

CURRICULUM AS PER CYCLE DATES

TEXTBOOK REFERENCE – Chemistry Part 1 & 2 by Dr. S.P. Jauhar

PUBLISHER- Modern ABC
CYCLE CYCLE DATES CONTENT
Haloalkanes & Haloarenes
1st Mar ’23 – 29th Mar ‘23
I Alcohols, phenols, and ethers

Aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids.

3rd Apr ’23 – 29th Apr ‘23
II Amines

Polymers
1st May ’23 – 26th May ’23
III Biomolecules

d and f - Block elements

3rd July ’23 – 31st July ‘23
IV Coordination Compounds

Solid State
1st Aug ’23 – 1th Sept ‘23
V Solution

VI Half Yearly Examination (6th Sept-18th Sept)

Electrochemistry
19th Sept ’23 – 29th Sept ’23
VII Chemistry in Everyday Life

Chemical Kinetics
3rd Oct’23 - 31st Oct’23
VIII Surface chemistry

General Principles and Processes of

2nd Nov’23 - 30st Nov’23 Isolation of Elements
IX
p-Block Elements

Pre-Board Examination 1st Dec’23 -18th Dec’23

X
Subject Improvement Tests & Remedial Classes w.e.f. 12th Jan’24

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

S. NO. TOPIC PAGE

NO
1. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1
2. CURRICULUM AS PER CYCLE DATES 2
3. CURRICULUM AND UNIT WISE MARKS DISTRIBUTION 4
4. QUESTION PAPER DESIGN 9
5. QUESTION WISE BREAK-UP 9
6. SUBJECT SPECIFIC INPUTS 10
7. QUICK TIPS TO ACE THE SUBJECT 13
8. CHAPTER 10: HALOALKANE AND HALOARENE 15
9. CHAPTER 11: ALCOHOL, PHENOL AND ETHER 27
10. CHAPTER 12: ALDEHYDE, KETONE AND CARBOXYLIC ACID 37
11. CHAPTER 13: AMINES 50
12. CHAPTER 15: POLYMERS 62
13. CHAPTER 14: BIOMOLECULES 71
14. CHAPTER 8: d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS 83
15. CHAPTER 9: COORDINATION COMPOUNDS 92
16. CHAPTER 1: SOLID STATE 105
17. CHAPTER 2: SOLUTIONS 114
18. CHAPTER 3: ELECTROCHEMISTRY 124
19. CHAPTER 16: CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE 135
20. CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL KINETICS 140
21. CHAPTER 5: SURFACE CHEMISTRY 149
22. CHAPTER 6: GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF 157
ELEMENTS
23. CHAPTER 7: p-BLOCK ELEMENTS 167
24. HALF-YEARLY QUESTION PAPER AND ANSWER KEY (2022-23) 176
25. PREBOARD – I QUESTION PAPER AND ANSWER KEY (2022-23) 194
26 CBSE SAMPLE PAPER (2022-23) UNSOLVED 211

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

CURRICULUM AND UNIT WISE MARKS DISTRIBUTION (2022-23)

GRADE-XII (THEORY)
Time: 3 hours MM = 70

UNIT TITLE MARKS

NO.
Unit II Solutions 7
Unit III Electrochemistry 9
Unit IV Chemical Kinetics 7
Unit VIII d -and f -Block Elements 7
Unit IX Coordination Compounds 7
Unit X Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 6
Unit XI Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 6
Unit XII Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 8
Unit XIII Amines 6
Unit XIV Biomolecules 7
Total 70

Unit II: Solutions

Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of gases
in liquids, solid solutions, colligative properties - relative lowering of vapour pressure, Raoult's law,
elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of molecular
masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass, Van't Hoff factor.
Unit III: Electrochemistry
Redox reactions, conductance in electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations of
conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's Law, electrolysis and law of electrolysis (elementary
idea), dry cell-electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells, lead accumulator, EMF of a cell, standard
electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application to chemical cells, Relation between Gibbs
energy change and EMF of a cell, fuel cells, corrosion.
Unit IV: Chemical Kinetics
Rate of a reaction (Average and instantaneous), factors affecting rate of reaction: concentration,
temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction, rate law and specific rate constant,
integrated rate equations and half-life (only for zero and first order reactions), concept of collision
theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment). Activation energy, Arrhenius equation.
Unit VIII: "d" and "f" Block Elements
General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, and characteristics of transition metals,
general trends in properties of the first row transition metals - metallic character, ionization enthalpy,
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oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial compounds,
alloy formation, preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.
Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid
contraction and its consequences.
Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with lanthanoids.
Unit IX: Coordination Compounds
Coordination compounds - Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties
and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds. Bonding, Werner's
theory, VBT, and CFT; structure and stereoisomerism, importance of coordination compounds (in
qualitative inclusion, extraction of metals and biological system).
Unit X: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes.
Haloalkanes: Nomenclature, nature of C–X bond, physical and chemical properties, mechanism of
substitution reactions, optical rotation.
Haloarenes: Nature of C–X bond, substitution reactions (Directive influence of halogen in
monosubstituted compounds only).
Uses and environmental effects of - dichloromethane, trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane,
iodoform, freons, DDT.
Unit XI: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Alcohols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary
alcohols only), identification of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols, mechanism of
dehydration, uses with special reference to methanol and ethanol.
Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature of
phenol, electrophilic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.
Ethers: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.
Unit XII: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation,
physical and chemical properties, mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen
in aldehydes uses.
Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties; uses.
Unit XIII: Organic compounds containing Nitrogen.
Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.
Cyanides and Isocyanides - will be mentioned at relevant places in text.
Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.
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Unit XIV: Biomolecules

Carbohydrates - Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccharides (glucose and fructose), D-
L configuration oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose,
glycogen); Importance of carbohydrates.
Proteins -Elementary idea of - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, structure of
proteins - primary, secondary, tertiary structure and quaternary structures (qualitative idea only),
denaturation of proteins; enzymes. Hormones - Elementary idea excluding structure.
Vitamins - Classification and functions.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.
PRACTICALS

EVALUATION SCHEME OF EXAMINATION MARKS

Volumetric Analysis 08
Salt Analysis 08
Content based Experiment 06
Project work 04
Class record and viva 04
Total 30

Micro-chemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments.

Wherever possible, such techniques should be used.
A. Surface Chemistry
(a) Preparation of one lyophilic and one lyophobic sol Lyophilic sol - starch, egg albumin and gum.
Lyophobic sol - aluminium hydroxide, ferric hydroxide, arsenous sulphide.
(b) Dialysis of sol-prepared in (a) above.
(c) Study of the role of emulsifying agents in stabilizing the emulsion of different oils.
B. Chemical Kinetics
(a) Effect of concentration and temperature on the rate of reaction between Sodium
Thiosulphate and Hydrochloric acid.
(b) Study of reaction rates of any one of the following:
(i) Reaction of Iodide ion with Hydrogen Peroxide at room temperature using
different concentration of Iodide ions.
(ii) Reaction between Potassium Iodate, (KIO3) and Sodium Sulphite: (Na2SO3)
using starch solution as indicator (clock reaction).
C. Thermochemistry
Any one of the following experiments
i) Enthalpy of dissolution of Copper Sulphate or Potassium Nitrate.
ii) Enthalpy of neutralization of strong acid (HCI) and strong base (NaOH).

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iii) Determination of enthalpy change during interaction (Hydrogen bond formation)

between Acetone and Chloroform.
D. Electrochemistry
Variation of cell potential in Zn/Zn2+|| Cu2+/Cu with change in concentration of
electrolytes (CuSO4or ZnSO4) at room temperature.
E. Chromatography
i) Separation of pigments from extracts of leaves and flowers by paper
chromatography and determination of Rf values.
ii) Separation of constituents present in an inorganic mixture containing two cations
only (constituents having large difference in Rf values to be provided).
F. Preparation of Inorganic Compounds
i) Preparation of double salt of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate or Potash Alum.
ii) Preparation of Potassium Ferric Oxalate.
G. Preparation of Organic Compounds
Preparation of any one of the following compounds
i) Acetanilide
ii) Di -benzal Acetone
iii) p-Nitro acetanilide
iv) Aniline yellow or 2 - Naphthol Aniline dye.
H. Tests for the functional groups present in organic compounds:
Unsaturation, alcoholic, phenolic, aldehydic, ketonic, carboxylic and amino (Primary)
groups.
I. Characteristic tests of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in pure samples and their
detection in given food stuffs.
J. Determination of concentration/ molarity of KMnO4 solution by titrating it against a
standard solution of:
i) Oxalic acid,
ii) Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate
(Students will be required to prepare standard solutions by weighing themselves).
K. Qualitative analysis
Determination of one cation and one anion in a given salt.
Cation - Pb2+, Cu2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+,
Mg2+,[NH4]+
Anions – [CO3]2-, S2-, [SO3]2-, [SO4]2-, [NO2]-, Cl-,Br-, I-, [PO4]3-, [C2O4]2-, CH3COO-
(Note: Insoluble salts excluded)
PROJECT
Scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other

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sources.
A few suggested Projects.
• Study of the presence of oxalate ions in guava fruit at different stages of ripening.
• Study of quantity of casein present in different samples of milk.
• Preparation of soybean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect
to curd formation, effect of temperature, etc.
• Study of the effect of Potassium Bisulphate as food preservative under various
conditions (temperature, concentration, time, etc.)
• Study of digestion of starch by salivary amylase and effect of pH and temperature
on it.
• Comparative study of the rate of fermentation of following materials: wheat flour,
• gram flour, potato juice, carrot juice, etc.
• Extraction of essential oils present in Saunf (aniseed), Ajwain (carum), Illaichi
(cardamom).
• Study of common food adulterants in fat, oil, butter, sugar, turmeric power, chilli
powder and pepper.

Note: Any other investigatory project, which involves about 10 periods of work, can be chosen with
the approval of the teacher.

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CHEMISTRY (043)
QUESTION PAPER DESIGN (2022-23)

S.NO. DOMAINS MARKS %

Remembering: Exhibit memory of previously learned

material by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and
1 answers. Demonstrate understanding of facts and ideas by 28 40
organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving
descriptions and stating main ideas.
Applying: Solve problems to new situations by applying
2 acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different 21 30
way.
Analyzing, Evaluating and Creating: Examine and break
information into parts by identifying motives or causes. Make
inferences and find evidence to support generalizations.
Present and defend opinions by making judgments about
3 21 30
information, the validity of ideas or quality of work based on
a set of criteria. Compile information together in a different
way by combining elements in a new pattern or proposing
alternative solutions.

QUESTION WISE BREAKUP

TYPE OF MARK PER TOTAL NO. OF TOTAL

QUESTION QUESTION QUESTIONS MARKS
VSA/Objective 1 18 18

SA 2 7 14
LA-I 3 5 15
Case-Based 4 2 8
LA-II 5 3 15
Total 35 70
Choice(s):
There will be no overall choice in the question paper.
However, internal choices will be given.
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SUBJECT SPECIFIC INPUTS

THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

THE ELEMENTS IN THE BLOCKS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

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QUICK TIPS TO EXCEL IN THE SUBJECT

Reading Chemistry
If you want to understand this chemistry text, prepare to spend a great deal of time reading each
section within a chapter. You should read the text in each section and incorporate these visuals in
your reading.
Use these suggestions to become an efficient and effective reader of chemistry.
Plan when and where you read.
• Try to read your chemistry section during daylight hours, or in a well-lit area.
• Remember that reading chemistry requires active participation. Make sure that you have a
pencil, notebook, and any other necessary items to help you study.
Read each section prior to class.
Make sure that you read a section before it is presented in class. By previewing the section, you will
be better prepared for class.
MOST IMPORTANT: Reread each section after class.
To reinforce the concepts explained during class, read the section again.
• Highlight in your notes the concepts your teacher emphasized during class.
• Make flashcards to help you memorize structures, symbols, and vocabulary. Review your
flashcards daily.
• Work through each example problem, and complete the Practice Problem Exercises if they
appear at the end of an example.
• Write a summary of the section. Putting the material in your own words will help you learn
this new information.

Writing Chemistry
In this subject, you will be expected to use technical writing. Technical writing is factual, precise,
clear, and free of bias and personal opinion. Sentences should be specific and to the point.
For instance, you may be asked: “What evidence did you observe that indicates a reaction occurred?”
A good technical response would be:
A yellow precipitate formed in the container.
The wordy response below would be inappropriate:
After we observed the reaction for a few minutes, we saw something yellow starting to form at the
bottom of the glass. We think that is how we know that a reaction occurred.

Strategies for Various Styles of Test Items

Multiple Choice Questions
A multiple-choice test item consists of a test question and four answer choices, to answer a multiple-
choice question:
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• Read the entire question slowly before considering any of the answer choices. Take note
of key words that indicate what you are being asked to do.
• Try to determine an answer to the question before looking at the answer choices. Be sure to
read all of the answer choices before selecting an answer.
• If you are not sure of the answer, try methods such as eliminating answer choices or
working backward from the answer choices provided to make an educated guess.

Short/Long Answer Type Questions

Short response test items are structured questions designed to test comprehension and understanding.
In a short response question, however, you must show your work and describe your reasoning process
in order to receive full credit.
• Before responding to a short response test item, take time to thoroughly read the question.
You may find it helpful to underline key words such as list, explain, solve, compare,
contrast, design, identify, and so on that signal what should be included in your answer.
• Use the margin of your test page to write a brief outline of your response.
• Use your technical writing skills to write an organized and logical description or
explanation.
• Verify that any needed units of measure are included in your answer and that your
response contains complete sentences that are free of spelling and grammatical errors.
PRECAUTIONS FOR STUDENTS DURING WRITING ANSWERS
(Common points to be kept in mind):

1. For numerical problems show all the steps of calculation and answer with unit.
2. Draw structures with proper orientation of atoms.
3. Definition followed by suitable examples.
4. Correct statements of laws & rules
5. Use of condensed electronic configuration.
6. For reason-based questions, correct explanation with limit of words.
7. Always write balanced chemical equations.
8. Balancing of redox reaction done in steps with proper notation.
9. In organic chemistry:
(a) Correct nomenclatures (naming of side chain in alphabetical order, seniority of
functional groups must be followed.)
(b) For mechanism steps of mechanism with proper orientation (i.e. use of arrows)
(c) Write name of reagents or their formula on arrows as & when required in reaction.
(d) Common name to be written, if any (aromatic compounds)
10. Draw diagram in answers as & when instructions are given or if required.

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CYCLE -I
CHAPTER 10: HALOALKANES & HALOARENES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –

After studying this unit, you would be able to

• Name Haloalkanes and Haloarenes according to the IUPAC system of nomenclature from
their given structures
• Describe the reactions involved in the preparation of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes and
understand various reactions that they undergo
• Correlate the structures of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes with various types of reactions
• Use stereochemistry as a tool for understanding the reaction mechanism
• Appreciate the applications of organo-metallic compounds
• Highlight the environmental effects of polyhalogen compounds.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
Haloalkanes are denoted as R–X and Haloarenes are denoted by Ar–X.

TYPE STRUCTURE

primary, secondary or
tertiary haloalkanes

Allylic halides

Vinylic halides

Benzylic halides

alkylene dihalides

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➢ Nature of C-X bond in alkyl halides: is polar

➢ Preparation of R-X :
➢ Addition of halogen acids to alkenes takes place via carbocations as intermediates.
➢ Halogenation of alkanes takes place via free-radical chain mechanism.
Order of reactivity : Cl2> Br2> I2.
➢ Hydrohalogenation of alkenes
Order of reactivity : HI > HBr > HCl
➢ Markownikov’s rule: In the addition of HX to the unsymmetrical alkene, the negative part of
the addendum (reagent) will go to the double bonded carbon atom which bears less number of
hydrogen atoms.
➢ Anti-Markownikov’s rule (Peroxide effect or Kharausch effect): In the addition of HBr to the
unsymmetrical alkene, the negative part of the addendum (reagent) will go to the double bonded
carbon atom which bears more number of hydrogen atoms.
➢ Allylic substitution: can be carried out using Cl2 or Br2 at 800 K or using SO2Cl2 at 475 K in
presence of light and traces of peroxide.
➢ Finkelstein reaction: (in presence of dry acetone)
R — X + NaI R — I + NaX
➢ Swarts reaction : alkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as
AgF, Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3.
➢ Preparation of Ar-X : Halogenation of benzene is an electrophilic substitution reaction.

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➢ Sandmeyer’s reaction :

➢ Physical Properties :
➢ Boiling points of alkyl halides : R I > RBr > R–Cl > R–F
R3C-I > R2CH-I> RCH2-I> CH3-I
For isomeric halides, boiling point decreases with increase in the size of alkyl group.
➢ Solubility : The haloalkanes are very slightly soluble in water
➢ Density: Bromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are heavier than water.
• Chemical Reactionsof Haloalkanes:
➢ Nucleophilic substitution
➢ Elimination reactions
➢ Reaction with metals.

Substitution nucleophilic bimolecular (SN2):

➢ proceed in one step
➢ rate of reaction, rate = k[RX][Nu].
➢ Inversion in configuration occurs. This inversion of configuration is known as Walden
inversion.
It is a second
order reaction
➢ Primary halide usually
proceeds through SN2 type of mechanism.
R – X + aq. KOH  R-OH + KX ;
R – X + NH3 R- NH2 + HX
R – X + KCN  R-CN + KX;
R – X + AgCN R-NC + KX

• Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular

(SN1):
➢ proceed in two steps.
➢ rate of reaction,rate = k [RX].
➢ It is a first order reaction.
➢ In case of optically active alkyl halides,
racemisation occurs.
➢ Allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards the SN1 reaction. The carbocation
thus formed gets stabilised through resonance

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• Elimination reactions: β-elimination

Zaitsev’s Rule in dehydrohalogenation
reactions, the preferred product is that alkene
which has the greater number of alkyl groups

attached to the
doubly bonded carbon atoms.

• Elimination versus substitution:

SN1 : 30>20>10 ; SN2 : 10>20>30
E1 : 30>20>10 ;E2 : 30>20>10
Due to steric repulsions, a bulkier nucleophile will prefer to act as a base and abstracts a
proton, i.e., prefers Elimination reaction

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• Reaction with metals:

Formation of organo-metallic
compounds, Grignard Reagents

Reaction of Grignard Reagent:

Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with
any source of proton to give hydrocarbons. Even water,
alcohols, amines are sufficiently
acidic to convert them to corresponding hydrocarbons

• Wurtz reaction:

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Chemical Reactions of Haloarenes:

➢ Nucleophilic substitution
Aryl halides are much less reactive towards the SN reactions. C–X bond in aryl halides is
shorter, stronger (due to resonance) and less polar than in alkyl halides

Reactivity towards SN reactions increases if some EWG is present at o-and p-positions with
respect to halogen.
Reaction with Metals:

Some Stereochemical Definitions:

➢ Optically active compounds: Certain compounds which can rotate the plane polarised light
when it is passed through their solutions.
➢ dextrorotatory: If the compound rotates the light towards right (clockwise direction), or the d-
form and is indicated by placing a positive (+) sign.
➢ laevorotatory : If the compound rotates the light towards left (anticlockwise direction), or the l-
form and a negative (–) sign is placed.
Such (+) and (–) isomers of a compound are called optical isomers
➢ Asymmetric carbon or stereocenter: if all the substituents attached to tetrahedral carbon are
different.

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➢ Chiral: The compounds which are non-superimposable on their mirror image this property is
known as chirality.
➢ Achiral: Compounds which are superimposable on their mirror images.
➢ Enantiomers stereoisomers related to each other as nonsuperimposable mirror images.
➢ Racemic mixture: A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions will have zero
optical rotation.
➢ Racemization: The process of conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture.
➢ Retention: The preservation of integrity of the spatial arrangement of bonds to an asymmetric
center during a chemical reaction.
➢ Inversion: The spatial arrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre reversed. We can say there
is an inversion in the configuration.
Meso compounds: - The compounds which do not show optical activity in spite of presence of
chiral carbon atoms are called meso compounds. The absence of optical activity in meso
compounds is due to an element of symmetry (plane, axis or point). In other words, the molecule
of a meso compound is achiral.

SECTION A
1 Which of the following is halogen exchange reaction?

2 Identify the compound Y in the following reaction.

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3 In which of the following molecules carbon atom marked with asterisk (*) is asymmetric?

▪ (i) (a), (b), (c), (d)

▪ (ii) (a), (b), (c)
▪ (iii) (b), (c), (d)
▪ (iv) (a), (c), (d)

4 What is ‘A’ in the following reaction?

5 Which of the following alkyl halides will undergo SN1 reaction most readily?
▪ (i) (CH3)3C—F
▪ (ii) (CH3)3C—Cl
▪ (iii) (CH3)3C—Br
▪ (iv) (CH3)3C—I

6 The order of reactivity of following alcohols with halogen acids is ___________.

7 The arrangement of following compounds in increasing order of rate of reaction towards

nucleophilic substitution is _____________________.

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8 Which of the following is an example of vie-dihalide?

(a) Dichloromethane (b) 1, 2-dichloroethane
(c) Ethylidene chloride (d) Allyl chloride

9 The reaction of toluene with chloride in the presence of iron and in the absence of light yields

10. Arrange the following compounds in the increasing order of their densities Cl

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given.

Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.
11 Assertion: Phosphorus chlorides (tri and Penta) are preferred over thionyl chloride for the
preparation of alkyl chlorides from alcohols.
Reason: Phosphorus chlorides give pure alkyl halides.

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12 Assertion: KCN reacts with methyl chloride to give methyl isocyanide

Reason: CN– is an ambident nucleophile.
13 Assertion: Presence of a nitro group at ortho or para position increases the reactivity of
haloarenes towards nucleophilic substitution.
Reason: Nitro group, being an electron withdrawing group decreases the electron density over
the benzene ring.

14
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:The substitution reaction of
alkyl halides occurs in SN1 or SN2 mechanism whatever mechanism alkyl halide follow for
substitution reaction to occur; the polarity of the carbon-halogen bond is responsible for the
substitution reaction. The rate of SN1 reactions is governed by the stability of carbocation
whereas for SN2 reactions steric factor is the deciding factor. If the starting material is a chiral
compound, we may end up with an inverted product or racemic mixture depending upon the
type of mechanism followed by alkyl halide. Cleavage of ethers with HI is also governed by
steric factor and stability of carbocation which indicates that in organic chemistry, these two
major factors help us in deciding the kind of product formed.
i. Predict the major product formed when 2-bromopentane reacts with alcoholic KOH.
ii. Write the structure of the products formed when anisole is treated with HI.
iii. Write the structure of product formed when ethoxy benzene is treated with HI.
iv. In the below reaction, the product D is:

(a) Propane
(b) 2, 3-Dimethylbutane
(c) Hexane
(d) Allyl bromide

v. Identify Z in the series:

(a) C2H5I
(b) C2H5OH
(c) CHI3
(d) CH3CHO

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SECTION B

Q1 What happens when CH3 — Br is treated with KCN?

Q2 Draw the structure of major mono-halogen product in the following reaction:

Q3 Which alkyl halide from the following pair is (i) Chiral and (ii) undergoes SN1 reaction
faster?
(a) (CH3)2CBr
(b) CH3CH2CHBrCH3

Q4 Draw the structure of major monohalo product in each of the following reactions:

Q5 Write the equations for the preparation of 1-bromobutane from:

(i) 1-butanol.
(ii) but-l-ene

Q6 How will you carry out the following conversions:

(i) 2-Bromopropane to 1-bromopropane
(ii) Benzene to p-chloronitrobenzene

Q7 Write the major product(s) in the following:

Q8 What happens when

(i) CH3—Cl is treated with aqueous KOH?

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(ii) CH3—Cl is treated with KCN?

(iii) CH3—Br is treated with Mg in the presence of dry ether?

Q9 Following compounds are given to you:

2-Bromopentane, 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane, 1-Bromopentane
(i) Write the compound which is most reactive towards SN2 reaction.
(ii) Write the compound which is optically active.
(iii) Write the compound which is most reactive towards β – elimination reaction.

Q10 Write structures of compounds A, B and C in each of the following reactions:

Q11 Compound (A) with molecular formula C4H9Br is treated with aq. KOH solution. The rate
of this reaction depends upon the concentration of the compound ‘A’ only. When another
optically active isomer ‘B’ of this compound was treated with aq. KOH solution, the rate of
reaction was found to be dependent on concentration of compound and KOH both.
(i) Write down the structural formula of both compounds ‘A’ and ‘B’.
(ii) Out of these two compounds, which one will be converted to the product
with inverted configuration.
Q12 Which of the following compounds will have the highest melting point and why?

Q13 Which of the following compounds would undergo SN1 reaction faster and why?

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to
• know how to write the trivial and IUPAC name of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes.
• understand the methods of preparation Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
• understand the Physical and chemical properties and nature of C-X bond in haloalkanes and
haloarenes.
• know the mechanism and stereochemistry involved in nucleophilic substitution reaction.
• understand the uses and environmental effect of these compounds in our life

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CYCLE I
CHAPTER 11: ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS & ETHERS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
After studying this unit, you would be able to
• Name alcohols, phenols and ethers according to the IUPAC system of nomenclature
• Discuss the reactions involved in the preparation of alcohols from (i) alkenes (ii) aldehydes,
ketones and carboxylic acids
• Discuss the reactions involved in the preparation of phenols from (i) Haloarenes (ii)
benzene sulphonic acids (iii) diazonium salts and (iv) cumene
• Discuss the reactions for preparation of ethers from (i) alcohols and (ii) alkyl halides and
sodium alkoxides/aryloxides
• Correlate physical properties of alcohols, phenols and ethers with their structures
• Discuss chemical reactions of the three classes of compounds on the basis of their
functional groups.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• Structure of Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers:
Alcohols are of 3 types: 1°, 2° and 3° represented as:

Ethers are dialkyl derivatives of water or monoalkyl derivatives of

alcohols with formula

• Physical properties of alcohols & phenols:

Boiling points of alcohols and phenols are higher because the –OH group in alcohols and phenols
is involved in intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
Their B.pt increases with increase in the number of carbon atoms as van der Waals forces with
increase in surface area.

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• Solubility:
Alcohols and phenols are soluble in water due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with
water molecules. The solubility of alcohols decreases with increase in size of alkyl/aryl
(hydrophobic) groups.
Intermolecular H-bonds of p- and m-nitrophenol increases water solubility where as intramolecular
H-bonds in o-nitrophenol decrease it.

Preparation of Alcohols & Phenols:

All the 3 types of monohydric alcohols (1°, 2° or 3°) except CH3OH, can be prepared from reaction
of carbonyl compounds with Grignard’s Reagents.

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• Chemical properties of alcohols:

Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond: Alcohols react as nucleophiles:

Reaction with metals: Esterification:

• Reactions of alcohols involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen (C–O) bond:

alcohols react as electrophiles
conc.HCl+ ZnCl2
(a) Reaction with hydrogen halides: ROH + HX > RX + H2O
Lucas reagent
Reactivity of alcohols with HX (Cleavage of C–O bond) : 1° < 2° < 3°(most stable carbocation)
Lucas Test : For 30 alcohol : turbidity appears immediately

(b) Reaction with phosphorus trihalides: 3 ROH + PX3 → 3 R-X + H3PO3(X=Cl,Br)

(c) Dehydration: heating in
presence of concentrated
H2SO4 or H3PO4

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The relative ease of dehydration of alcohols is: 1° < 2° < 3° (most substituted alkene)

PCC Cu,573K
(d) Oxidation:10 alcohol or Cu,573K or CrO3 > Aldehyde ; 20 alcohol > Ketone ;
or CrO3
Cu,573K
30 alcohol or KMnO4 > Alkene; 3° alcohols are resistant to oxidation due to lack of α-H atom
Acidified K2Cr2O7
Alcohol or Alkaline KMnO4 > Carboxylic acid

• Chemical properties of phenols:

Acidic nature:
a. Phenol > H2O > Primary alcohol > Secondary alcohol > Tertiary alcohol Due to +I effect
of alkyl groups, the acid strength of alcohols is less than H2O.

b. Phenol is more acidic than alcohol because:

In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen while in phenoxide ion, the charge
is delocalized through resonance.
The delocalisation of negative charge makes phenoxide ion more stable and favours the
ionisation of phenol.
Presence of EWG increases the acid strength of phenols while ERG decreases the acid strength.
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EWG : –NO2, –X, –CN, –COOH etc. and ERG : –R, –OR, –OH, –NH2 etc.

• To distinguish between
a. Phenol and alcohol: Phenol on reaction with neutral FeCl3 gives purple colour whereas
alcohols do not give purple colour. C6H5OH + Fe3+ → [Fe(OC6H5)6]3- (Purple colour) + 6H+
b. Methanol and ethanol: Iodoform test:
Ethanol when reacted with (I2 and NaOH) or NaOI gives yellow ppt of iodoform since it has
the presence of CH3-CH (OH)- group.
C2H5OH +4I2+ 6NaOH  CHI3 (Yellow ppt.) + 5NaI + 5H2O + HCOONa
CH3OH + I2+ NaOH  no yellow ppt
• Preparation of ethers:
Alkyl halide is 10 and alkoxide
must be 30.
If Aromatic ether is to be formed,
the aromatic part must be with phenoxide ion.
• Physical properties of ethers:
a. Miscibility: Miscibile in water resembles as it forms hydrogen bonds with water molecule.
b. Boiling points: Ethers have much lower boiling points than alcohols. This is because
hydrogen bonding is absent in ethers.
10. C–O–C bond in ether is bent and hence is polar even if both alkyl groups are identical.
11. Ethers are relatively inert and hence are used as solvents.

• Chemical properties of ethers:

a. Electrophilic substitution reaction in aromatic ethers:

b. Cleavage of C–O bond in ethers:

R-O-R’ + HX(Excess) → R-X + R’OH

In the reaction of alkyl aryl ether (anisole) with HI/HBr, the products are always alkyl halide
and phenol because O–R bond is weaker than O–Ar bond.
The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides: HI > HBr > HCl

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SECTION A

1 CH3-CH2-OH can be converted into CH3CHO by ______________.

▪ (i) Catalytic hydrogenation
▪ (ii) Treatment with LiAlH4
▪ (iii) Treatment with pyridinium chlorochromate
▪ (iv) Treatment with KMnO4

2 Which of the following compounds is aromatic alcohol?

▪ (i) A, B, C, D
▪ (ii) A, D
▪ (iii) B, C
▪ (iv) A

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▪ (i) 1-methoxy-1-methylethane
▪ (ii) 2-methoxy-2-methylethane
▪ (iii) 2-methoxypropane
▪ (iv) Isopropyl methyl ether

4 The process of converting alkyl halides into alcohols involves_____________.

▪ (i) addition reaction
▪ (ii) substitution reaction
▪ (iii) dehydrohalogenation reaction
▪ (iv) rearrangement reaction
▪
5 Mark the correct order of decreasing acid strength of the following compounds.

(i) e > d > b > a > c

(ii) b > d > a > c > e
(iii) d > e > c > b > a
(iv) e > d > c > b > a

6 Phenol can be distinguished from ethanol by the reactions with _________.

7 IUPAC name of m-cresol is ___________.

8 What is the correct order of reactivity of alcohols in the following reaction?

9 Give IUPAC name of the compound given below.

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10 Which of the following species can act as the strongest base?

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of
the assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation
of the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

11 Assertion: Addition reaction of water to but-1-ene in acidic medium yields butan-1-ol

Reason: Addition of water in acidic medium proceeds through the formation of primary
carbocation.

12 Assertion: o-Nitrophenol is less soluble in water than the m- and p-isomers.

Reason: m- and p- Nitrophenols exist as associated molecules.

13 Assertion: Bond angle in ethers is slightly less than the tetrahedral angle.
Reason: There is a repulsion between the two bulky (—R) groups.

14 CASE BASED QUESTION:

The following table has boiling points of different classes of compounds. Study the table
and answer the questions based on table and related studied concepts

Compound Boiling point

1. Ethanal 20.2 °C
2. Ethanol 78 °C
3. Acetone 56.2 °C
4. Acetic acid 118 °C
5. Acetic anhydride 139.8 °C
6. Diethyl ether 34.6 °C
7. Acetamide 222 °C

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8. Ethyl acetate 77.1 °C

(a) Why diethyl ether has lower boiling point than C2H5OH?
(b) Why acetic anhydride has high boiling point than acetic acid?
(c) Why amides have higher boiling point among-acid derivatives?
(d) Why does aqueous solution of CH3COOH conducts electricity but ethanol does
not?
(e) How will you distinguish between ethanol and acetone by suitable chemical
test?

SECTION B

Q1 Account for the following:

(i) Phenol does not react with NaHCO3 whereas carboxylic acids react.
(ii) Phenol is more easily nitrated than benzene.

Q2 Arrange: water, ethanol and phenol in increasing order of acidity and give reason for your
answer.

Q3 Give one chemical test to distinguish between the following:

(i) Phenol and propan-1-ol
(ii) Ethanol and dimethyl ether
(iii) propan-1-ol and 2-Methyl-propan-2-ol

Q4 Which is a stronger acid—phenol or cresol? Explain.

Q5 Answer the following questions:

(i) Dipole moment of phenol is smaller that of methanol. Why?
(ii) In Kolbe’s reaction, instead of phenol, phenoxide ion is treated with carbon dioxide.
Why?

Q6 What happens when

(i) Phenol reacts with Conc. HNO3?
(ii) Ethyl chloride reacts with NaOC2H5? Write the chemical equations involved in the
above reactions.

Q7 How would you obtain

(i) picric acid (2, 4, 6-trinitrophenol) from phenol?
(ii) 2-Methylpropene from 2-Methylpropanol?

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Q8 An organic compound ‘A’ having molecular formula C3H6 on treatment with aqueous H2SO4
gives ‘B’ which on treatment with HCl/ZnCl2 gives ‘C’. The compound C on treatment with
ethanolic KOH gives back the compound ‘A’. Identify the compounds A, B, C
Q9 How will you convert: (i) Propene to Propan-1-ol? (ii) Ethanal to Propan-2-o1?

Q10 Write the main product(s) in each of the following reactions:

Q11 Match the items of Column I with items of Column II.

Q12 Match the items of Column I with items of Column II.

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to:
• knowhow to write the trivial and IUPAC name of alcohols, phenols and ethers.
• Understand the Preparation& properties of alcohols
• Understand the Preparation& properties of phenols
• Understand the Preparation& properties of ethers
• Understand the uses of alcohols, phenols and ethers in our life.

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CYCLE II
CHAPTER 12: ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –

After studying this unit, you would be able to:

• Write the common and IUPAC names of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids.
• Write the structures of the compounds containing functional groups namely carbonyl and
carboxyl groups.
• Describe the important methods of preparation and reactions of these classes of compounds.
• Correlate physical properties and chemical reactions of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids
with their structures.
• Explain the mechanism of a few selected reactions of aldehydes and ketones
• Understand various factors affecting the acidity of carboxylic acids and their reactions.
• Describe the uses of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
The simplest carbonyl compounds are aldehydes and
ketones.
A ketone has two alkyl (or aryl) groups bonded to the
carbonyl carbon.
An aldehyde has one alkyl (or aryl) group and one
hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon.
Structure of the carbonyl group :
The carbonyl carbon is sp2 hybridized,
and has a partially filled unhybridized
p orbital perpendicular to the
framework.
The oxygen is also sp2 hybridized, with
the 2 lone pairs occupying sp2 orbitals. This leaves one electron in a p orbital.
These p orbitals form the carbon oxygen π bond.
The C=O double bond is like a C=C double bond except the carbonyl double bond is shorter and
stronger.
The carbonyl group has a large dipole moment due to the polarity of the double bond.
Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, and so the bond is polarized toward the oxygen.

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Physical properties of aldehydes and ketones:

➢ The polar carbonyl groups have dipole-dipole interaction between opposite ends of the C=O
group dipoles and hence due to weak intermolecular attraction the melting points and boiling
points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than corresponding non-polar compounds.
➢ The order of boiling points is carboxylic acid > alcohol > ketone > aldehyde > ether >
hydrocarbon.
➢ Due to hydrogen bonding with water molecules the aldehydes and ketones upto three carbon are
soluble in water.
➢ The aromatic aldehydes and ketones due to presence of larger hydrocarbon parts (like benzene
ring etc.), are insoluble in water.
➢ All adehydes and ketones are fairly soluble in organic solvents like benzene, ether, alcohols,
chloroform etc.

Preparation and Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones

➢ By hydration of alkynes: Ethyne on hydration with at 333 K forms acetaldehyde 4 2 4 HgSO4 / dil
H2SO4

➢ By Rosenmund reduction:
Hydrogenation of acyl chloride over palladium on barium sulphate gives aldehyde

➢ By reduction of nitriles:
(a) Stephen Reaction: Reduction of nitriles in presence of stannous chloride in presence of HCl
gives imine which on hydrolysis gives corresponding aldehyde.

(b) Nitriles are selectively reduced by DIBAL-H (Isobutyl aluminium hydride) to aldehydes.

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➢ By reduction of ester: Esters are reduced to aldehydes in presence of DIBAL-H

(Diisobutylaluminium hydride)

➢ From Hydrocarbons:
(i) By oxidation of methyl benzene:
(a) Etard Reaction: Chromyl chloride ( ) oxidizes methyl group to a chromium complex, which on
hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde

(b) Use of chromium oxide(CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene is converted to benzylidene in

presence of chromic oxide in acetic anhydride.

(ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis: Side chain halogenation of toluene gives
benzal chloride which on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde

(iii) Gatterman –Koch reaction: Benzene or its derivatives on treatment with carbon monoxide and
HCl in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride or cuprous chloride (CuCl) gives
benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehydes.
➢ By hydration of alkynes: Hydration of alkynes other than acetylene yields ketone. For example
propyne on hydration with HgSO4 / dilH2SO4 at 333 K forms propanone.

➢ From acyl chloride: Acyl chloride on treatment with dialkyl cadmium (prepared by reaction of
cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent) gives ketone

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➢ From nitriles: Nitriles on treatment with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis gives ketones

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Chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones:

HCHO > CH3CHO > CH3CH2CHO
RCHO > RCOR
ArCHO > ArCOR > ArCOAr.

Aldehydes are more reactive towards nucleophiles than ketones because of

(i) +I Inductive effect of alkyl groups.
(ii) steric hindrance of alkyl and aryl group reactivity of ketones is less than aldehydes.

Oxidation of Ketones: Ketones are generally

oxidized under drastic conditions i.e., with
powerful oxidising agents like conc. HNO3,
KMnO4/ H2SO4, K2Cr2O7/ H2SO4 at elevated
temperature

Haloform reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group linked to the carbonyl
carbon atom i.e. methyl ketones are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of corresponding
carboxylic acids having one carbon atom less than that of carbonyl compound. The methyl group is
converted to haloform.

Reactions of aldehydes and ketones due to α-hydrogen:

(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one α-hydrogen undergo a self-
condensation in the presence of dilute alkali as catalyst to form α-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or α-
hydroxy ketones (ketol), respectively.
(ii) Cross aldol condensation: Aldol condensation between two different aldehydes and ketones is
called aldol condensation. If both of them contain -hydrogen atoms, it gives a mixture of four
products.

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Canizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an α-hydrogen atom undergo self-oxidation and
reduction (disproportionation) reaction on treatment with concentrated alkali to form alcohol and
salt of acid.

Physical Properties of carboxylic Acids:

➢ Solubility: As the size of alkyl group increases solubility of carboxylic acid decreases
➢ Boiling Points: Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids due to extensive association through
intermolecular hydrogen bonding
➢ Acidity of carboxylic acids:
a) HCOOH > CH3COOH > (CH3)2CHCOOH
Reason : Acidic strength decreases as +I effect of the alkyl group increases.
b) O2NCH2COOH > FCH2COOH >CICH2COOH > BrCH2COOH> ICH2COOH > CH3COOH
Reason : Acidic strength decreases as -I effect of the group or halogen decreases.
c) Cl3CCOOH > Cl2CHCOOH> ClCH2COOH >CH3COOH
Reason : Acidic strength decreases as the number of halogen atoms decreases.
d) CH3CHClCOOH > CH2ClCH2COOH
Reason : Acidic strength decreases as the distance of the halogen from carboxylic group
increases.
e) Benzoic acid is stronger than acetic acid. Reason : due to –I effect of phenyl group.

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Resonance Strucututres for Carboxylic Acid:

➢ The most stable conformation of formic acid is an almost
planar arrangement of the molecule.
The carbon is sp2 hybridized, and the O-H bond lies in
the plane described by the sp2carbon, eclipsing the C=O
double bond.

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids:

The reason why carboxylic acids are much more acidic than
alcohols is because the carboxylate anion is much more stable (due to equivalent resonating
structures) than the alkoxide anion.
Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids:

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SECTION A
1 Addition of water to alkynes occurs in acidic medium and in the presence of Hg2+ ions as a
catalyst. Which of the following products will be formed on addition of water to but-1-yne under
these conditions.

2 Which of the following compounds is most reactive towards nucleophilic addition reactions?

3 The correct order of increasing acidic strength is _____________.

▪ (i) Phenol < Ethanol < Chloroacetic acid < Acetic acid
▪ (ii) Ethanol < Phenol < Chloroacetic acid < Acetic acid
▪ (iii) Ethanol < Phenol < Acetic acid < Chloroacetic acid
▪ (iv) Chloroacetic acid < Acetic acid < Phenol < Ethanol

4 The reagent which does not react with both, acetone and benzaldehyde.
▪ (i) Sodium hydrogen sulphite.
▪ (ii) Phenyl hydrazine
▪ (iii) Fehling’s solution
▪ (iv) Grignard reagent
5 Cannizzaro’s reaction is not given by _____________.

6 The most suitable reagent for the following conversion is ___________________.

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7 In Clemmenson’s Reduction carbonyl compound is treated with _____________

8 Compounds A and C in the following reactions are

9 Which of the following compounds do not undergo aldol condensation? (More than one correct)

10 Which of the following is the correct representation for intermediate of nucleophilic addition
reaction to the given carbonyl compound (A):

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given.

Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.

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iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

11 Assertion: The α-hydrogen atom in carbonyl compounds is less acidic.

Reason: The anion formed after the loss of α-hydrogen atom is resonance stabilised.

12 Assertion: Aldehydes and ketones, both react with Tollen’s reagent to form silver mirror.
Reason: Both, aldehydes and ketones contain a carbonyl group.

13 Assertion: Compounds containing —CHO group are easily oxidised to corresponding carboxylic
acids.
Reason: Carboxylic acids can be reduced to alcohols by treatment with LiAlH4.

SECTION B
Q1 What is Tollen’s reagent? Write one usefulness of this reagent.
Q2 Arrange the following compounds in an increasing order of their reactivity in nucleophilic addition
reactions:
ethanal, Propanal, propanone, butanone.
Q3 Give a chemical test to distinguish between:
a) Benzoic acid and Phenol.
b) Ethanal and Propanal.

Q4 Give the structure and IUPAC name of the product formed when propanone is reacted with methyl
magnesium bromide followed by hydrolysis. Show reaction also.

Q5 Write the equations involved in the following reactions:

(i) Wolff-Kishner reduction
(ii) Etard’s reaction.
(iii) Clemmenson’s Reduction.

Q6 Predict the products of the following reactions:

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Q7 Predict the products of the following reactions:

Q8 Write structures of compounds A, B and C in each of the following reactions:

Q9 Do the following conversions in not more than two steps:

(i) Benzoic acid to benzaldehyde
(ii) Ethyl benzene to Benzoic acid

Q10 Benzaldehyde can be obtained from benzalchloride. Write reactions for obtaining benzalchloride
and then benzaldehyde form it.

Q12 What products will be formed on reaction of propanal with 2-methylpropanal in the presence of
NaOH? Write the name of the reaction also.

Q13 Compound ‘A’ was prepared by oxidation of compound ‘B’ with alkaline KMnO4. Compound ‘A’
on reduction with lithium aluminium hydride gets converted back to compound ‘B’. When is
compound ‘A’ heated with compound ‘B’ in the presence of H2SO4 it produces fruity smell of
compound ‘C’ to which family the compounds ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ belong to?

Q14 Identify the compounds A, B and C in the following reaction.

Q15 Complete the following reaction sequence.

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to:
• knowhow to write the trivial and IUPAC name of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids.

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• understand the Preparation& properties of aldehydes &ketones

• distinguish between aldehydes & ketones
• understand the Preparation& properties of carboxylic acid
• know about some important members of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acid

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CYCLE II
AMINES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES –

After studying this unit, you would be able to:

• Describe amines as derivatives of ammonia having a pyramidal structure.
• Classify amines as primary, secondary and tertiary.
• Name amines by common names and IUPAC system.
• Describe some of the important methods of preparation of amines
• Explain the properties of amines
• Distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary amines.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
Amines are regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which one, two or all three hydrogen atoms are
replaced by alkyl or aryl group.
Classification of amines:

Physical Properties of Amines:

➢ Amines have a very “active” lone pair - they are much more basic, and much more nucleophilic than
alcohols or ethers.
➢ Primary and secondary amines can form hydrogen bonds to each other and water
➢ Tertiary amines cannot hydrogen bond to each other but can form hydrogen bonds to hydrogen bond
donors such as water l Tertiary amines have lower boiling points than primary or secondary amines
of comparable molecular weights
➢ Low molecular weight amines tend to be water soluble whether they are primary, secondary or
tertiary
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Basic Strength of Amines:

The order of basic strength of aliphatic amines is :
➢ Aliphatic amines are more basic than NH3. since the unshared electron pair is delocalized to
the ring
➢ In aqueous medium, the order is 2° > 1° > 3° (for CH3 group) and2° > 3° > 1° for C2H5 group.
➢ In non-aqueous medium or gaseous phase the
order is 3° > 2° > 1°.

Basic strength of aromatic amines –

➢ Aromatic amines are weaker bases than NH3.
➢ Primary alkyl amines are more basic than
ammonia– An alkyl group helps to stabilize
the alkylaminium ion
➢ ERGs like –CH3, –OR, –NH2 etc. increase
basic strength while
➢ EWGs like –NO2, –CN etc. decrease the
basic strength. The effect of substituents is
more at para positions and less at meta-
position.

Structure of Amines = sp3

hybridized

Free rotation is restricted in quaternary ammonium ions. quaternary ammonium salts can be
resolved into enantiomers.

• Preparation of amines:
Nitrogen Carbon 1st Initial 2nd 2nd Final
Reactant Reactant Reaction Product Reaction Reaction Product
Type Conditions Type
Raney Ni,
Electrophil R-NO2 or
R-H or Ar- Pd/C or
ic Ar-NO2 R-NH2 or Ar-
-NO2 H Sn/HCl or Reduction
Substitutio Nitro Alkanes NH2
n or Arenes Fe/HCl

RCH2-N3 or
(–) RCH2-X or R2CH-N3 LiAlH4 or Hydrogeno RCH2-NH2 or
N3 SN2
R2CH-X 4 H2 & Pd lysis R2CH-NH2
Alkyl Azides

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RCH2-
NHSO2C6H5 o
C6H5SO2N RCH2-X or Na in Hydrogeno RCH2-NH2 or
SN2 r
H(–) R2CH-X NH3 (liq) lysis R2CH-NH2
R2CH-
NHSO2C6H5

RCH2-CN or RCH2-
RCH2-X or R2CH-CN CH2NH2 or
CN(–) SN2 LiAlH4 Reduction
R2CH-X R2CH-
Nitriles CH2NH2

RCH=O or
R2C=O Addition / RCH=NH or H2 & Ni RCH2-NH2 or
NH3 Eliminatio R2C=NH or Reduction R2CH-NH2
Aldehydes
or n Imine NaBH3CN
Ketones

Addition / RCO-NH2 RCH2-NH2

NH3 RCOX Eliminatio LiAlH4 Reduction
n Amides

Addition / R-NH2
RCO-NH2 Eliminatio
NH3 RCOX Eliminatio Br2/NaOH (One Carbon
Amides n
n less)

NH3 R-NH3+X-
Ammonoly R-X Substitutio Substituted
R-X ; Eliminatio R-NH2
sis n Ammonium NaOH n
Salt

NH2CONH
R3C- NaOH
2 R3C(+) SN1 Hydrolysis R3C-NH2
NHCONH2 soln.
(urea)

Methods to get only one product by Hoffmann’s method:

(i)When ammonia is taken in excess primary amine is formed as main product
(ii)When alkyl halide is used in excess quarternary ammonium salt is formed as main product
Order of reactivity of halides is: RI> RBr> RCl
Larger the size of halogen atom easier is the cleavage of R-X bond.

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➢ By Gabriel phthalimide synthesis:

Chemical Properties of Amines: Electrophilic Substitution Reactions:

All amino groups -NH2, -NHR, -NR2 are most powerful activating groups in aromatic electrophilic
substitution reactions are ortho and para directing

CH3NH2 + C6H5COCl  CH3NHCOC6H5 + HCl

Methanamine Benzoyl chloride N Methylbenzamide

➢ Bromination: Sulphonation:

➢ Nitration: unexpectedly 47% of n-nitro aniline.

This is due to the fact that aniline gets protonated to a -NH3+ group which is meta directing and
deactivating
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Controlled Reactions of Aniline:

➢ By protecting the –NH2 group by acetylation reaction with acetic anhydride, the nitration
reaction can be controlled. main product of nitration is p – nitro derivative.
➢ The reactivity of the acetamide is attenuated so that mono substitution is achieved.
➢ The acetamide group is compatible with the Friedel- Crafts reactions.

• Diazotization: primary arylamines (anilines) react with nitrous acid (HNO2, generated from
the reaction of NaNO2 and H2SO4) to form a stable aryl diazonium salt.

The diazonium salts of aliphatic amines are generally unstable and they decompose to give
carbocation.

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• Reactions of Diazonium Salts:

• Test for Amines

a) Hinsberg’s Method : With benzene sulfonyl chloride followed by treatment with NaOH
Primary amine: RNH2 + C6H5SO2Cl → C6H5– SO2 – NH – R + HCl
C6H5– SO2 – NH – R : N-alkyl benzene
sulfonamides - Dissolves in NaOH due to
acidic H-attached to
Nitrogen)
Secondary amine :Dialkyl sulphonamide is formed.
Tertiary amine : Tertiary amines do not react with Hinsberg’s reagent.

(b) Carbylamine Test: This reaction is given only by primary amines

Primary amine is on treatment with a strong base in presence in chloroform, yields a foul smelling
isocyanide. Here attacking
electrophile is the
dichlorocarbene (:CCl2).
The primary amine can be
identified with its foul smell.

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(c) Nitrous acid test :

Primary alkyl amine: Primary aliphatic amines form diazonium salts which are unstable and
liberate nitrogen to form a
carbonium ion which in aqueous
reaction medium forms an alcohol
Primary Aryl amine: Primary aromatic amine reacts with nitrous acid to form a diazonium salt
which is stable but low temperatures(0-50C). On reaction with phenol, an aromatic diazonium salt
undergoes a coupling reaction to form a dye.

p-hydrozyazobenzene(yellow)

p-hydrozyazobenzene(orange)

Secondary alkyl/aryl amine is converted into nitrosoamine(a yellow oil) by treating the amine with
nitrous acid.
The resultant solutions warmed with phenol and concentrated H2SO4, a brown or red colour is formed

at first soon it changes to blue and then to green. The

colour changes to red on dilution and further
changes to greenish blue on treating with alkali.
Tertiary amines react with nitrous acid to form a
Clear Solution (Ammonium Salt Formation)

SECTION A
1 Amongst the following, the strongest base in aqueous medium is ____________.
▪ (i) CH3-NH2
▪ (ii) NC-CH2- NH2
▪ (iii) (CH3)2NH

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▪ (iv) C6H5- NH-CH3

2 Benzylamine may be alkylated as shown in the following equation:

C6H5CH2NH2 + R—X ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ C6H5-CH2-NH-R
Which of the following alkyl halides is best suited for this reaction through SN1 mechanism?
▪ (i) CH3Br
▪ (ii) C6H5Br
▪ (iii) C6H5CH2Br
▪ (iv) C2H5Br

3 The best reagent for converting 2-phenylpropanamine into 2–phenyl propenamide is _____.
▪ (i) excess H2
▪ (ii) Br2 in aqueous NaOH
▪ (iii) iodine in the presence of red phosphorus
▪ (iv) LiAlH4 in ether

4 Hoffmann Bromamide Degradation reaction is shown by __________.

▪ (i) ArNH2
▪ (ii) ArCONH2
▪ (iii) ArNO2
▪ (iv) ArCH2NH2

5 Methylamine reacts with HNO2 to form _________.

▪ (i) CH3—O—N = O
▪ (ii) CH3—O—CH3
▪ (iii) CH3OH
▪ (iv) CH3CHO

6 The gas evolved when methylamine reacts with nitrous acid is _______________.

7 In the nitration of benzene using a mixture of conc. H2SO4 and conc. HNO3, the species
which initiates the reaction is __________

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of
the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

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8 Assertion: Hoffmann’s bromamide reaction is given by primary amines.

Reason: Primary amines are more basic than secondary amines.

9 Assertion: Only a small amount of HCl is required in the reduction of nitro compounds
with iron scrap and HCl in the presence of steam.
Reason: FeCl2 formed gets hydrolyzed to release HCl during the reaction.

1 Assertion: Aromatic 1° amines can be prepared by Gabriel Phthalimide Synthesis.

0 Reason: Aryl halides undergo nucleophilic substitution with anion formed by phthalimide.

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Amines are classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary amines. Primary amines cannot be
obtained by ammonolysis of alkyl halide because we will get mixture of 1°, 2° and 3° amines.
Cyanides, on reduction give primary amines whereas isocyanides on reduction give
secondary amines. Nitro compounds, on reduction also give primary amines. Primary amines
react with CHCl3 and KOH to form foul smelling isocyanide. They react with HNO2 and
liberate N2 gas. They react with Hinsberg’s reagent to form salt soluble in KOH. Secondary
amines form yellow oily compounds with HNO2, and salt formed with C6H5SO2Cl, is
insoluble in KOH. 3° amines form salt soluble in water with HNO2 but does not react with
C6H5SO2Cl.
Diazonium salts are prepared by reaction of Aniline with NaNO2 and conc. HCl at 0 – 5 °C.
Aromatic diazonium salts are more stable because phenyl diazonium ion is stabilized by
resonance. Benzene diazonium chloride can be used to prepare halo benzene, phenol, nitro
benzene, benzene, p-hydroxy azo benzene (azo dye) and large number of useful compounds.
i. Write the isomer of C3H9N which does not react with Hinsberg reagent.
ii. Convert aniline to phenol.
iii. Phenyl-methanamine on heating with CHCl3 and KOH gives ‘X’. Identify X?
iv. Aniline is less basic than ethylamine. This is due to
(a) Conjugation of lone pair of nitrogen with the ring
(b) The insoluble nature of aniline
(c) More Kf value of aniline
(d) Hydrogen bonding
v. Primary amine reacts with carbon disulphide and HgCl2 to produce alkyl
isothiocyanate. This reaction is
(a) Carbylamine reaction
(b) Hoffmann bromamide reaction
(c) Perkin reaction
(d) Hoffmann mustard oil reaction

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SECTION B

Q1 Write major product(s) in the following reactions:

Q2 Write the structures A, B and C in the following:

Q3 An aromatic compound ‘A’ on treatment with aqueous ammonia and heating forms
compound ‘B’ which on heating with Br2 and KOH forms a compound ‘C’ of molecular
formula C6H7N. Write the structures and IUPAC names of compounds A, B and C.

Q4 How will you convert the following:

(i) Nitrobenzene into aniline
(ii) Ethanoic acid into methanamine
(iii) Aniline into N-phenylethanamide.

Q5 In the following cases rearrange the compounds as directed : (Delhi 2010)

(i) In an increasing order of basic strength :
C6H5NH2, C6H5 N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2
(ii) In a decreasing order of basic strength :
Aniline, p-nitroaniline and p-toluidine
(iii) In an increasing order of pKb values :
C2H5NH2, C6H5 NHCH3, (C2H5)2NH and C6H5NH2

Q6 Complete the following reaction equations:

(i) C6H5Cl + CH3COCl →
(ii) C2H5NH2 + C6H5SO2Cl →
(iii) C2H5NH2 + HNO2 →

Q7 Giving an example for each describe the following reactions:

(i) Hofmann’s bromamide reaction

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(ii) Gattermann’s reaction

(iii) A coupling reaction
Q8 Complete the following reaction equations:

Q9 (a) Explain why an alkylamine is more basic than ammonia?

(b) How would you convert
(i) Aniline to nitrobenzene (ii) Aniline to iodobenzene

Q10 Give the structures of A, B and C in the following reactions:

Q11 A hydrocarbon ‘A’, (C4H8) on reaction with HC1 gives a compound ‘B'(C4H9Cl), which on
reaction with 1 mol of NH3 gives compound ‘C’, (C4H11N). On reacting with NaN02 and
HC1 followed by treatment with water, compound ‘C’ yields an optically active alcohol, ‘D’.
Ozonolysis of ‘A’ gives 2 moles of acetaldehyde. Identify compounds ‘A’ to ‘D’. Explain the
reactions involved.

Q12 A colourless substance ‘A’ (C6H7N) is sparingly soluble in water and gives a water-soluble
compound ‘B’ on treating with mineral acid. On reacting with CHCl3 and alcoholic potash
‘A’ produces an obnoxious smell due to the formation of compound ‘C’. Reaction of ‘A’ with
benzenesulphonyl chloride gives compound ‘D’ which is soluble in alkali. With NaNO2 and
HCl, ‘A’ forms compound ‘E’ which reacts with phenol in alkaline medium to give an orange
dye ‘F’ Identify compounds ‘A’ to ‘F’.

Q13 Predict the reagent or the product in the following reaction sequence.

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Q14 Match the compounds given in Column I with the items given in Column II.

Q15 How will you carry out the following conversion?

LEARNING OUTCOMES–
Learners will be able to:
• knowhow to write the trivial and IUPAC name of amines
• Understand the Preparation& properties of amines
• perform the test to distinguish between the primary, secondary and tertiary amines.

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CYCLE III
POLYMERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Explain the terms - monomer, polymer and polymerization and appreciate their importance.
• Distinguish between various classes of polymers and different types of polymerization
processes
• Appreciate the formation of polymers from mono- and bifunctional monomer molecules
• Describe the preparation of some important synthetic polymers and their properties
• Appreciate the importance of polymers in daily life.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
Polymers are high molecular mass substance consisting of large number of repeating structural
units. As polymers are single, giant molecules i.e., big size molecules, they are also called
macromolecules. Simple molecules which combine to form polymers are called monomers.
Process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called polymerization

Classification of Polymers:

Classification
Types Examples
based on
1. Natural polymers: Polymers obtained from Cellulose, starch,
nature, mostly plants and animals etc.
Teflon, Nylon 6,6 ,
Source of 2. Synthetic polymers: Polymers prepared in
Synthetic rubber
availability laboratory
(Buna - S) etc.
3. Semi synthetic polymers: Polymers derived from Rayon (cellulose
naturally occurring polymers by carrying out acetate),
chemical modifications cellulose nitrate, etc.
1. Linear polymers: Polymer consist of long and High density
straight chains polythene, polyvinyl
chloride, etc.
Structure of 2.Branched chain polymers: Polymers contains Low density
polymer linear chains having some branches polythene
3.Cross linked or network polymers: Polymers in
Bakelite, melamine,
which monomer units are cross linked together to
etc.
form a 3-dimensional network polymers
1.Addition polymers: 1.Homopolymers: Polymers
Mode of
Polymers are formed formed by the Polythene,
polymer-
by the repeated polymerization of a single Polystyrene
station
addition of monomeric species

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monomers with 2.Copolymers: Polymers

double and triple formed by addition Buna-S,
bonds polymerization of two Buna –N
different monomers
Condensation polymers: Polymers formed by
repeated condensation reaction between two Nylon 6, 6,
different bi-functional or tri-functional monomeric Nylon 6
units with elimination of simple molecules
1. Elastomers: Polymer chains are held together by Buna – S,
weakest intermolecular forces. Polymers are rubber Buna – N,
– like solids with elastic properties Neoprene
2. Fibre: Polymers have strongintermolecular force
like hydrogen bonding. Fibres are the thread Nylon 6, 6,
forming solids which possess high tensile strength Polyesters
and high modulus
Molecular 3. Thermoplastic polymers: Polymers areheld by
forces intermolecular forces which are in between those of
Polythene,
elastomers and fibres. These polymers are capable
Polystyrene
of repeated softening on heating and hardening on
cooling
4. Thermosetting polymers: Polymers arecross
Bakelite,
linked or heavily branched molecules, which on
Urea-formaldelyde
heating undergo extensive cross linking in moulds
resins
and eventually undergoes a permanent

Polymer Monomer Uses

Polyethene Ethene Insulation of wires, toys, manufacture
of dustbins etc.

Polytetrafluoroethene Fluroethene(Teflon) Tetrafluoroethene Oil seal and Gasket

and non

Polyarcylonitrile Acrylonitrile Substitute for wool

Terylene or Decron Glycol + Terephthalic Acid Ropes, safety belts, tyre -cord , sails of
boats,saree and dress material

Nylon-6,6 Hexamethylenediamine + Stocking, socks, ropes, Parachutes,

Adipic acid fabrics, bristles of tooth brush

Nylon-6 Caprolactum Tyre-cords, Ropes, fabrics

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Neoprene 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene Conveyor belts, gasket , hoses

Phenol Formaldehyde + Phenol Combs,records, switches boards

Formaldehyde resin
Melamine Polymers Melamine + Formaldehyde Manufacture of unbreakable crockery

Buna-S Copolymer 1,3-Butadiene + Styrene Autotyres floor, tiles foot-wear

Components
Natural rubber 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene Used for tyres

(i) Addition Polymers Or Chain Growth Polymers:

They follow mostly free radical mechanism.
Step 1: Chain initiating step
Step 2: Chain propagating step
Step 3: Chain terminating step

(ii) Condensation Polymers or Step Growth Polymers

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Because they are formed in gradual steps. Repetitive condensation reaction between two bi-
functional monomers.

Important Addition Polymers:

No. Name of polymer Polymerisation Reaction & Uses
1 Low density polythene Uses: It is used in the insulation of electricity carrying wires
(LDP) and manufacture of squeeze bottles, toys and flexible pipes

2 High density Uses: It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins, bottles,

polythene(HDP) pipes, etc.
3 Polytetrafluoroethene Uses: It is used in making oil seals and gaskets and also
(Teflon) used for non – stick surface coated utensils
4 Polyacrylonitrile Uses: It is used as a substitute for wool in making
commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan

Important Condensation Polymers:

1 Polyamides: Polyamides: Polymers possess amide linkage (-CONH-) in chain and popularly
known as nylons. Examples:
(a) Nylon 6, 6: I tis used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in textile industry
(b) Nylon 6: It is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes

2 Polyesters: These are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids and diols.
Example: Terylene or Dacron
Uses: Dacron fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used in blending with cotton and wool
fibres and also as glass reinforcing materials in safety helmets, etc.

3. Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related polymers)

Uses: It is used for making combs, phonograph records, electrical switches and handles of
various utensils

4. Melamine – formaldehyde polymer:

Uses: It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery

Rubber
(i) Natural rubber: Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene) and is
also called as cis - 1, 4 - polyisoprene.
Vulcanization of rubber: Process of heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and an
appropriate additive in a temperature range between 373 K to 415 K to improve upon physical
properties like elasticity, strength etc.

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(ii) Synthetic rubber: Synthetic rubbers are either homopolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene derivatives or
copolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene or its derivatives with another unsaturated monomer
Examples : Neoprene , Buna – N and Buna – S

Biodegradable Polymers: Polymers which are degraded by microorganisms within a suitable period
so that biodegradable polymers and their degraded products do not cause any serious affects on
environment.
Examples of biodegradable polymer:
Poly - β -hydroxybutyrate – co-β -hydroxy valerate (PHBV)
Uses: PHBV is used in speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and in controlled release of
drugs.

SECTION A
1 The commercial name of polyacrylonitrile is ______________.
▪ (i) Dacron
▪ (ii) Orlon (acrilan)
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▪ (iii) PVC
▪ (iv) Bakelite
▪
2 Which of the following polymers of glucose is stored by animals?
▪ (i) Cellulose
▪ (ii) Amylose
▪ (iii) Amylopectin
▪ (iv) Glycogen
3 Which of the following polymer can be formed by using the following monomer unit?

▪ (i) Nylon 6, 6
▪ (ii) Nylon 2–nylon 6
▪ (iii) Melamine polymer
▪ (iv) Nylon-6

5 Vulcanization makes rubber is _____________________

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given.

Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

6 Assertion: For making rubber synthetically, isoprene molecules are polymerized.

Reason: Neoprene (a polymer of chloroprene) is a synthetic rubber.
7 Assertion: Polytetrafluoroethylene is used in making non-stick cook wares.
Reason: Fluorine has highest electronegativity.

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8 Assertion: Olefinic monomers undergo addition polymerization.

Reason: Polymerization of vinyl chloride is initiated by peroxides/ persulphates
9
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Polymers are backbone of modern civilisation. We are using polymers in our daily life to lot of
extent. Automobile tyres are made up of Buna-S. Nylon is being extensively used for making socks
and stockings, climbing ropes, fishing nets. Bakelite is used for making combs and electrical
switches. Teflon is coated to make non-stick kitchen wares. Plastic eating bacteria is capable of
breaking down poly (ethylene phthalate) (PET) and consuming as a sole carbon and energy source.
Single use plastics are quite harmful. Biodegradable polymers like PHBV, Nylon–2, Nylon–6,
Polylactic acid, poly glycolic acid have been discovered which are particularly useful and eco-
friendly.
i. Name one bio-degradable polymer used in orthopaedic devices.
ii. Why is Bakelite used for making electrical switches?
iii. Which of the following polymer is biodegradable?

iv. In which of the following polymers ethylene glycol is one of the monomer units?

v. PHBV has ________type of linkages

(a) Amide
(b) Ester

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(c) Diene
(d) Nitrile
SECTION B

Q1 Explain the term co-polymerization and give two examples of copolymers and the reactions for
their preparations.
Q2 (a) What are biodegradable polymers? Give one example.
(b) Is polythene a condensation or an addition polymer?
Q3 Draw the structures of the monomers of the following polymers:
(i) Polythene
(ii) PVC
Q4 In nylon 6, 6, what does the designation ‘6, 6’ mean?
Q5 Define the term, ‘homopolymerisation’ giving an example.
Q6 (i) What is the role of t-butyl peroxide in the polymerization of ethene?
(ii) Identify the monomers in the following polymer:

(iii) Arrange the following polymers in the increasing order of their intermolecular forces:
Polystyrene, Terylene, Buna-S

Q7 Write the names and structures of the monomers of the following polymers: (Delhi 2013)
(i) Bakelite
(ii) Nylon-6
(iii) Polythene

Q8 Write the names and structures of the monomers of the following polymers
(i) Dacron
(ii) Neoprene

Q9 Phenol and formaldehyde undergo condensation to give a polymer (A) which on heating with
formaldehyde gives a thermosetting polymer (B). Name the polymers. Write the reactions
involved in the formation of (A). What is the structural difference between two polymers?

Q10 Which of the following polymers soften on heating and harden on cooling? What are the
polymers with this property collectively called? What are the polymers with this property
collectively called? What are the structural similarities between such polymers?
Bakelite, urea-formaldehyde resin, polythene, polyvinyl, polystyrene.
Q11 Low density polythene and high-density polythene, both are polymers of ethane but there is
marked difference in their properties. Explain.

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Q12 Differentiate between rubbers and plastics on the basis of intermolecular forces.

Q13 Synthetic polymers do not degrade in the environment for a long time. How can biodegradable
synthetic polymers be made. Differentiate between biopolymers and biodegradable polymers
and give examples of each type.

Q14 Match the polymers of Column I with correct monomers of Column II.

Q15 Match the polymers given in Column I with their chemical names given in Column II.

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to:
• understand the various types of polymers.
• understand the mechanism of polymerization.
• know the monomers of some important polymers and their application in daily life.

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CYCLE III
BIOMOLECULES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Learners will be introduced to the world of biomolecules-such as carbohydrates, proteins and
nucleic acids.
• Importance and role of biomolecules.
• Carbohydrates as ‘Hydrates of Carbon’, exceptions, modified definition and classifications.
• Chemical reactions of glucose to prove the existence of open-chain structure of glucose and
fructose molecules.
• Study of Haworth’s cyclic structure inspired from Pyran to prove the existence of close ringed α
and β-glucopyranoside (anomers).
• Amino acids: introduction, structures and names.
• Formation of proteins due to peptide bonds.
• Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• Biomolecule: The complex organic molecules which built up living organism and form the basis
of life.
• Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds
which produce such units on hydrolysis. On the basis of the products of hydrolysis,
carbohydrates are classified as mono, di, oligo and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides- A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give simpler unit of
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone. Examples- Glucose, fructose, ribose. All naturally occurring
monosaccharides belong to D-series.
Glycosidic linkage: Monosaccharides are held together by glycosidic linkages to form
disaccharides or polysaccharides.
Oligosaccharides- Carbohydrates that yield 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis. They
are further subdivided as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, pentasaccharides etc.,
depending upon whether 2,3,4,5 units of monosaccharide units are obtained on their hydrolysis.
Polysaccharides- Carbohydrates that yield a large number of monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis. Examples- Starch, cellulose, glycogen.
Reducing sugars All sugars that can reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution are called
reducing sugars.eg- all monosaccharides and those disaccharides in which the aldehydic or
ketonic group are free like maltose and lactose.
Non-reducing sugars Disaccharides in which the aldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded and
cannot reduce either Tollen’s or Fehling’s reagent are called non-reducing sugars.eg-Sucrose
Reactions of D-glucose:
a) On prolonged heating with HI it yields n-hexane.

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b) On reaction with a mild oxidizing agent like bromine water, it gets oxidized to a six carbon
carboxylic acid, gluconic acid.
c) On oxidation with HNO3 glucose yields a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid.
Reactions of D-glucose that cannot be explained by its open chain structure.
a). Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give 2, 4- DNP test, Schiff’s test and
NaHSO3 test.
b). The pentaacetate of glucose does react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free –
CHO group.
c). Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms- α and β
Anomers The pair of diastereomers of aldoses that differ only in the configuration of the hydroxyl
group at C-1 are called anomers- the α and β- isomer.

Epimers: Such pairs of optical isomers which differ in configuration around any other C atom
other than C1 atom are called epimers. E.g. D-glucose and D- mannose are C2 epimers.
Disaccharides:
Sucrose on hydrolysis gives glucose and fructose.

Maltose on hydrolysis gives only glucose.

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Lactose on hydrolysis gives one molecule of D-(+) glucose and one molecule of
D-(+) galactose.

Components of Starch
• AMYLOSE • AMYLOPECTIN
• Unbranched chain of α-D-glucose • Branched chain polymer of α-D-glucose
• Water-soluble • Water-insoluble
• Digestible • Cannot be digested

Structural difference between starch and cellulose. Starch is a polymer of α-D-glucose while
cellulose is a polymer of β-D-glucose and thus is completely indigestible.

1. Proteins:
α-Amino acids : An alpha-amino acid (except proline) has an amino group (-NH2), a
carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (-H) and a side chain (-R group) bonded
covalently to a central alpha-carbon atom.These are the building blocks of proteins and
peptides.

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Essential and non-essential amino acids The amino acids that can be synthesized by the body
are called non-essential amino acids.eg- Glycine, Alanine The amino acids that cannot be
synthesized in the body and must be obtained through diet are called essential amino acids. eg-
Valine, Leucine.
Zwitter ion Amino acids contain both acidic(-COOH)
and basic( -NH2) groups in the same molecule.In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group loses a
proton and amino group accepts a proton to form a dipolar ion called zwitter ion.It is amphoteric
in nature.

On the basis of their chemical nature and structure, the 20 standard amino acids have been
grouped classified as follows-

Isoelectronic point: The pH at which the dipolar ion exists as neutral ion and does not migrate
to either electrode cathode or anode is called isoelectronic point.
The peptide bond- links two amino acids in a protein. It is an amide formed between –COOH
and –NH2 groups of neighbouring amino acid moiety.
Proteins: The complex nitrogenous organic molecules which are essential for the growth and
maintenance of life. Proteins are polymers of α-amino acids which are connected to each other
by peptide bonds.

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• FIBROUS PROTEIN • GLOBULAR PROTEIN

• •
Polypeptide chains run parallel to form fibre- Polypeptides coil around to give a spherical
like structure. shape
• Hydrogen-bonds and disulphide bonds hold • Mainly hydrogen bonded
the chains together.
• Generally insoluble in water • Generally soluble in water
• eg- Keratin, myosin • eg-Insulin, albumin

Primary structure of proteins: The sequence of amino acids is said to be the primary structure
of a protein.
Secondary structure of proteins: It refers to the shape in which long polypeptide chain can
exist. Two different types of structures:
α – Helix: exists when R- group is large.
Right handed screw with the NH group of each amino acid residue H – bonded to – C = O of
adjacent turn of the helix.
each turn of the helix hasapproximately 3.6 amino acids and a 13 – membered ring is formed
by H – bonding.
C = O and N – H group of the peptide bonds are trans to each other.
β – pleated sheet:
Exists when R group is small.
In this conformation all peptide chains are stretched out to nearlymaximum extension and then
laid side by side which are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary structure of protein It represents the overall folding of the polypeptide chains due to
H-bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic forces of attraction to acquire
fibrous and globular shapes.

Quaternary structure of protein The spatial arrangement of sub-units of proteins(two or more

polypeptide chain) is known as Quaternary structure of protein.

Denaturation of proteins When a native protein is subjected to change in pH, temperature or

chemicals, the tertiary structure of protein gets unfolded, the protein gets denatured. Primary
structure of protein remains unchanged This causes the protein to lose its biological activity.eg-
Boiled egg, curdling of milk.

2. ENZYMES Enzymes are globular proteins that catalyse specific biochemical reactions.eg-
lipase, maltase Enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of one substrate with simultaneous
reduction of another substrate are called oxidoreductase enzymes.

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Mechanism of enzyme catalysis. Enzyme catalysed reactions take place in two steps as follows-
Step1. Formation of enzyme-substrate complex.
E + S ↔ ES (fast and reversible)
Enzyme Substrate Enzyme-substrate complex
Step2. Dissociation of enzyme-substrate complex into products
ES → [EP] → EP (slow)
Enzyme-substrate Enzyme-product enzyme product
Complex association regenerates

3. Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific
biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
Vitamins are classified into two groups-
Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins
These vitamins are soluble in fat and oils These vitamins are soluble in water.
but insoluble in water.
They are stored in liver and adipose (fat Water soluble vitamins must
storing) tissues be supplied regularly in diet because they
are readily excreted in urine and cannot be
stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
Example: Vitamin A, D, E and K Example: Vitamin C, B group vitamins

4. Nucleic acids: Nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides. They are mainly of two
types- Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and Ribonucleic acid(RNA).
Nucleosides: A nucleoside is formed when a pyrimidine or purine base is attached toC-1 of sugar
(ribose or deoyribose) by a β-linkage.

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Nucleotide: A nucleotide is formed by the combination of a nitrogeneous base, pentose sugar

and phosphoric acid moiety. Nitrogeneous bases are of two kinds- a)Purines –Adenine and
Guanine bPyrimidines-Cytosine, thymine and Uracil

H-bonds between the nitrogeneous bases: Adenine and thymine are paired through two H-
bonds i.e A= T Cytosine and guanine pair through three H-bond i.e C≡ G
Different types of RNA formed in the cell :
messenger RNA(m-RNA), ribosomal RNA(r-RNA) and transfer RNA(t- RNA)

Differences between DNA and RNA:

5. Important vitamins, their sources and their deficiency diseases:

Name of vitamin Source Deficiency diseases

Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, erophthalmia(hardening of cornea of
butter and milk eye) Night blindness

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Vitamin B1(Thiamine) Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appetite, retarded
vegetables and cereals growth)
Vitamin Milk, egg white, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of
B2(Riboflavin) kidney mouth and lips), digestive disorders
and burning sensation of the skin.
Vitamin Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions
B6(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and curd Pernicious anaemia (RBC deficient
in
haemoglobin)
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)
acid) green leafy vegetables
Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone deformities in
fish and egg yolk children) and osteomalacia (soft
bones and joint pain in adults)
Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of RBCs and
germ oil, sunflower oil etc. muscular weakness
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time

SECTION A
1 Glycogen is a branched chain polymer of α-D-glucose units in which chain is
formed by C1—C4 glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by the formation
of C1-C6 glycosidic linkage. Structure of glycogen is similar to ______.
▪ (i) Amylose
▪ (ii) Amylopectin
▪ (iii) Cellulose
▪ (iv) Glucose

2 Sucrose (cane sugar) is a disaccharide. One molecule of sucrose on hydrolysis

gives _________.
▪ (i) 2 molecules of glucose
▪ (ii) 2 molecules of glucose + 1 molecule of fructose
▪ (iii) 1 molecule of glucose + 1 molecule of fructose
▪ (iv) 2 molecules of fructose
▪

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3 Which of the following pairs represents anomers?

4 Proteins are found to have two different types of secondary structures viz. α-helix
and β-pleated sheet structure. α-helix structure of protein is stabilised by :
▪ (i) Peptide bonds
▪ (ii) van der Waals forces
▪ (iii) Hydrogen bonds
▪ (iv) Dipole-dipole interactions
▪
5 Dinucleotide is obtained by joining two nucleotides together by phosphodiester
linkage. Between which carbon atoms of pentose sugars of nucleotides are these
linkages present?
▪ (i) 5′ and 3′
▪ (ii) 1′ and 5′
▪ (iii) 5′ and 5′
▪ (iv) 3′ and 3′

6 Nucleic acids are the polymers of ______________

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7 DNA and RNA contain four bases each. The base which is not present in RNA is
_____________________.

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of

reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct
explanation of the assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

8 Assertion: Vitamin D can be stored in our body.

Reason: Vitamin D is fat soluble vitamin.

9 Assertion: β-glycosidic linkage is present in maltose,

Reason: Maltose is composed of two glucose units in which C–1 of one glucose
unit is linked to C–4 of another glucose unit.

10 Assertion: Deoxyribose, C5H10O5 is not a carbohydrate.

Reason: Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon so compounds which follow
Cx(H2O)y formula are carbohydrates.

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Living system are made up of complex molecules called Biomolecules.
Carbohydrate, proteins, en- zymes, nucleic acids, lipids, hormones ATP, DNA and
RNA play an important role in our daily life. Carbohydrates provide us energy.
Protein help in growth and maintenance of body. Nucleic acids, RNA helps in
protein synthesis, DNA helps in transfer of genetic characteristics. Fat are source
of energy and protect our vital organs.
i. The sugar present in milk is
(a) Sucrose
(b) Maltose

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(c) Glucose
(d) lactose
ii. α-D (+) glucose and β-D (+) – glucose is
(a) Enantiomers
(b) Geometrical isomers
(c) Anomers
(d) Epimers
iii. Distinction between glucose and fructose can be done by
(a) Benedict’s solution
(b) Tollen’s reagent
(c) Selivanoff’s reagent
(d) Fehling solution
iv. Which does not show mutarotation?
(a) Glucose
(b) Maltose
(c) Fructose
(d) Sucrose
v. Hydrolysis of sucrose gives
(a) Glucose only
(b) Glucose + fructose
(c) Glucose and galactose
(d) Maltose

SECTION B

Q1 Define a ‘Peptide linkage’.

Q2 Name two water soluble vitamins, their sources and the diseases caused due to their deficiency
in diet.

Q3 Explain the following terms:

(i) Invert sugar
(ii) Polypeptides

Q4 Name the products of hydrolysis of sucrose. Why is sucrose not a reducing sugar?

Q5 Define the following terms:

(i) Glycosidic linkage
(ii) Invert sugar
(iii) Oligosaccharides

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Q6 (a) What are essential and non-essential amino acids? Give two examples of each.
(b) How are nucleosides different from nucleotides?

Q7 (i) Deficiency of which vitamin causes night-blindness?

(ii) Name the base that is found in nucleotide of RNA only.
(iii) Glucose on reaction with HI gives n-hexane. What does it suggest about the structure of
glucose?

Q8 (a) Give two differences between globular and fibrous proteins.

(b) What change occurs in the nature of egg protein on boiling?

Q9 (a) How are hormones and vitamins different in respect of their source and functions?
(b) Give one example each of
(i) Globular protein
(ii) Fibrous protein

Q10 (i) Deficiency of which vitamin causes rickets?

(ii) Write the product formed on reaction of D-glucose with Br2 water.
(iii) Write the product formed when glucose is treated with HI.

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to:
• learn the preparation, structure, properties and uses of carbohydrates.
• learn the structures of proteins and its functions in human body.
• understand the differences between DNA and RNA and its functions in life.
• understand the various types of Vitamins, its importance and also list the disease caused by the
deficiency of these vitamins.

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CYCLE IV
CHAPTER 8: d and f – BLOCK ELEMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES–
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Learners will be introduced to the names and electronic configuration of 3d, 4d and 5d transition
elements.
• They will realize the unique physical properties of d-block elements.
• Introduction to variations in atomic and ionic radii of transition elements.
• Comparative study of oxidation states, ionization enthalpies and their gradation along the group
and across the period.
• Graphical studies to relate the stability of different oxidation states by help of E0 potential values.
• They will be acquainted to coloration, magnetic properties, alloy and complex compounds
formation abilities of transition metals and their compounds.
• Outline to Lanthanoid series, Lanthanoid contraction and discussion of exceptions to strengthen
the knowledge of the taught concepts.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• Transition elements are the elements of f block.
Zn, Cd, Hg are not regarded as transition metals due to completely filled d – orbital.
Inner transition elements are the elements of f block.
• General electronic configuration for d block elements is (n-1) d1-10 ns1-2, for Lanthanoids is
[Xe] 4f1–14 5d 0–1 6s2 and for Actinoids is [Rn] 5f1–14 6d 0–1 7s2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
a) Melting and boiling points:
The melting points of the transition elements first rise to a maximum and then fall as the atomic
number increases.
i) Mn and Tc have abnormally low melting points.
ii) Cr, Mo and W have maximum number of unpaired d-electrons and have highest melting points
in their respective series.
iii) Tungsten has the highest melting point (3683 K) among the d-block elements.
iv) As there are no unpaired electrons in Zn, Cd and Hg, they have low melting points. Hg is liquid
at ordinary temperature.
v) 2nd and 3rd series have higher m.pt than the corresponding elements of the first series
b) Atomic and Ionic Sizes:
In 3d Series, the atomic radii decrease from Sc to Mn because of increase in effective nuclear
charge gradually. The atomic radii of group Fe, Co, Ni is almost same because of shielding of
(n‐1)d orbital balances effective nuclear charge. Cu & Zn have bigger size due to strong shielding
of completely filled (n‐1)d orbital.
➢ The 2nd and 3rd series members have similar radii because the normal size increase down the
group of d-block elements almost exactly balanced by the lanthanoid contraction.

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▪ All the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air. The hardness increases
with increasing atomic number, samarium being steel hard. They have typical metallic structure
and are good conductors of heat and electricity.
• Lanthanoid contraction:
The 4f orbitals screen the nuclear charge less effectively because they are large and diffused. The
filling of 4f orbitals before 5d orbitals results in the gradual increase in effective nuclear charge
resulting in a regular decrease in atomic and ionic radii. This phenomenon is called lanthanoid
contraction.
➢ Due to similar radii, 2nd and 3rd series members have very similar physical and chemical
properties.
➢ There is overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii(M+3) from La to Lu (Lanthanoid contraction)
➢ There is gradual decrease in the size of atoms and M3+ ions from Ac to Lw (Actinoid contraction).
The contraction is, however, greater from element to element in this series resulting from poor
shielding by 5f electrons.

• Ionization enthalpies:
The first ionization enthalpies of d-block elements are higher than those of s-block elements and
are lesser than those of p-block elements.
The ionization enthalpies of 3d and 4 d-series are irregular but increase across the series while
those of 5d series are much higher than 3d and 4d elements. This is because of the weak shielding
of nucleus by 4f electrons in 5d transition series which results in greater effective nuclear charge
acting on the outer valence electrons.

• Oxidation States:
Variable oxidation states are observed for all the transition elements except the first and the last
member in
each series due to small energy difference between (n‐1)d &ns orbital as a result both (n‐1)d &ns
electrons take part in bond formation.
The highest oxidation state of an element is equal to number of unpaired electrons present in (n‐
1)d&ns orbital.

The highest oxidation states of transition metals are found in fluorides and
oxides since fluorine and oxygen are the most electronegative elements.

Oxidation States of Lanthanoids and Actinoids

The most common and most stable oxidation state of lanthanoids is +3. They also show oxidation
states of +2, and +4 if the corresponding lanthanoid ions have extra stable 4f0, 4f7 and 4f14
configuration.
Ce4+ + e–  Ce3+, + 3 more stable O.S. than + 4
Tb2+ + e–  Tb3+, + 3 more stable O.S. than + 4
Hence Ce4+ and Tb4+ are strong oxidants.
Eu2+ Eu3+ + e–, +3 more stable O.S. than +2
Yb2+ Yb3+ + e–, + 3 more stable O.S. than + 3
Hence, Eu2+ and Yb2+ are strong reducing agents.

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Actinoids also show most common O.S. of + 3 but it is not always most stable. Actinoids also
show higher oxidation states, e.g., Th (+4),Pa (+5), U (+ 6) and Np (+ 7).

Participation of 5f electrons of actinoids in bonding and actinoid contraction

5f orbitals in actinoids are not as buried as 4f orbials in lanthanoids and hence 5f electrons can
participate in bonding to a far greater extent.
There in a gradual decrease in atomic size or M3+ ions across the actionoid series. Since 5f orbitals
are larger and more diffuse than 4f orbitals, the nuclear charge is screen less effectively than 4f
electrons in lanthanoids. Hence actinoid contraction is more than lanthanoid contraction.

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• Relationship between E0red and stability of various

oxidation states:
The E0 (Mn+/M) values for 3d series does not follow a regular
trend .This is due to irregularity in ionization enthalpy and heat
of atomization
The reducing property of a transition metal will be higher if
ΔrH0 has a large negative value.
More positive the E0(Mn+/M) value, stronger is the oxidizing
agent.

• Special features of transition and inner transition elements :

➢ Due to their small size, high charge and vacant d-orbitals, d block elements form Complexes
/coordination compounds. These form coloured ions, exhibit catalytic properties and are generally
paramagnetic in nature.
➢
➢ Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state and in aqueous solutions. Colour
of these ions may be attributed to the presence of f electrons. Neither La3+ nor Lu3+ ion shows any
colour but the rest do so.
➢ However, absorption bands are narrow, probably because of the excitation within f level. The
lanthanoid ions other than the f 0 type (La3+ and Ce4+) and the f 14 type (Yb2+ and Lu3+) are all
paramagnetic. The paramagnetism rises to maximum in neodymium

Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements

All the metals except scandium form MO oxides which are ionic. As the oxidation number of a metal
increases, ionic character decreases.
no higher oxides of iron above Fe2O3 are known. The oxocations stabilise VV as VO2+, VIV as VO2+
and TiIV as TiO2+.
Mn2O7 gives HMnO4 and CrO3 gives H2CrO4 and H2Cr2O7. V2O5 is amphoteric and Cr2O3 is
amphoteric.

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The chromate ion is tetrahedral whereas the dichromate ion consists of two tetrahedral sharing one
corner with Cr–O–Cr bond angle of 126°.
Electrode potential values shows that acidified KMnO4 is a stronger oxidising agent than acidified
K2Cr2O7. But KMnO4 in faint alkaline medium is a stronger oxidising agent than acidified KMnO4.
The manganate and permanganate ions are tetrahedral; the green manganate is paramagnetic with
one unpaired electron but the permanganate is diamagnetic.

SECTION A
1 The electronic configuration of Cu(II) is 3d9 whereas that of Cu(I) is 3d10. Which of the
following is correct?
▪ (i) Cu(II) is more stable
▪ (ii) Cu(II) is less stable
▪ (iii) Cu(I) and Cu(II) are equally stable
▪ (iv) Stability of Cu(I) and Cu(II) depends on nature of copper salts

2 Metallic radii of some transition elements are given below. Which of these elements will
have highest density?

▪ (i) Fe
▪ (ii) Ni
▪ (iii) Co
▪ (iv) Cu
▪
3 On addition of small amount of KMnO4 to concentrated H2SO4, a green oily Compound is
obtained which is highly explosive in nature. Identify the compound from the following.
▪ (i) Mn2O7
▪ (ii) MnO2
▪ (iii) MnSO4
▪ (iv) Mn2O3

4 Which of the following oxidation state is common for all lanthanides?

▪ (i) +2
▪ (ii) +3
▪ (iii) +4
▪ (iv) +5

5 Which of the following reactions are disproportionation reactions?

▪ (a) Cu+ → Cu2+ + Cu
▪ (b) 3MnO4– + 4H+ → 2MnO4– + MnO2 + 2H2O
▪ (c) 2KMnO4 → K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2

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▪ (d) 2MnO4– + 3Mn2+ + 2H2O → 5MnO2 + 4H+

(i) a, b
(ii) a, b, c
(iii) b, c, d
(iv) a, d

6 KMnO4 acts as an oxidising agent in acidic medium. The number of moles of KMnO4 that
will be needed to react with one mole of sulphide ions in acidic solution is
_________________.

7 Among the following, Mn2O7, CrO3, Cr2O3, CrO, V2O5, V2O4 the amphoteric oxide is
________________.

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of
the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

8 Assertion: Separation of Zr and Hf is difficult.

Reason: Because Zr and Hf lie in the same group of the periodic table.

9 Assertion: Cu cannot liberate hydrogen from acids.

Reason: Because it has positive electrode potential.
10 Observe the graph of transition metal and their melting points and answer the questions based
on the graph and related concepts.

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i. Why does W (tungsten) has highest melting point?

ii. Which element in 3d series has lowest enthalpy of atomisation and why?
iii. Why is mercury liquid?
iv. Why transition metals less electropositive than ‘s’-block elements?
v. How does density vary from left to right in 3d series and why?
vi. Which of the following are d-block elements but not regarded as transition
elements?
(a) Cu, Ag, Au
(b) Zn, Cd, Hg
(c) Fe, Co, Ni
(d) Ru, Rh, Pd
vii. Which one of the following characteristics of the transition metals is
associated with higher catalytic activity?
(a) High enthalpy of atomisation
(b) Paramagnetic behaviour
(c) Colour of hydrate ions
(d) Variable oxidation states

SECTION B

Q1 Explain the following observations:

(a) Silver atom has completely filled d-orbitals (4d10) in its ground state, yet it is regarded
as a transition element.
(b) E0 value for Mn3+ /Mn2+ couple is much more positive than Cr3+/Cr2+.

Q2 Explain the following observations:

(i) Zn2+ salts are colourless.
(ii) Copper has exceptionally positive E0M2+/M value.

Q3 Write the formula of an oxo-anion of Manganese (Mn) in which it shows the oxidation
state equal to its group number.

Q4 How would you account for the following?

(i) With the same d-orbital configuration (d4) Cr2+ is a reducing agent while Mn3+ is an
oxidizing agent.
(ii) Most of the transition metal ions exhibit characteristic in colours in aqueous
solutions.

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Q5 How would you account for the following:

(i) Many of the transition elements and their compounds can act as good catalysts.
(ii) The metallic radii of the third (5d) series of transition elements are virtually the same
as those of the corresponding members of the second series.
(iii) There is a greater range of oxidation states among the actinoids than among the
lanthanoids?

Q6 Complete the following chemical equations:

Q7 Explain the following observations giving an appropriate reason for each.

(i) The enthalpies of atomization of transition elements are quite high.
(ii) There occurs much more frequent metal- metal bonding in compounds of heavy
transition metals (i.e. 3rd series).
(iii) Mn2+ is much more resistant than Fe2+ towards oxidation.

Q8 Explain the following observations:

(i) Generally there is an increase in density of elements from titanium (Z = 22) to copper
(Z = 29) in the first series of transition elements.
(ii) Cr2+ is a strong reducing agent.

Q9 Describe the preparation of potassium permanganate. How does the acidified

permanganate solution react with oxalic acid? Write the ionic equations for the reactions.

Q10 Describe the oxidising action of potassium dichromate and write the ionic equations for
its reaction with
(i) iodine (ii) H2S.

Q11 When chromite ore FeCr2O4 is fused with NaOH in presence of air, a yellow-coloured
compound (A) is obtained which on acidification with dilute sulphuric acid gives a
compound (B). Compound (B) on reaction with KC1 forms an orange-coloured
crystalline compound (C).
(i) Write the formulae of the compounds (A), (B) and (C).
(ii) Write one use of compound (C).

Q12 (a) Answer the following questions:

(i) Which element of the first transition series has highest second ionization enthalpy?

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(ii) Which element of the first transition series has highest third ionization enthalpy?
(iii) Which element of the first transition series has lowest enthalpy of atomization?
(b) Identify the metal and justify your answer:
(i) Carbonyl M(CO)5 (ii) MO3F

Q13 Mention the type of compounds formed when small atoms like H, C and N get trapped
inside the crystal lattice of transition metals. Also give physical and chemical
characteristics of these compounds.

Q14 A violet compound of manganese (A) decomposes on heating to liberate oxygen and
compounds (B) and (C) of manganese are formed. Compound (C) reacts with KOH in the
presence of potassium nitrate to give compound (B). On heating compound (C) with cone.
H2SO4 and NaCl, chlorine gas is liberated and a compound (D) of manganese along with
other products is formed. Identify compounds A to D and also explain the reactions
involved.

Q15 Match the statements given in Column I with the oxidation states given in Column II.

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to:
• understand the position of the d-and f-blocks of elements in the periodic table & its electronic
configurations.
• understand the general properties of the transition elements.
• learn the preparation and properties of, K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4
• understand the general properties of the properties of f-block elements &Lanthanides &
Actinides contraction

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CYCLE IV
CHAPTER 9: COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES -
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Appreciate the postulates of Werner’s theory of coordination compounds
• Know the meaning of the terms: coordination entity, central atom/ ion, ligand, coordination
number, coordination sphere, coordination polyhedron, oxidation number, Homoleptic and
Heteroleptic.
• Learn the rules of nomenclature of coordination compounds
• Write the formulas and names of mononuclear coordination compounds
• Define different types of isomerism in coordination compounds
• Understand the nature of bonding in coordination compounds in terms of the Valence Bond
and Crystal Field theories
• Appreciate the importance and applications of coordination compounds in our day-to-day
life.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• Difference between coordination compound and double bond:

Coordination compound Double salt

A coordination compound contains a When two salts in stoichiometric ratio are
central metal atom or ion surrounded by crystallised together from their saturated
number of oppositely charged ions or solution they are called double salts
neutral molecules. These ions or
molecules are bonded to the metal atom or
ion by a coordinate bond.
Example: K4[Fe(CN)6] Eg:FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O (Mohr’s salt)
They do not dissociate into simple ions They dissociate into simple ions when
when dissolved in water. dissolved in water.

Taking the Example of K4[Fe(CN)6] :

Coordination entity: [Fe(CN)6]4- represents
coordination entity.
• Central atom or ion: Fe²+ is the central metal
ion.
• Ligand: A molecule, ion or group that is bonded
to the metal atom or ion in a complex or
coordination compound by a coordinate bond. It may be neutral, positively or negatively charged.
Here,CN- is the ligand.
• Donor atom: Carbon is a donor atom.
• Coordination number: The coordination number of Fe is 6.

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• Coordination sphere: [Fe(CN)6]4- is the coordination sphere.

• Counter ions: K+ is the counter ion.
• Coordination polyhedron: K4[Fe(CN)6] is octahedral, [PtCl4]2- is square planar, Ni(CO)4 is
tetrahedral while [Cu(NH3)6]3+ is octahedral.
• Charge on the complex ion: The charge on the complex ion is equal to the algebraic sum of the
charges on all the ligands coordinated to the central metal ion.
• Denticity: The number of ligating (linking) atoms present in ligand is called denticity.
• Unidentate ligands: Donates 1 pair of electrons. Example: H2O, NH3, CO, CN-
• Didentate ligands: Donates 2 pairs of electrons. For example: ethylene diamine
(H2NCH2CH2NH2) and oxalate ion, C2O42–
• Polydentate ligand: Donates several pair of electrons.(EDTA4–) is an important hexadentate
ligand. It can bind through two nitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion.
• Chelate: An inorganic metal complex in which there is a close ring of atoms caused by
attachment of a ligand to a metal atom at two points. Eg: [Cu(NH2CH2NH2)2]2+.
• Ambidentate ligand: Ligands which can ligate (link) through two different atoms Example:
NO2-,and SCN-.

• Oxidation number of central atom: of Fe atom is +2.

• Homoleptic complexes: In which metal or ion is coordinate bonded to only one kind of donor
atoms. Eg: [Co(NH3)6]3+
• Heteroleptic complexes: In which metal or ion is coordinate bonded to more than one kind of
donor atoms. Eg: [CoCl2(NH3)4]+, [Co(NH3)5Br]2+
• Werner’s coordination theory: Werner was able to explain the nature of bonding in complexes.
The postulates of Werner’s theory are:
a. Metal shows two different kinds of valencies: primary valence and secondary valence.
Primary valence Secondary valence
This valence is normally ionizable. This valence is non – ionizable.
It is equal to positive charge on central The secondary valency equals the number
metal atom. of ligand atoms coordinated to the metal. It
is also called coordination number of the
metal.
These valencies are satisfied by negatively It is commonly satisfied by neutral and
charged ions. negatively charged, sometimes by
positively charged ligands.
Example: in CrCl3, the primary valency is three. It is equal to oxidation state of central
metal ion.

b. The ions/ groups bound by secondary linkages to the metal have characteristic spatial
arrangements corresponding to different coordination numbers.
c. The most common geometrical shapes in coordination compounds are octahedral, square planar
and tetrahedral.
• Isomers. Two or more compounds which have same chemical formula but different arrangement
of atoms are called isomers.

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• Types of isomerism:
a. Structural isomerism: i) Linkage isomerism ii) Solvate isomerism or hydrate isomerism iii)
Ionisation isomerism iv) Coordination isomerism
b. Stereoisomerism: i) Geometrical isomerism ii) Optical isomerism

• STRUCTURAL ISOMERISMOR CONSTITUTIONAL ISOMERISM: This type of

isomerism arises due to the difference in structures of coordination compounds.

a) Ionisation isomerism: Eg: [Co(NH3)5Br] SO4 and [Co(NH3)5SO4] Br .

[Co(NH3)4Cl2]NO2 and [Co(NH3)4NO2Cl]Cl

b) Solvate isomerism: [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl.2H2O - Bright green; [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2.H2O - grey-

green; [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 – Violet. These isomers on reaction with AgNO3 to test for Cl- ions,
would release 1,2, and 3 Cl- ions in solution respectively.

c) Linkage isomerism: Eg: [Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl2 (Red) and

[Co(NH3)5NO2]Cl2 (Yellow)

d) Coordination isomerism: Eg: [Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6] and [Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6]

[Pt(NH3)4] [CuCl4] and [Cu(NH3)4] [PtCl4]

e) Ligand isomerism: H2N - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - NH2 or H2N - CH2 - CH - CH3

• STEREOISOMERISM: Stereo isomers have the same chemical formula and chemical bonds but
they have different spatial arrangement.
a. Geometrical isomerism (or) cis-trans isomerism:
Possible for both square planar [MX2L2] and octahedral complexes,
but not tetrahedral.

➢ Other square planar complex of the type, MABXL (where A, B, X, L are

unidentates) shows three isomers-
two cis and one trans.
➢ In Octahedral complex, along the
twelve edges of the octahedron,
there are twelve cis positions.They
are (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (2,6)
(3,6) (4,6) (5,6) (3,4) (4,5) (2,5)
and
(2,3). There are three trans positions; they are (1,6) (2,4) and (3,5).
➢ Type A: [Ma4b2] where a and b are monodentate ligands, exists as two geometrical Isomers: cis and
trans.

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➢ Type B: [M(AA)2a2]n± where (AA) is a symmetrical bidentate ligand and‘a’ is a monodentate ligand.
➢ TYPE C: [Ma3b3] n± where a and b are monodentate ligands have Fac(ligands occupy corners of an
octahedral face) and Mer (ligands are present around
the meridian of the octahedron) Isomers.
➢ TYPE D: [Ma2b2c2] structures have 5
geometric isomers.

• OPTICAL ISOMERISM(CHIRALITY): Optical isomers/chiral molecules or ions are non super-

imposable mirror images.
The two forms are called dextro (d) and laevo
(l) (d rotates plane of polarised light in a
polarimeter to the right, l to the left).
➢ Square planar complexes, being planar are
achiral i.e optically inactive.
➢ Optical isomerism is common in octahedral
complexes involving didentate ligands.

➢ TYPE A : In [M(AA)2a2]n±, only the cis-isomer shows optical

activity. Eg [Cr(H2O)2(ox)2]-

➢ TYPE B : [M(AA)3]n± , eg [Co(en)3]+3

• NAMING OF MONONUCLEAR COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

a) The cation is named first in both positively and negatively charged coordination entities.
b) The ligands are named in an alphabetical order before the name of the central atom/ion.
c) The name of the anionic ligands end in –o, those of neutral and cationic ligands are same except aqua
for H2O, ammine for NH3, carbonyl for CO and nitrosyl for NO. These are placed within enclosing
marks.
d) The prefixes mono, di, tri, etc., are used to indicate the number of the individual ligands in the
coordination entity. The terms, bis, tris , tetrakis are used if the ligand is present 2,3,4 respectively.
e) Oxidation state of the metal in cation, anion, or neutral coordination entity is indicated by roman
numeral in parenthesis.
f) If the complex ion is a cation , the metal is same as the element.
g) The neutral complex molecule is named similar to that of the complex cation.
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h) A complex anion is named the same way excep the metal is given the suffix “ate” regardless of its
oxidation state. When there is a Latin name for the metal, it is usually used to name the anion.

• IUPAC Nomenclature of mono nuclear coordination compounds

[Co(NH3)5Cl]2+ : Pentaamminechlorocobalt(III) ion
[Co(NH3)6]Cl3 : Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride
[Cr(en)3]Cl3 : Tris (ethylenediamine)chromium(III) chloride
K4[Fe(CN)6] : Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II)
[Ni(CN)4]2- : Tetracyanonickelate(II) ion
[PtCl2(NH3)2] : Diamminedichloroplatinum(II)
K3[Cr(C2O4)3].3H2O Potassiumtris(oxalato)chromate(III) trihydrate

Valence bond theory: According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of ligands
can use its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation to yield a set of equivalent orbitals
of definite geometry such as octahedral, tetrahedral, and square planar. These hybridised orbitals are
allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can donate electron pairs for bonding.
Coordination Type of hybridization Distribution of hybrid
number orbitals in space
3
4 sp tetrahedral
4 dsp2 Square planar
3
5 sp d Trigonal bipyramidal
3 2
6 sp d (nd orbitals are involved – outer orbital Octahedral
complex/high spin or spin free complex)
6 d2sp3((n-1) d orbitals are involved –inner Octahedral
orbital or low spin or spin paired complex)

• Limitations of Valence Bond Theory

a) It does not explain the colour exhibited by coordination compounds.
b) It does not give a quantitative interpretation of the thermodynamic or kinetic stabilities of
coordination compounds.
c) It does not distinguish between weak and strong ligands

• Structures of few complexes using VBT

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Magnetic properties of coordination compounds: Paramagnetic in nature if it has unpaired

electrons and diamagnetic if all the electrons in the coordination compound are paired.

Magnetic moment where n is number of unpaired electrons. s = √𝑛(𝑛 − 2) BM

Fe+2ion:

CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY:

➢ Assumes the ligands to be point charges.
➢ Theoretical assumption that there is electrostatic force of attraction between ligands and metal atom
or ion.
➢ When Ligands approach the metal ion, the d orbitlas orientated in different planes experience
different repulsion. The degeneracy of the d-orbitals is lifted due to asymmetrical field. This results
in splitting of the d-orbital energies.
➢ The pattern of splitting depends upon (a) nature of the crystal field such as octahedral, tetrahedral of
square planar and (b) basic strength of ligands.
t2g orbitals : These are dxy dyz, dxz and all have lobes lying between the axis.
eg orbitals : These are dx2–y2 and dz2 and all have lobes along the axis.

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➢ Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination complexes: In octahedral crystal field of ligands,
the d-orbitals are split into two sets of d
orbitals
(i) t2g orbitals of lower energy : these feel
lesser repulsion
(ii) eg orbitals of higher energy: these feel
more repulsion than t2g
Each electron occupying t2g orbital results
in the lowering of energy by – 0.4 Δ0 and
each electron occupying the eg orbital
increases the energy by + 0.6Δ0. If x is the
no. of electrons occupying t2g orbitals and
‘y’ is the no. of electrons occupying the eg
orbitals, then CFSE

➢ Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination complexes:

For the same metal, the same ligands and metal-ligand
distances, the difference in energy between eg and t2g level
is

• Spectrochemical series :
For a given metal, different ligands have different effects on
the magnitude of the splitting of
the d-orbitals. The spectrochemical series below shows the
ligands in the order of their
ability to produce a large ∆.
I–< Br–< SCN–< Cl–< S2–< F –< OH–< C2O42–< H2O < NCS–< edta4–< NH3< en < CN–< CO

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• High spin complex: Ligands for which Δo < P are known as weak field ligands and form high
spin complexes. There is minimum pairing of electrons in the d orbitals of the
• metal atom i.e maximum number of unpaired electrons.
• Low spin complex: Ligands for which Δo > P are known as
strong field ligands and form low spin complexes. There is
maximum pairing of electrons in the d orbitals of the metal
atom i.e minimum number of unpaired electrons.

• Crystal field theory versus Valence Bond theory:

In terms of the Valence Bond theory, the
high-spin complex is equivalent to outer-orbital complex
(sp3d2) and the low-spin complex is equivalent to inner-orbital
complex (d2sp3).

Formation of Coloured Ions:

Degeneracy of d-orbitals is lifted in presence of the field of ligands approaching the central metal
ion. Unpaired electron gets excited from one energy level to the other using energy of visible light.
The colour observed corresponds to the complementary colour of the light absorbed. In an octahedral
transition metal complex, an electron gets excited from t2g level to eg level. During this d-d transition,
a characteristic wave length of visible light is absorbed and therefore transmitted light appears
coloured.

Uses of coordination compounds

1. Dyes and Pigments 6. Synthetic detergents

2. Analytical Chemistry 7. Catalysts

a) Colour Tests 8. Chelate therapy

b) Gravimetric Analysis 9. In black and white photography

c) Complexometric Titrations and Masking Agents 10. To remove harness of water

3. Extraction/Refining of Metals 11. Bio Coordination Compounds

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4. Bio-Inorganic Chemistry a. Haemoglobin: Transport and storage of oxygen

b. Chlorophyll: Photosynthesis
5. Chemotherapy c. Ferredoxins Rubredoxins: Electron Transfer

METAL CARBONYLS :
Metal carbonyls are homoleptic complexes in which carbon
monoxide (CO) acts as the ligand. These carbonyls have simple,
well defined structures.
For example: Ni(CO)4 is tetrahedral, Fe(CO)5 is
trigonalbipyramidal and Cr(CO)6 is octahedral.
Mn2(CO)10 is made up of two square pyramidal where Mn(CO)5 units joined by a Mn – Mn
bond.Co(CO)8 has a Co – Co bond bridged by two CO groups.
The metal – carbon bond in metal carbonyls possesses both characters. The metal-carbon bond in
metal carbonyls possess both s and p character. The M–C σ bond is formed by the donation of lone
pair of electrons from the carbonyl carbon into a vacant orbital of the metal. The M–C π bond is
formed by the donation of a pair of electrons from a filled d orbital of metal into the vacant
antibonding π* orbital of carbon monoxide. The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic effect
which strengthens the bond between CO and the metal.

• Stability of Coordination Compounds:

The stability of a complex in a solution refers to the degree of association between the two species
involved in a state of equilibrium.
K1, K2, etc., are referred to as stepwise stability constants.
The stepwise and overall stability constant are therefore related as follows:
n = K1 × K2 × K3 × K4 .......Kn

SECTION A
1 The colour of the coordination compounds depends on the crystal field splitting.
What will be the correct order of absorption of wavelength of light in the visible
region, for the complexes, [Co(NH3)6]3+ , [Co(CN)6]3-, [Co(H2O)3]3+
▪ (i) [Co(CN)6]3- > [Co(NH3)6]3+ > [Co(H2O)6]3+
▪ (ii) [Co(NH3)6]3+ > [Co(H2O)6]3+ > [Co(CN)6]3-
▪ (iii) [Co(H2O)6]3+ > [Co(NH3)6]3+ > [Co(CN)6]3-
▪ (iv) [Co(CN)6]3- > [Co(NH3)6]3+ > [Co(H2O)6]3+

2 When 1 mol CrCl3⋅6H2O is treated with excess of AgNO3, 3 mol of AgCl are
obtained. The formula of the complex is :
▪ (i) [CrCl3(H2O)3]⋅3H2O
▪ (ii) [CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl⋅2H2O
▪ (iii) [CrCl(H2O)5]Cl2⋅H2O
▪ (iv) [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3

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3 The correct IUPAC name of [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] is

▪ (i) Diamminedichloridoplatinum (II)
▪ (ii) Diamminedichloridoplatinum (IV)
▪ (iii) Diamminedichloridoplatinum (0)
▪ (iv) Dichloridodiammineplatinum (IV)

4 Indicate the complex ion which shows geometrical isomerism.

▪ (i) [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]+
▪ (ii) [Pt(NH3)3Cl]
▪ (iii) [Co(NH3)6]3+
▪ (iv) [Co(CN)5(NC)]3-

5 The compounds [Co(SO4)(NH3)5]Br and [Co(SO4)(NH3)5]Cl represent

▪ (i) linkage isomerism
▪ (ii) ionisation isomerism
▪ (iii) coordination isomerism
▪ (iv) no isomerism
6 The kind of isomerism which exists in between [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 (violet) and
[Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2⋅H2O (greyish-green) is _______________________.

7 IUPAC name of [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)] is __________________________.

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason

is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation
of the assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

8 Assertion : Complexes of MX6 and MX5L type (X and L are unidentate) do not
show geometrical isomerism.
Reason : Geometrical isomerism is not shown by complexes of coordination number
6.

9 Assertion : ([Fe(CN)6]3- ion shows magnetic moment corresponding to two unpaired

electrons.
Reason : Because it has d2sp3 type hybridisation.

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10 Assertion : Linkage isomerism arises in coordination compounds containing

ambidentate ligand.
Reason : Ambidentate ligand has two different donor atoms.

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Complex compounds play an important role in our daily life. Werner’s theory of
complex compounds says every metal atom or ion has primary valency (oxidation
state) which is satisfied by –vely charged ions, ionisable where secondary valency
(coordination number) is non-ionizable, satisfied by ligands (+ve, –ve, neutral) but
having lone pair. Primary valency is non-directional, secondary valency is directional.
Complex compounds are name according to IUPAC system. Valence bond theory
helps in determining shapes of complexes based on hybridisation, magnetic
properties, outer or inner orbital complex. Complex show ionisation, linkage, solvate
and coordination isomerism also called structural isomerism. Some of them also show
stereoisomerism i.e., geometrical, and optical isomerism. Ambidentate ligand are
essential to show linkage isomerism. Polydentate ligands form more stable complexes
then unidentate ligands. There are called chelating agents. EDTA is used to treat lead
poisoning, cis-platin as anticancer agents. Vitamin B-12 is complex of cobalt.
Hemoglobin, oxygen carrier is complex of Fe2+ and chlorophyll essential for
photosynthesis is complex of Mg2+.
i.What is the oxidation state of Ni in [Ni(CO)4]?
ii.Out Cis – [Pt(en)2Cl2]2+ and trans (Pt(en)2Cl2)2+. Which one shows optical
isomerism?
iii.Out [Fe(CO)5], [Fe(C2O4)3]3–, [Fe(H2O)6]3+,[Fe(CN)]3–, which is most stable? 6
iv. Primary and secondary valency of Pt in [Pt(en)2Cl2] are
(a) 4, 4
(b) 4, 6
(c) 6, 4
(d) 2, 6
v. The complex ions [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]2+ and [Co(NH3)5 (ONO)]2+ are called
(a) Ionization isomers
(b) Linkage isomers
(c) Co-ordination isomers
(d) Geometrical isomers.
vi. The solution of the complex [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 in water will
(a) give the tests of Cu2+ ion
(b) give the tests of NH3
(c) give the tests of SO42- ions

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(d) not give the tests of any of the above

SECTION B

Q1 Give an example of linkage isomerism.

Q2 Give IUPAC name of ionization isomer of [Ni(NH3)3NO3]Cl.

Q3 Write down the formula of: Tetraamineaquachloridocobalt (III) chloride.

Q4 Indicate the types of isomerisms exhibited by the complex [Co(NH3)5 (NO2)]

(NO3)2. (At. no. Co = 27)

Q5 Write the structures and names of all the stereoisomers of the following compounds:
(i) [Co(en)3]Cl3
(ii) [Pt(NH3)2Cl2]
(iii) [Fe(NH3)4Cl2]Cl

Q6 Write the state of hybridization, the shape and the magnetic behaviour of the
following complex entities :
(t) [Cr(NH3)4Cl2]Cl
(ii) [Co(en)3]Cl3
(iii) K2[Ni(CN)4]

Q7 Give the formula of each of the following coordination entities :

(i) Co3+ ion is bound to one Cl–, one NH3 molecule and two bidentate ethylene
diamine (en) molecules.
(ii) Ni2+ ion is bound to two water molecules and two oxalate ions.
Write the name and magnetic behaviour of each of the above coordination entities.
(At nos. Co = 27, Ni = 28)
Q8 State a reason for each of the following situations:
(i) Co2+ is easily oxidized to Co3+ in presence of a strong ligand.
(ii) CO is a stronger complexing reagent than NH3.
(iii) The molecular shape of [Ni(CO)4] is not the
same as that of [Ni(CN)4]2

Q9 What is meant by crystal field splitting energy? Based on crystal field theory, write
the electronic configuration of d4 in terms of t2g and eg in an octahedral field when

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(i) Δ0 > P
(ii) Δ0 < P

Q10 (a) Using Valence bond theory explain the geometry and magnetic behaviour by
[Cr(NH3)6]3+ . (At. no. Cr = 24)
(b) Write the IUPAC name of ionization isomer of [Ni(NH3)3NO3]Cl.

Q11 (i) Draw the geometrical isomers of complex [Pt(NH3)2Cl2].

(ii) On the basis of crystal field theory, write the electronic configuration for d4 ion
if Δ0 < P.
(iii) Write the hybridization and magnetic behaviour of the complex [Ni(CO)4]. (At.
no. of Ni = 28)

Q12 (a) For the complex [Fe(CN)6]3- write the hybridization type, magnetic character and
spin nature of the complex. (At. number: Fe = 26).
(b) Draw one of the geometrical isomers of the complex [Pt(en)2Cl2]2+ which is
optically active.

LEARNING OUTCOMES -
Learners will be able to:
• know the meaning of some important terms
• know how to write the IUPAC name of co-ordination compounds and its formulae
• understand the different types of isomerism in coordination compounds
• understand the nature of bonding in co-ordination compounds in terms of Werner's, Valence
Bond and Crystal Field theories
• know the stability of co-ordination compounds
• understand the Metal carbonyls, application of coordination compounds in our life.

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CYCLE V
CHAPTER 1: SOLID STATE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Describe general characteristics of solid state
• Distinguish between amorphous and crystalline solids
• Classify crystalline solids on the basis of the nature of binding forces
• Define crystal lattice and unit cell
• Explain close packing of particles
• Describe different types of voids and close packed structures
• Calculate the packing efficiency of different types of cubic unit cells
• Correlate the density of a substance with its unit cell properties
• Describe the imperfections in solids and their effect on properties
• Correlate the electrical and magnetic properties of solids and their structure.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
Solids are substances which have fixed shape
and volume. They are characterized by rigidity, incompressibility, slow diffusion and mechanical
strength. They are classified as:
(a) Crystalline solids
(b) Amorphous solids.
The crystalline solids are further classified as:
The classification of crystalline solids is based on their property. The crystalline property depends
on the nature of interactions between the constituent particles, and therefore these solids are
divided into four different categories:

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3. A regular three-dimensional arrangement of points in space is called a space lattice or crystal

lattice. There are only 14 three-dimensional lattices known as Bravais lattices. The basic difference
between the 14 Bravais lattices are the angles between the faces and the relative proportion of the
sides.
4. A unit cell is the smallest unit of the crystal which when repeated and again gives the crystal of
the given substance.
There are three types of unit cells based on the cube. These are:
(a) Primitive or simple cube which has one constituent at each comer.
(b) Body-centred cube in which one constituent at the centre of the cube as well as one at each
comer.
(c) Face-centred cube in which there is one constituent at the centre of each face as well as one at
each comer.

A lattice can be generated by repeating a small portion called the unit cell. Below are some of the
different varieties of the unit cell:

1. Primitive Cubic Unit Cell

2. Body-centered Cubic Unit Cell
3. Face centered cubic unit cell

6. A pure metal in the solid crystalline state is composed of atoms that are identical in shape and
size. The identical spheres can be packed in a number of ways.
7. The number of nearest neighbours of an atom, ion or a molecule is called its coordination
number.

In solids, the constituent particles are close-packed, leaving the minimum vacant space.
(a) Close Packing in One Dimension
In close packing one dimension, spheres are arranged in a row such that adjacent atoms are in
contact with each other. Coordination number is defined as the no. of nearest neighbour particles.
In case of one dimension close packing, the coordination number is equal to two.
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(b) Close packing in Two Dimensions

In two-dimensional close packing, a row of closed packed spheres is stacked to obtain a two-
dimensional pattern.
his stacking is done in two ways:
Square close packing and Hexagonal close packing

Packing in Solids: One and Two Dimensions

Crystalline solids exhibit a regular and repeating pattern of constituent particles. Three-dimensional
closed packing are:
(i) Three-dimensional close packing forms two-dimensional square close-packed layers
(ii) Three-dimensional close packing from two-dimensional hexagonal close-packed layers.
Formula of a Compound and Number of Voids Filled
Voids literally mean gaps between the constituent particles. Voids in solid states mean the vacant
space between the constituent particles in a closed packed structure.

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There are two types of interstitial voids in a 3D

structure:
Tetrahedral voids and Octahedral voids
8. In the hcp and ccp structures, about 74 percent of
the available space is occupied by the spheres. In
bcc arrangement, about 68 percent of the available
space is filled up. In simple cubic structures, about
52.4 percent of the available space is occupied by
the spheres.

9. The density of the unit cell,

10. Any departure from perfectly ordered arrangement of atoms or ions in crystals is called
imperfection or defects. These are of two types:
(a) Point defects (b) Line defects
Frenkel defect – In ionic solids generally, the smaller ion (cation) moves out of its place and
occupies an intermolecular space. In this case, a vacancy defect is created on its original position
and the interstitial defect is experienced at its new position.

3. Schottky defect – This kind of vacancy defects is found in Ionic Solids. But in ionic compounds,
we need to balance the electrical neutrality of the compound so an equal number of anions and
cations will be missing from the compound. It reduces the density of the substance. In this, the size
of cations and anions are of almost the same.

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14. Non-stoichiometric defects are a large number of inorganic solids in which the ratio of the
number of atoms of one kind to the number of atoms of the other kind does not correspond to the
ideal whole number ratio. Such compounds are called non-stoichiometric compounds.
15. When there is an excess of metal ions in non- stoichiometric compounds, the crystal lattice has
vacant anion sites. These sites are occupied by electrons. Hie anion sites occupied by electrons are
called F-centres.
16. Based on their electrical conductivity, solids are classified as:
(a) Conductors
(b) Insulators
(c) Semi conductors

17. Pure substances that show conducting behaviour like that of silicon and germanium are
called intrinsic semiconductors.
18. When solid substances are placed in a magnetic field, they do not show the same behaviour.
Depending on their response to magnetic field, the substances are classified as:
(a) Diamagnetic substances:
(i) These substances are weakly repelled by a magnetic field.
(ii) The electrons are paired.
(b) Paramagnetic substances:
(i) These substances are weakly attracted by the magnetic field.
(ii) These substances have permanent magnetic dipoles due to die presence of atoms, molecules
or ions containing unpaired electrons.
19. Substances having unpaired electrons are classified as:

SECTION A
Q1 Assertion: No compound has both Schottky and Frenkel defects.
Reason: Both defects change the density of the solid.

Q2 Assertion: Antiferromagnetic substance on heating to high temperature become

paramagnetic.
Reason: On heating, randomization of spin occurs.

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Q3 Assertion: If sum of the radii of Na+ and Cl- ions in NaCl crystal (FCC) is 281pm.
Hence, the edge of the unit cell is 281 pm.
Reason: Edge of the unit cell is the distance between the centers of Na+ and Cl- ion
touching each other.

Q4 Assertion: Triclinic system is the most unsymmetric system.

Reason: No axial angle is equal to 900 in triclinic system.

Q5 Assertion: The octahedral voids have double the size of the tetrahedral voids in the
crystal.
Reason: The number of tetrahedral voids is double the number of octahedral voids in a
crystal.

Q6 Which one of the following is non-crystalline or amorphous?

(a) Diamond
(b) Graphite
(c) Glass
(d) Common Salt

Q7 Alkali halides do not show Frenkel defect because

(a) cations and anions have almost equal size
(b) there is a large difference in size of cations and anions
(c) cations and anions have low coordination number
(d) anions cannot be accommodated in voids.

Q8 Edge length of unit cell of chromium metal is 287 pm with bcc arrangement. The
atomic radius is of the order
(a) 287 pm
(b) 574 pm
(c) 124.27 pm
(d) 143.5 pm

Q9 The edge length of fee cell is 508 pm. If radius of cation is 110 pm, the radius of anion
is
(a) 110 pm
(b) 220 pm
(c) 285 pm
(d) 144 pm

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Q10 The density of a metal which crystallises in bcc lattice with unit cell edge length 300
pm and molar mass 50 g mol-1 will be
(a) 10 g cm-3
(b) 14.2 g cm-3
(c) 6.15 g cm-3
(d) 9.3 2 g cm-3

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Solids may be classified as amorphous and crystalline. Amorphous solids are isotropic
whereas crystalline solids are anisotropic. Solids can also be classified based on type
of forces of attraction as ionic, covalent, metallic, and molecular solids. Unit cells
represent crystal lattice. Types of crystal lattice-bcc, FCC, simple cubic, end centred
cubic are most common in seven crystal systems and 14 Bravais lattices.
The constituent particles arrange in square close packing, BCC, FCC, HCP. Packing
efficiency of HCP and FCC is 74%. The defects in crystal lattice, point defects like
Frenkel and Schottky. Non-stoichiometric defects are metal excess type and metal
deficient type and impurity defects. These defects affect properties of solids. Solids
may be paramagnetic, diamagnetic, ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic depending upon
presence of unpaired electrons. Solids may be conductors, insulators, semiconductors
(n type and p type) formed by doping (adding group 13 or 15 as impurity), band theory
can explain conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.
a) Which type of defects are shown by ZnS?
b) Given metal has FCC structure with edge length of 361 pm. What is radius of
atom?
c) A Compound is formed by cation ‘C’ which occupy 75% of octahedral voids
and anion ‘A’ form hcp. What is formula of compound?
d) What happens when ZnO is heated and why?

SECTION B
Q1 Which point defect in crystals does not alter the density of the relevant solid?

Q2 How do metallic and ionic substances differ in conducting electricity?

Q3 ‘Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature.’ What does this statement mean?

Q4 What is the formula of a compound in which the element Y forms ccp lattice and
atoms of X occupy 2/3rd of tetrahedral voids?

Q5 A metallic element crystallises into a lattice having a pattern of ABCABC.. …packing

of spheres leaves out voids in the lattice. What type of structure is formed by this
arrangement? Also name the voids.
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Q6 Aluminium crystallizes in FCC structure. Atomic radius of the metal is 125 pm. What
is the length of the side of the unit cell of the metal?

Q7 (a) Why does presence of excess of lithium makes LiCl crystals pink?
(b) A solid with cubic crystal is made of two elements P and Q. Atoms of Q are at the
corners of the cube and P at the body-center. What is the formula of the compound?

Q8 The unit cell of an element of atomic mass 108 u and density 10.5 g cm-3 is a cube with
edge length, 409 pm. Find the type of unit cell of the crystal. [Given: Avogadro’s
constant = 6.023 × 1023 mol-1]
Hint: Type of unit cell can be identified by Z value.

Q9 Examine the given defective crystal

Answer the following questions:

(i) What type of stoichiometric defect is shown by the crystal?
(ii) How is the density of the crystal affected by this defect?
(iii) What type of ionic substances show such defect?

Q10 (a) What type of semiconductor is obtained when silicon is doped with boron?
(b) What type of magnetism is shown in the following alignment of magnetic
moments?

(c) What type of point defect is produced when AgCl is doped with CdCl2?

Q11 a) Based on the nature of intermolecular forces, classify the following solids: Silicon
carbide, Argon
(b) ZnO turns yellow on heating. Why?
(c) What is meant by groups 12-16 compounds? Give an example.

Q12 (a) Based on the nature of intermolecular forces, classify the following solids: Sodium
sulphate, Hydrogen
(b) What happens when CdCl2 is doped with AgCl?
(c) Why do ferrimagnetic substances show better magnetism than antiferromagnetic
substances?

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Q13 A sample of ferrous oxide has actual formula Fe0.93 O1.00. In this sample, what fraction
of metal ions are Fe2+ ions? What is the type of non-stoichiometric defect present in
this sample?

Q14 Match the type of-packing given in Column I with the items given in Column II.

Q15 Match the items given in Column I with the items given in Column II.

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to:
• know about the characteristics of solid state
• understand the points of difference between amorphous and crystalline solids
• know the types of crystalline solids on the basis of the nature of binding forces;
• know the types of packing and efficiency of packing in solids
• find out the density of solid and solve the numerical based on it
• understand the different types of imperfection
• understand the Electrical and magnetic properties of solid

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CYCLE V
CHAPTER 2: SOLUTIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Describe the formation of different types of solutions
• Express concentration of solution in different units
• State and explain Henry’s law and Raoult’s law
• Distinguish between ideal and non-ideal solutions
• Explain deviations of real solutions from Raoult’s law
• Describe colligative properties of solutions and correlate these with molar masses of the solutes
• Explain abnormal colligative properties exhibited by some solutes in solutions.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
1. A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances in a single phase.
Binary solution: A solution having two components is called a binary solution.
Components of a binary solution are solute and solvent.

Type of solution Common examples

Gaseous solutions

• Gas in gas A mixture of Oxygen and Nitrogen gases

• Liquid in gas Chloroform vapours mixed with nitrogen gas

• Solid in gas Camphor vapours in Nitrogen gas

Liquid solutions

• Gas in liquid Oxygen dissolved in water

• Liquid in liquid Ethanol dissolved in water

• Solid in liquid Sucrose dissolved in water

Solid solutions

• Gas in solid Solution of Hydrogen in Palladium

• Liquid in solid Amalgam of Mercury with Sodium

• Solid in solid Copper dissolved in Gold

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2. Concentration is the amount of solute in given amount of solution

3. Methods of expressing concentration of solutions

msolute  1000
Molarity = Unit - mol L-1
M solute  Vsolution ( cm 3 )

msolute  1000
Molality = Unit – mol kg-1
M solute  Vsolvent ( g )
no.of moes of the component
Mole fraction of a component =
Total no.of moles of all thecomponents
Mass of component x 106
Parts per million (ppm) =
Mass of the solution
molality x molar mass of the solvent
For a dilute solution, mole fraction of solute =
1000

Molarity Mass of solvent in kg Mass of solvent in g

= =
Molality Vol of soln. in L Vol . of soln. in cm 3
Density of soln. x Vol.of soln. − no.of mol. of solute x molar mass of solute
=
Vol of solution in cm 3
3. Solubility is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent at a
specified temperature. A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature and pressure is called a saturated solution. In a nearly saturated solution if
dissolution process is an endothermic process, solubility increases with increase in
temperature. In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an exothermic process,
solubility decreases with increase in temperature.

4. Henry’s Law: The law states at a constant temperature the

solubility of gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure
of gas. Henry’s law can also be stated as the partial pressure of gas
in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the
solution. P = KH . x
Where KH = Henry's law constant.

(At same temperature different gasses have different KH )

It is a function of the nature of the gas. At a given pressure
increasing value of KH implies lower solubility of the gas in the liquid.

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Value of KH increases with the increase in temperature therefore solubility of gases

increases with decreasing temperature. Due to this reason cold water is more sustainable
for aquatic life than warm water.

5. Vapour Pressure: The pressure exerted by the vapors of a liquid which are in equilibrium
with it at a given temperature.

According to Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour pressure of each
component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction in liquid phase.
p1 = po1 x1 ; p2 = po2 x2

Fig. a plot between the vapour pressure and the mole fraction of the solvent is linear

Using Dalton’s law of partial pressure, the total pressure of solution is calculated:
Ptotal = po1 + (po2 - po1) x2

The minimum value of ptotal is p10 and the maximum value is p20, assuming that p10 < p20.
Let y1 = Mole fractions of the component 1
y2 = Mole fractions of the component 2
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures:

P1 = y1 Ptotal
P2 = y2 Ptotal

Vapour pressure of solution of solids in liquids

This vapour pressure is lower than the vapour pressure of the pure solvent at a given
temperature.The surface of the solution is occupied by both solute andsolvent molecules which
results in the reduction of the surface for the solvent molecules. As a result the apparent
number ofsolvent molecules escaping from the surface is reduced. This in turn reduces the
vapour pressure.
The reduction of vapour pressure of solvent depends on thequantity of non-volatile solute
present in the solution not on its nature.

6. On comparison of Raoult’ law and Henry’s law, it is observed that the partial pressure of
volatile component or gas is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. In case of
Henry’s Law, the proportionality constant is KH and it is different from p10 which is partial
pressure of pure component. Raoult’s Law becomes a special case of Henry’s Law when KH
becomes equal to p10 in Henry’s law.

7. Liquid –liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal solutions on basis of
Raoult’s Law:

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Ideal solutions Non- ideal solutions

The solutions that obey Raoult’s Law over the When a solution does not obey Raoult’s Law
entire range of concentrations are known as over the entire range of concentration, then it
ideal solutions. is called non-ideal solution.
Δmix H=0 and ΔmixV=0 Δmix H ≠ 0 and ΔmixV ≠ 0
The intermolecular attractive forces between The intermolecular attractive forces between
solute molecules and solvent molecules are solute molecules and solvent molecules are
nearly equal to those present between solute not equal to those present between solute and
and solvent molecules i.e. A-A and B-B solvent molecules i.e. A-A and B-B
interactions are nearly equal to those between interactions are not equal to those between A-
A-B B

8. Non- ideal solutions are of two types:

Non ideal solution showing positive deviation Non ideal solution showing negative
deviation
The vapour pressure of a solution is higher than The vapour pressure of a solution is lower than
that predicted by Raoult’s Law that predicted by Raoult’s Law
The intermolecular attractive forces between The intermolecular attractive forces between
solute-solvent molecules are weaker than those solute-solvent molecules are stronger than
between solute-solute and solvent-solvent those between solute-solute and solvent-
molecules i.e. A-B < A-A and B-B interactions solvent molecules i.e. A-B > A-A and B-B
interactions

9. Azeotropes are binary mixtures having same composition in liquid and vapour phase and
boil at constant temperature. Liquids forming azeotrope cannot be separated by fractional
distillation. There are two types of azeotropes :
(a) The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum
boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
(b) The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum
boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
10. Properties of solution which depends on only the number of solute particles but not on the
nature of solute, are called colligative properties. There are four colligative properties:
(a). Relative lowering of vapour pressure
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(b). Elevation of boiling point

(c). Depression of freezing point
(d). Osmotic pressure

11. Relative lowering of vapour pressure: Difference in the vapour pressure of pure solvent
(p10) and solution (p1) represents lowering in vapour pressure (p10- p1). Dividing lowering
in vapour pressure by vapour pressure of pure solvent is called relative lowering of vapour
𝑝10 –𝑝1
pressure = ( )
𝑝10

Relative lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to mole fraction of solute.

𝑝10 –𝑝1 𝑛 𝑤 𝑀
Hence it is a colligative property. ( ) = X2 = 𝑛2 = 𝑀2..𝑤1
𝑝10 1 2 1

For non-volatile solutes: P(solution) = xsolvent Po

or relative lowering of vapor pressure, (Po - P)/Po = xsolute
A more useful form is (Po - P)/P = n/N
where n = total number of moles of all the free solute species in the solution finally (i.e. at
equilibrium). Three cases arise.

12. Elevation of boiling point: The difference in boiling points of solution (Tb) and pure
solvent (Tb0) is called elevation in boiling point (Δ Tb = Tb - Tb0 ).
For a dilute solution ΔTb α molality. Hence it is a colligative property.
𝐾𝑏 .1000.𝑤2
ΔTb =
𝑀2 .𝑤1
Kb is known as ebullioscopic constant (Molal Boiling point constant)

13. Depression of freezing point: The lowering of vapour pressure of solution causes a
lowering of freezing point compared to that of pure solvent.The difference in freezing point
of the pure solvent (Tf0) and solution (Tf) is called the depression in freezing point.
𝐾𝑓 .1000.𝑤2
For a dilute solution depression in freezing point, ΔTf= 𝑀2 .𝑤1
Kf is known as cryoscopic constant (Molal Freezing point constant)

14. Osmosis: The phenomenon of spontaneous flow of solvent molecules through a semi
permeable membrane from pure solvent to solution is called osmosis.

15. Osmotic pressure: The excess pressure that must be applied to solution to prevent the
passage of solvent into solution through a semi permeable membrane is called osmotic
pressure.
16. On the basis of osmotic pressure, the solutions can be classified in three classes.

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17. Isotonic solutions: Two solutions having same osmotic pressures at same temperature.
(This implies c1 = c2).

18. Hypertonic solution : When two solutions are being compared, then the solution with higher
osmotic pressure is termed as hypertonic. The solution with lower osmotic pressure is termed as
hypotonic.

19. Osmotic pressure can also be used to determine the molar mass of solute using the equation
𝑤2 .𝑅𝑇
M2 = 𝜋𝑉

20. Reverse osmosis: The process of movement of solvent through a semi permeable
membrane from the solution to the pure solvent by applying excess pressure on the solution
side is called reverse osmosis.

21. Colligative properties help in calculation of molar mass of solutes. Molar mass that is either
lower or higher than expected or normal molar mass is called as abnormal molar mass.
van’t Hoff factor (i)accounts for the extent of dissociation or association.

Normal molar mass Observedcolligative property

i = Abnormal molar mass =Calculatedcolligative property

Totalnumber ofmolesof particlesafter association/dissociation

= Totalnumber ofmolesof particlesbeforeassociation/dissociation

Value of i <1 in case solute undergo association

Value of i >1 in case solute undergo dissociation

SECTION A
1 On dissolving sugar in water at room temperature solution feels cool to touch.
Under which of the following cases dissolution of sugar will be most rapid?
▪ (i) Sugar crystals in cold water.
▪ (ii) Sugar crystals in hot water.
▪ (iii) Powdered sugar in cold water.
▪ (iv) Powdered sugar in hot water.

2 Maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of a

given liquid solvent does not depend upon __________.
▪ (i) Temperature
▪ (ii) Nature of solute
▪ (iii) Pressure
▪ (iv) Nature of solvent

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3 Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitude is
due to _____________.
▪ (i) low temperature
▪ (ii) low atmospheric pressure
▪ (iii) high atmospheric pressure
▪ (iv) both low temperature and high atmospheric pressure

4 Considering the formation, breaking and strength of hydrogen bond, predict which of
the following mixtures will show a positive deviation from Raoult’s law?
▪ (i) Methanol and acetone.
▪ (ii) Chloroform and acetone.
▪ (iii) Nitric acid and water.
▪ (iv) Phenol and aniline

5 Which of the following aqueous solutions should have the highest boiling point?
▪ (i) 1.0 M NaOH
▪ (ii) 1.0 M Na2SO4
▪ (iii) 1.0 M NH4NO3
▪ (iv) 1.0 M KNO3

6 The unit of ebullioscopic constant is _______________

7 In comparison to a 0.01 M solution of glucose, the depression in freezing point of a 0.01

M MgCl2 solution is_____________.

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of
the assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation
of the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

8 Assertion: When methyl alcohol is added to water, boiling point of water increases.
Reason: When a volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent elevation in boiling point is
observed.

9 Assertion: Molarity of a solution in liquid state changes with temperature.

Reason: The volume of a solution changes with change in temperature.

10 Assertion: When NaCl is added to water a depression in freezing point is observed.

Reason: The lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes depression in the freezing
point.
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11 Assertion: 0.1 M HCl solution has higher osmotic pressure than 0.1 M NaCl solution.
Reason: Cl- ions being common, the small size of H+ ions have greater ionic mobility
than the large Na+ ions.

12 Assertion: Any concentration of NaCl solution can be injected intravenously as NaCl,

being a common salt, is a harmless chemical.
Reason: 0.9% (mass/ volume) NaCl solution is isotonic with the fluid inside the blood
cells.

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Solutions are homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Ideal solution follow
Raoult’s law. The vapour pressure of each component is directly proportional to their
mole fraction if both solute and solvent are volatile. The relative lowering of vapour
pressure is equal to mole fraction of solute if only solvent is volatile.
Non- ideal solutions form azeotropes which cannot be separated by fractional
distillation. Henry’s law is special case of Raoult’s law applicable to gases dissolved in
liquids. Colligative properties depend upon number of particles of solute. Relative
lowering of vapour pressure, elevation in boiling point, depression in freezing point and
osmotic pressure are colligative properties which depend upon mole fraction of solute,
molality and molarity of solutions. When solute undergoes either association or
dissociation, molecular mass determined by colligative property will be abnormal. Van’t
Hoff factor is used in such cases which is ratio of normal molecular mass over observed
molar mass.

I. The boiling point of an azeotropic mixture of water and ethanol is less than that
of water and ethanol. The mixture shows
(a) no deviation from Raoult’s Law.
(b) positive deviation from Raoult’s Law.
(c) negative deviation from Raoult’s Law.
(d) that the solution is unsaturated.

II. The Van’t Hoff factor (i) accounts for

(a) degree of solubilization of solute.
(b) the extent of dissociation of solute.
(c) the extent of dissolution of solute.
(d) the degree of decomposition of solution.

III. Which of the following condition is not satisfied by an ideal solution?

(a) ΔH mixing = 0
(b) ΔV mixing = 0
(c) Raoult’s Law is obeyed
(d) Formation of an azeotropic mixture

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IV. If 150ml of aqueous solution of glucose (Molar mass 180 g/mol) contains 6.02 ×
1022 molecules. What is molarity?

v. Identify which liquid has lower vapour pressure at 90°C if boiling point of liquid
‘A’ and ‘B’ are 140°C and 180° respectively.

SECTION B
Q1 Calculate
(a) molality
(b) molarity and
(c) mole fraction of KI if the density of 20% (mass/mass) aqueous KI solution is
1·202 g ml-1.
Given: Atomic mass of K = 39 u, I = 127 u

Q2 State Raoult’s law for the solution containing volatile components. Write two
differences between an ideal solution and a non-ideal solution.

Q3 Why does a solution containing non-volatile solute have higher boiling point than
the pure solvent? Why is elevation of boiling point a colligative property?

Q4 (i) On mixing liquid X and liquid Y, volume of the resulting solution decreases.
What type of deviation from Raoult’s law is shown by the resulting solution? What
change in temperature would you observe after mixing liquids X and Y? .
(ii) What happens when we place the blood cell in water (hypotonic solution)? Give
reason.

Q5 Vapour pressure of water at 20 °C is 17.5 mm Hg. Calculate the vapour pressure

of water at 20 °C when 15 g of glucose (Molar mass = 180 g mol-1) is dissolved
in 150 g of water.

Q6 When 1.5 g of a non-volatile solute was dissolved in 90 g of benzene, the boiling

point of benzene raised from 353.23 K to 353.93 K. Calculate the molar mass of
the solute. (Kb for benzene = 2.52 kg mol-1)

Q7 Calculate the freezing point of the solution when 31 g of ethylene glycol

(C2H6O2) is dissolved in 500 g of water. (Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mol-1)

Q8 3.9 g of benzoic acid dissolved in 49 g of benzene shows a depression in freezing

point of 1.62 K. Calculate the Van’t Hoff factor and predict the nature of solute
(associated or dissociated).
(Given: Molar mass of benzoic acid = 122 g mol-1, Kf for benzene = 4.9 K kg
mol-1)

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Q9 Some ethylene glycol, HOCH2CH2OH, is added to your car’s cooling system

along with 5 kg of water. If the freezing point of water glycol solution is -15°C,
what is the boiling point of the solution.
Kb = 0.52 K kg mol-1 and Kf = 1.86 K kg mol-1 for H2O.

Q10 (a) Define the following terms:

(i) Molarity
(ii) Molal elevation constant (Kb)

LEARNING OUTCOMES -
Learners will be able to:
• know the types of solution
• understand the concentration of solution in different units
• understand the Henry's Law and Raoult's law & its applications in life
• understand the difference between ideal and non-ideal solutions.
• know that what is Colligative properties & how to determine the molecular mass of solute
• understand the abnormal masses of compounds in solutions.

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CYCLE VII
CHAPTER 3: ELECTROCHEMISTRY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Describe an electrochemical cell and differentiate between galvanic and electrolytic cells
• Apply Nernst equation for calculating the emf of galvanic cell and define standard potential of
the cell
• Derive relation between standard potential of the cell, Gibbs energy of cell reaction and its
equilibrium constant; • define resistivity (ρ), conductivity (κ) and molar conductivity (Λm ) of
ionic solutions
• Differentiate between ionic (electrolytic) and electronic conductivity
• Describe the method for measurement of conductivity of electrolytic solutions and calculation
of their molar conductivity
• Justify the variation of conductivity and molar conductivity of solutions with change in their
concentration and define Λ°m (molar conductivity at zero concentration or infinite dilution)
• Enunciate Kohlrausch law and learn its applications; • understand quantitative aspects of
electrolysis
• Describe the construction of some primary and secondary batteries and fuel cells
• Explain corrosion as an electrochemical process.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
Electrochemical Cells can be classified as:

Electrochemical cell or Galvanic cell or Electrolytic Cell

Voltaic Cell

A device in which electrical energy is A device in which electrical energy is used

produced from spontaneous redox reaction. to bring about a redox reaction.

E.g. Daniel cell, dry cell, leads storage E.g. Electrolysis of molten NaCl,
battery. Electrolysis of dil. Aq. H2SO4 sol. using Pt
electrodes.

Note: In a galvanic cell, cathode is positive with respect to anode.

In an electrolytic cell, anode is made positive with respect to cathode.

Electrodes
The metal strip at which positive current enters is called anode; anode is positively charged in
electrolytic cell. On the other hand, the electrode at which current leaves is called cathode.

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Oxidation take place;

ANODE Positive Current enters
Loss of e-s

Reduction take place;

CATHODE Negative Current leaves
Gain of e-s

Galvanic Cell
Galvanic cell is made up of two half cells.
• Oxidation half Cell (Anode). Reduction
half cell (Cathode).

Representation of a cell (IUPAC conventions ):

• Oxidation(Anodic)half cell is written on left and Reduction(Cathodic) half cell on right hand
side : Zn(s) | ZnSO4 (sol) || CuSO4 (sol) | Cu(s)
• Two half cells are separated by double vertical lines: Double vertical lines indicate salt bridge
or any type of porous partition.
• Single vertical lines indicate the phase separation between electrode and electrolyte solution
: Zn | Zn2+ || Cu2+ | Cu (Illustration of Phase boundary)
• Inert electrodes are represented in the bracket : Zn | ZnSO4 || H+ | H2, Pt

CONCEPT OF ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) OF A CELL

• Electrode potential: the potential difference between electrode (metal) and the electrolyte
(metal ion solution).There are 2 types of electrode potentials:
• Oxidation potential is the tendency of an electrode to lose electrons or get oxidized.
• Reduction potential is the tendency of an electrode to gain electrons or get reduced.
• Oxidation potential is the reverse of reduction potential.
NOTE: The electrode having a higher reduction potential has a higher tendency to gain
electrons. So, it acts as a cathode.
The electrode having a lower reduction potential acts as an anode.

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• According to convention, the Standard Hydrogen Electrode is taken as a reference electrode

and it is assigned a zero potential at all temperatures.
Pt (s) | H2 (g) | H (aq)
• Cell potential: the potential difference between the two electrodes of a galvanic cell.
• EMF (electromotive force) of cell: the potential difference between the two electrodes
when no current is drawn (flowing) through the cell. Unit of e.m.f. of cell is volt.
• EMF of cell may be calculated as :
Ecell = reduction potential of cathode − Reduction potential of anode
Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode = Eright – Eleft

• Similarly, standard e.m.f. of the cell (E°) may be calculated as

E°cell = Standard reduction potential of cathode − Standard reduction potential of anode

SIGN CONVENTION OF EMF

• EMF of cell should be positive other wise it will not be feasible in the given direction .
Zn | ZnSO4|| CuSO4 | Cu E = +1.10 volt (Feasible)
Cu | CuSO4 || ZnSO4 | Zn E = −1.10 volt (Not Feasible)

SALT BRIDGE
• Two electrolyte solutions in galvanic cells are seperated using salt bridge.
• Salt bridge is a device to minimize or eliminate the liquid junction potential. Saturated solution
of salt like KCI, KNO3, NH4Cl and NH4NO3 etc. in agar-agar gel is used in salt bridge.
• Salt bridge contains high concentration of ions viz. K+ and NO3- at the junction with electrolyte
solution. Thus, salt bridge carries whole of the current across the boundary ; more over the K+
and NO3- ions have same speed.
• Hence, salt bridge with uniform and same mobility of cations and anions minimize the liquid
junction potential & completes the electrical circuit & permits the ions to migrate.

ELECTROLYSIS
The decomposition of electrolyte solution by passage of electric current, resulting into deposition
of metals or liberation of gases at electrodes is known as electrolysis.

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS:

• First law of electrolysis :
Amount of substance deposited or liberated at an electrode is directly proportional to amount of
charge passed (utilized) through the solution.
w α Q;w = weight liberated, Q = charge in coulomb; Z = electrochemical equivalent

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w = ZQ
Let I ampere current is passed till ‘t’ seconds; Then, Q = It , hence w = ZIt
• E,Equivalent wt = Z × 96500 or Z =E/96500 ; 1 Faraday = 96500 coulomb = Charge of one
mole electrons
One faraday is the charge required to liberate or deposit one gm equivalent of a substance at
corresponding electrode.
• Second law of electrolysis :
When same amount of charge is passed through different electrolyte solutions connected in
series then weight of substances deposited or dissolved at anode or cathode are in ratio of their
equivalent weights. i.e. w1/w2 = E1/E2

NERNST EQUATION
• For single electrode Mn+ + ne-  M(s) , Electrode / Equilibrium potential is :
or

• The standard potential of the cells are related of standard Gibbs energy.
ΔrG0= -nFE0cell
Where ΔrG0= standard Gibbs energy change and nFis the number of faradays of charge
passed E0cell is standard cell polential.
• The standard Gibbs energy of the cells is related to equilibrium constant.
ΔG= -2.303 RT log Kc
• In general , for a redox cell reaction involving the transference of n electrons
aA + bB  cC + dD, the EMF can be calculated as:

Prediction and feasibility of spontaneity of a cell reaction.

Reactions G E

Spontaneous (–) (+)

Non- spontaneous (+) (–)

Equilibrium 0 0

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• Resistance (R): The obstruction to the flow of current. S.I. unit of R = Ohm (Ω).
R α l/A or R = ρ l/A where l = length of the conductor, A= area of cross section
ρ = resistivity or specific resistance.
• Resistivity (ρ): The resistance of a conductor of 1 m length and 1 m2 area of Cross section. Its
S.I. unit: Ohm m-1.
• Conductance (G): The reciprocal of resistance (R) G=1/R
S.I unit of G=S (Siemens).
• Conductivity or specific conductance (ҡ) (kappa): κ = 1 / ρ.
It is the conductance of solution kept between two electrodes with 1 m2 area of cross section
and distance of 1 m. It is the reciprocal of resistivity (ρ).
S.I unit of κ = Ohm-1 m-1 or S m-1
• Relation between G and κ :
R = ρ L/A ; 1/ρ = (1/R)*(l/A) ; κ = G x G*
Conductivity ( κ ) = Conductance (G) x Cell constant (G*)
• Cell constant (G*): It is defined as the ratio of the distance between the two electrodes (l) to
their area of cross section A. Its S.I unit is m-1
• Relationship between k and m :

Where mis molar conductivity, k is conductivity and C is molar concentration.

(ii) Degree of dissociation (α) is given by:

Here cmis molar conductivity at the concentration C and °

mis limiting molar conductivity of
the electrolyte.
(iii) Dissociation constant (K) of weak electrolyte:

• Primary Cells: In these the reaction occurs only once and battery then becomes dead after use
over a period of time. It cannot be recharged and reused again.

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E.g. dry cell, mercury cell

• Secondary batteries: After use, they can be recharged by passing current through it in opposite
direction and so they can be reused again. E.g. Lead storage battery, nickel- cadmium cell.
• Fuel Cells: galvanic cells which convert the energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen,
methane directly into electrical energy. Eg: Hydrogen – Oxygen Fuel Cell
• Corrosion: formation of oxides or other salt of metal on the surface of metallic objects when
exposed to air or water. Eg: rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver.
• Rusting Of Iron: Corrosion of iron is known as rusting. Rust is hydrated ferric oxide, Fe2O3.x
H2O. It is an electrochemical phenomenon.

SECTION A

1 Which cell will measure standard electrode potential of copper electrode?

▪ (i) Pt (s) | H2 (g,0.1 bar) | H+ (aq.,1 M) || Cu2+(aq.,1M) | Cu
▪ (ii) Pt(s) | H2 (g, 1 bar) | H+ (aq.,1 M) || Cu2+ (aq.,2 M) | Cu
▪ (iii) Pt(s)| H2 (g, 1 bar) | H+ (aq.,1 M) || Cu2+ (aq.,1 M) | Cu
▪ (iv) Pt(s) | H2 (g, 1 bar) | H+ (aq.,0.1 M) || Cu2+ (aq.,1 M) | Cu

2 Which of the following statement is correct?

▪ (i) ECell and ΔrG of cell reaction both are extensive properties.
▪ (ii) ECell and ΔrG of cell reaction both are intensive properties.
▪ (iii) ECell is an intensive property while ΔrG of cell reaction is an extensive property.
▪ (iv) ECell is an extensive property while ΔrG of cell reaction is an intensive property.

3 The difference between the electrode potentials of two electrodes when no current is drawn
through the cell is called ___________.
▪ (i) Cell potential
▪ (ii) Cell emf
▪ (iii) Potential difference
▪ (iv) Cell voltage

4 Which of the following statement is not correct about an inert electrode in a cell?
▪ (i) It does not participate in the cell reaction.
▪ (ii) It provides surface either for oxidation or for reduction reaction.
▪ (iii) It provides surface for conduction of electrons.
▪ (iv) It provides surface for redox reaction.

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5 Using the data given below find out the strongest reducing agent.

▪ (i) Cl–
▪ (ii) Cr
▪ (iii) Cr3+
▪ (iv) Mn2+

6 An electrochemical cell can behave like an electrolytic cell when____________.

7 The cell constant of a conductivity cell is ______________________.

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of
the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

8 Assertion : ECell should have a positive value for the cell to function.
Reason : Ecathode < Eanode

9 Assertion : Λm for weak electrolytes shows a sharp increase when the electrolytic solution is
diluted.
Reason : For weak electrolytes degree of dissociation increases with dilution of solution.

10 Assertion : EAg+/Ag increases with increase in concentration of Ag+ ions.

Reason : EAg+/Ag has a positive value.

Observe the graph shown in figure between λm (molar conductivity) Vs C (Molar

concentration) and answer the questions based on graph:

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a) The curve ‘Y’ is for KCl or CH3COOH?

b) What is intercept on λm axis for ‘X’ equal to?
c) Give mathematical equation representing straight line.
d) What is slope equal to?
e) What happens to molar conductivity on dilution in case of weak electrolyte and why?

II. In the given following table in which conductivity and molar conductivity of NaCl
at 298 K at different concentration for different electrolytes is given. Answer the
questions based in the table that follows:
Conductivities and molar conductivities of NaCl at 298 K at different concentrations.

S. No. C λ Scm–1 ΛmScm2mol–1 Limiting molar

m
(M) conductivity
1. 0.001 1.237 × 10–4 123.7 S cm2 NaCl 126.4 S
mol–1 cm2 mol–1
2. 0.010 11.85 × 10–4 118.5 S cm2 HCl 426.1 S cm2
mol–1 mol–1
2 –1
3. 0.020 23.15 × 10–4 115.8 S cm2 CH3COONa 91 S cm
mol–1 mol
2 –1
4. 0.050 55.53 × 10–4 111.1 S cm2 NH4Cl 129.8 S cm
mol–1 mol
5. 0.100 106.74 × 10–4 106.7 S cm2
mol–1

a) What happens to conductivity on dilution and why?

b) Why is λ°m (limiting molar conductivity) for HCl more than NaCl?
c) Calculate degree of dissociation of NaCl of 0.001 M concentration using the table.
d) Calculate λ°m of CH3COOH using the table.

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SECTION B
Q1 a) How much charge is required for the reduction of 1 mole of Zn+2 to Zn?
b) How much charge in Faradays is required for the reduction of 1 mol of Al+3 to Al?

Q2 Calculate E° cell and ∆G° for the following reaction at 25 °C:

A2+(aq) + B+(aq) ——–> A5+(aq) + B(s)
Given Kc=1010, 1F = 96500 C mol-1

Q3 Conductivity of 2.5 x 10-4 M Methanoic acid is 5.25 x 10-5 S cm-1 Calculate its molar
conductivity and degree of dissociation.
Given: A°(H+) = 349.5 S cm2 mol-1 and A°(HCOO– ) = 50.5 S cm2

Q4 A solution of Ni(NO3)2 is electrolyzed between platinum electrodes using a current of 5.0

ampere for 20 minutes. What mass of nickel will be deposited at the cathode? [Given: At.
Mass of Ni = 58.7 g mol-1, IF = 96500 C mol-1]

Q5 (a) Following reactions occur at cathode during the electrolysis of aqueous silver chloride
solution:
Ag+(aq) + e-1 ————> Ag(s) E° = +0.80 V
+ -1
H (aq) + e ———–> ½ H2(g) E° = 0.00 V
On the basis of their standard reduction electrode potential (E°) values, which reaction is
feasible at the cathode and why?
(b) Define limiting molar conductivity. Why conductivity of an electrolyte solution decreases
with the decrease in concentration?

Q6 Calculate emf of the following cell at 25 °C:

Fe | Fe2+(0.001 M) 11 H+(0.01 M) | H2(g) (1 bar) | Pt(s)
E°(Fe2+|Fe) = -0.44V, E°(H+|H2) = 0.00 V

Q7 (a) Predict the products of electrolysis in each of the following:

(i) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with platinum electrode.
(ii) An aqueous solution of H2S04 using platinum electrode.

Q8 Represent the galvanic cell in which the reactions is

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) > Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Q9 What type of a battery is lead storage battery? Write the anode and cathode reactions and the
overall cell reaction occurring in the operation of a lead storage battery.

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Q10 Express the relation among the cell constant, the resistance of the solution in the cell and the
conductivity of the solution. How is molar conductivity of a solution related to its
conductivity?

Q11 A voltaic cell is set up at 25 °C with the following half cells:

Al/Al3+(0.001 M) and Ni/Ni2+(0.50 M)
Write an equation for the reaction that occurs when the cell generates an electric current and
determine the cell potential.
[E0Ni2+/Ni= -0.25 V andE0al3+/al = – 1.66 V]

Q12 Define molar conductivity of a substance and describe how for weak and strong electrolytes,
molar conductivity changes with concentration of solute. How is such change explained?

Q13 Consider the following diagram in which an electrochemical cell is coupled to an electrolytic
cell. What will be the polarity of electrodes ‘A’ and ‘B’ in the electrolytic cell?

Q14 Match the terms given in Column 1 with the units given in Column II.

Q15 Match the terms given in Column I with the items given in Column II.

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LEARNING OUTCOMES -
Learners will be able to:
• understand the differences between galvanic and electrolytic cell
• understand to calculate the emf of galvanic cell and Gibbs energy of reaction and its
equilibrium constant.
• know that the types of conductors
• understand to measure the conductivity of electrolytic solutions and calculation of their malar
conductivity
• understand the variation of conductivity and molar conductivity of solutions with change in
their concentration
• know about the Kohlrausch law and learn its applications.
• understand the quantitative aspects of electrolysis
• understand about the corrosion and how to prevent it
• understand about the types of cells and use of it in life

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CYCLE VII
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
• Visualize the importance of Chemistry in daily life
• Explain the term ‘chemotherapy’
• Describe the basis of classification of drugs
• Explain drug-target interaction of enzymes and receptors
• Explain how various types of drugs function in the body
• Know about artificial sweetening agents and food preservatives
• Discuss the chemistry of cleansing agents.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• Drugs: These are chemicals of low molecular mass which interact with macromolecular targets
and produce a biological response.
• Medicines: The chemicals which are used for treatment, prevention and diagnosis of diseases
and reduces suffering from pain. All medicines are drugs but all drugs are not medicines.
• Chemotherapy: It refers to the treatment of diseases by the use of chemicals.
• In the body drugs usually interact with biomolecules such are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
nucleic acids. These are called target molecules.
• Lead compounds are the compounds which are chosen for designing a drug. Source of lead
compounds may be neutral or these may be synthesized.
• Antipyretics: The substance used to lower body temperature in high fever.
• Analgesics: The substance used to relieve pain.
• Disinfectants: The chemical substances which are used to kill micro-organisms but cannot be
applied on living tissues.
• Tranquillizers: The chemical substances used to cure mental diseases.
• Antibiotics: The chemical substances which are produced by micro-organisms and can inhibit
the growth or even destroy other micro-organisms.
• Broad spectrum antibiotics: The antibiotics which are effective against several different types
of micro-organisms.
• Antifertility Drugs are the drugs which are used to prevent pregnancy and thus check population
explosion.
• Food additives: These are the substances such as preservatives, sweetening agents, flavours,
antioxidants, edible colours, nutritional supplements, which are added to the food to increase its
shelf-life and to make it more attractive and palatable.
• Food Preservatives are the substances which are added to food to increase its shelf-life. These
are of two types: Class I and Class II preservatives. Class I preservatives include table salt, sugar
and vegetable oils while Class II preservatives are chemical preservatives such as sodium
benzoate.
• Artificial sweetening agents are added to food as substitutes of sucrose. These have no
nutritional value but are sweet like sucrose. These are used by persons who want to reduce the

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calorie intake. Saccharin, aspartame, alitame and sucrolose are some of artificial sweeteners.
Alitame is a high potency sweetener.
• Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids.
• Soaps do not produce lather with hard water because calcium and magnesium Salts of higher
fatty acids are insoluble in water.
• Synthetic detergents or soapless soaps: These are sodium salt of a long chain benzene
sulphonic acid or sodium salt of long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
• Detergents may be anionic, cationic or non-ionic. Detergents are effective even in hard water.
Detergents with straight chain hydrocarbons are biodegradable and hence are preferred.

SECTION A
1 Which is the correct statement about birth control pills?
▪ (i) Contain estrogen only.
▪ (ii) Contain progesterone only.
▪ (iii) Contain a mixture of estrogen and progesterone derivatives.
▪ (iv) Progesterone enhances ovulation.

2 Which statement about aspirin is not true

▪ (i) Aspirin belongs to narcotic analgesics.
▪ (ii) It is effective in relieving pain.
▪ (iii) It has anti blood clotting action.
▪ (iv) It is a neurologically active drug.

3 Which of the following statements is correct?

▪ (i) Some tranquilisers function by inhibiting the enzymes which catalyse the degradation of
noradrenaline.
▪ (ii) Tranquilisers are narcotic drugs.
▪ (iii) Tranquilizers are chemical compounds that do not affect the message transfer from nerve
to receptor.
▪ (iv) Tranquilisers are chemical compounds that can relieve pain and fever.

4 A narrow spectrum antibiotic is active against _______________.

▪ (i) gram positive or gram-negative bacteria.
▪ (ii) gram negative bacteria only.
▪ (iii) single organism or one disease.
▪ (iv) both gram positive and gram-negative bacteria.

5 Equanil is __________.
▪ (i) artificial sweetener
▪ (ii) tranquilizer
▪ (iii) antihistamine

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

▪ (iv) antifertility drug

6 Glycerol is added to soap. It functions ______________

7 The example of liquid dishwashing detergent is ________________________.

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of
the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

8 Assertion: Receptors are crucial to body’s communication process.

Reason: Receptors are proteins.

9 Assertion: Competitive inhibitors compete with natural substrate for their attachment on the
active sites of enzymes.
Reason: In competitive inhibition, inhibitor binds to the allosteric site of the enzyme.

10 Assertion: Non-competitive inhibitor inhibits the catalytic activity of enzyme by binding with
its active site.
Reason: Non-competitive inhibitor changes the shape of the active site in such a way that
substrate can’t recognize it.

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Drugs are important parts of our life. The alkaloid reserpine (Isolated from Rauwolfia
serpentina) is a powerful tranquillizer. Morphine, codeine is Narcotic analgesics used in acute
pain in cancer, childbirth. Non-narcotics Antipyretics and analgesics like aspirin, paracetamol
etc. are widely used.
Chloramphenicol, a wide spectrum antibiotic is used for treatment of typhoid, bacteriostatic
anti- biotics like tetracycline, erythromycin is widely used. Penicillin, Aminoglycoside,
Ofloxacin are bactericidal antibiotics. Antibacterial sulpha drugs like sulphadiazine, used for
urinary and respiratory infections. Antihistamines are anti-inflammatory drugs. Some
antihistamine like Ranitidine is used as antacids.
i. Heroin is
(a) Narcotic

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

(b) Non-narcotic
(c) Anaesthetic
(d) Antiseptic
ii. Which one is a broad-spectrum drug?
(a) Chloramphenicol
(b) Chloroquine
(c) Chloroxylenol
(d) Plasmoquin
iii. A drug that is antiseptic as well as analgesic is
(a) Para acetamido phenol
(b) Chlorpromazine hydrochloride
(c) Chloramphenicol
(d) Paracetamol
iv. Allergy is caused by the production of in the body
(a) Hormones
(b) Enzymes
(c) Vitamins
(d) Histamines
v. Aspirin is an acetylation product of ______
(a) p-Dihydroxy benzene
(b) o-Hydroxybenzoic acid
(c) o-Dihydroxy benzene
(d) m-Hydroxy benzoic acid

SECTION B

Q1 Name the important by-products of soap industry.

Q2 What are food preservatives? Name two such substances.

Q3 (a) How do antiseptics differ from disinfectants? Give one example of each. (Give two
differences)
(b) Why do soaps not work in hard water?

Q4 Explain the following terms with suitable examples

(a) Cationic detergents
(b) Anionic detergents.

Q5 (a) Differentiate between a disinfectant and an antiseptic. Give one example of each.
(b) What is tincture of iodine and what is it used for?

Q6 (i) Give two examples of macromolecules that are chosen as drug targets.
(ii) Why is use of aspartame limited to cold foods and soft drinks?

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Q7 (i) What class of drug is Ranitidine?

(ii) If water contains dissolved Ca2+ ions, out of soaps and synthetic detergents, which will
you use for cleaning clothes?
(iii) Which of the following is an antiseptic? 0.2% phenol, 1% phenol

Q8 What are the following substances? Give one example of each one of them.
(i) Food preservatives
(ii) Synthetic detergents

Q9 What are the following substances? Give one example of each.

(i) Antihistamines
(ii) Tranquilizers
(iii) Broad spectrum antibiotics

Q10 a) Which one of the following is a food preservative?

Equanil, Morphine, Sodium benzoate
(b) Why is bithionol added to soap?
(c) Which class of drugs is used in sleeping pills?

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to:
• understand the importance of chemistry in daily life such as drugs, medicines, chemicals in
food, soaps and detergents.

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CYCLE VIII
CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL KINETICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Define the average and instantaneous rate of a reaction
• Express the rate of a reaction in terms of change in concentration of either of the reactants or
products with time
• Distinguish between elementary and complex reactions
• Differentiate between the molecularity and order of a reaction
• Define rate constant
• Discuss the dependence of rate of reactions on concentration, temperature and catalyst
• Derive integrated rate equations for the zero and first order reactions
• Determine the rate constants for zeroth and first order reactions
• Describe collision theory.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:

Chemical Kinetics: The branch of chemistry dealing with the study of rates of reactions and
reaction mechanisms.

Rate Of Chemical Reaction : The change in concentration of reactants or products in unit time. Its
unit is mol l-1 s-1

AVERAGE RATE: The rate of reaction during an appreciable time interval.

For a general reaction : aA+bB  cC+dD, the average rate is

INSTANTANEOUS RATE : The rate of reaction at a particular instant of time.

For a general reaction : aA+bB  cC+dD, the instantaneous rate is:

Factors Affecting Rate Of Areaction

• Concentration of reactants
• Surface area of reactants
• Temperature
• Nature of the reactants
• Presence of catalysts

Rate Law:
For a general reaction: aA+Bb → cC+dD, rate law can be given as
Rate = k [A]x[B]y where x and y may or may not be equal to a and b in the balanced equation.

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Rate Constant (k) : Rate of the reaction when concentration of the reactants is unity.

Order Of Reaction :

Sum of the exponents (powers) of the molar concentrations of the reactants in the experimentally
determined rate equations.
• If rate of reaction α [A]p [B]q [C]r or Rate of reaction = k [A]p [B]q [C]r
order of reaction = p + q + r & the order w.r.t. A, B & C are p, q & r respectively.
• For a "Reaction of nth order", the order of the reaction is n and the rate equation (or Rate law)
is rate α [A]n = k [A]n.
• The order of a reaction may be zero, an integer or a fraction and never exceeds 3. In a multi-
step complex reaction, the order of the reaction depends on the slowest step.

Zero Order Reaction: Rate α k [A]°

• Concentration of reactant decreases lineraly with time. [A]t = [A]0 – kt.
• Units of k = molL–1 time–1.
[A] [A]
• Time required for the completion of reaction t= k 0 & t1/2= 2k0

First Order Reaction: Rate α [A] = k [A] ; dx/dt= k1(a – x)

2.303 a
k = t log a−x ; at = a0e(-kt)
• Unit of k = is time–1.
0.693 1
• t1/2= 2k ; Average life = t1/2= k
−k
• log (a – x) v/s t is a straight line with slope 2.303

nth Order Reaction: Rate=k[R]n

• units of k : (molL-1)1-n s-1
1 1 1
• k= . [(a−x)n−1 - an−1 ]
t(n−1)
1 2n−1 − 1
• t1/2 = .[ ]
kn (n−1) an−1

Elementary Reactions: Reactions which get completed in one step.

Complex Reactions: Reactions which take place in two or more steps.
Molecularity: The number of reacting species which collide simultaneously to bring about a
chemical reaction.

Difference Between Order of reaction and Molecularity

S.no ORDER OF REACTION MOLECULARITY
1 Experimentally determined Theoretical concept
2 Can be zero or fractional Cannot be zero or fractional
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3 There is overall order for a complex No overall molecularity for a complex

reaction reaction
4 Sum of the powers of all concentration Sum of the coefficient of reactants in a
terms in the rate law balanced chemical equation.

Pseudo First Order Reaction: Reactions of higher order which follow first order kinetics.
eg. Acid hydrolysis of ester

Effect of Temperature
• Reaction rate doubles for every 100 rise in temperature.
• Quantitative relationship between rate and temperature is given by

➢ Arrhenius Rate Equation

k = A 𝒆−𝑬𝒂/𝑹𝑻 where A = frequency factor;−𝑬𝒂/𝑹𝑻 = the fraction of molecules with
energy equal to or greater than Ea,the activation energy.
ln k = ln A - Ea/RT
log k = log A - Ea/(2.303)RT

• Activation energy: The energy required by the reactant molecules to change to products.
• Plot of k and 1/T

• Maxwell Boltzmann energy distribution

i) Most probable kinetic energy: Kinetic energy
of maximum fraction of molecules.
ii) With increase in temperature the fraction of
molecules with higher energy increases.
iii) For 100 rise in temperature, the fraction of
molecules having energy equal to or greater than Ea
doubles and hence the reaction rate doubles.
iv) If k1 and k2 are the rate constants of a reaction at
two different temperatures T1 and T2
k2 Ea 1 1
logk1= 2.303 [T1 − T2]

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Effect Of Catalyst
• Catalyst forms an intermediate complex with
the reactants and this provides an alternative
path with lower activation energy.
• Lower the Ea faster the process
• Catalyst will not affect ΔG of the process
• Catalyst does not change the equilibrium
constant as it catalyses the forward and reverse
reactions to the same extent.
• Catalyst helps to attain the equilibrium faster.

SECTION A

1 The role of a catalyst is to change ______________.

▪ (i) Gibbs energy of reaction.
▪ (ii) enthalpy of reaction.
▪ (iii) activation energy of reaction.
▪ (iv) equilibrium constant.

2 Activation energy of a chemical reaction can be determined by _____________.

▪ (i) determining the rate constant at standard temperature.
▪ (ii) determining the rate constants at two temperatures.
▪ (iii) determining probability of collision.
▪ (iv) using catalyst.

3 Consider Fig. and mark the correct option.

▪ (i) Activation energy of forward reaction is E1 + E2 and product is less stable than
reactant.
▪ (ii) Activation energy of forward reaction is E1 + E2 and product is more stable than
reactant.

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▪ (iii) Activation energy of both forward and backward reaction is E1 + E2 and reactant is
more stable than product.
▪ (iv) Activation energy of backward reaction is E1 and product is more stable than
reactant.

4 Consider a first order gas phase decomposition reaction given below :

A(g) → B(g) + C(g)
The initial pressure of the system before decomposition of A was pi. After lapse of
time ‘t’, total pressure of the system increased by x units and became ‘pt’ The rate
constant k for the reaction is given as _________.

5 According to Arrhenius equation rate constant k is equal to Ae-Ea/RT . Which of the

following options represents the graph of ln k vs 1/T.

6 Rate law for the reaction A + 2B → C is found to be

Rate = k [A][B], Concentration of reactant ‘B’ is doubled, keeping the concentration of
‘A’ constant, the value of rate constant will be______________.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of
the assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation
of the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

7 Assertion: The enthalpy of reaction remains constant in the presence of a catalyst.

Reason: A catalyst participating in the reaction, forms different activated complex and
lowers down the activation energy but the difference in energy of reactant and product
remains the same.

8 Assertion: Order and molecularity are same.

Reason: Order is determined experimentally and molecularity is the sum of the
stoichiometric coefficient of rate determining elementary step.

9 Assertion: All collision of reactant molecules leads to product formation.

Reason: Only those collisions in which molecules have correct orientation and
sufficient kinetic energy lead to compound formation.

Read given passage and answer the questions that follow:

Chemical kinetics deals with rate of chemical reactions, how fast reactants get used up
or how fast products are formed in the reaction. Differed chemical reactions have
different speed. Rate of reaction depends upon concentration of reactants, temperature,
pressure especially in gaseous reactions and presence of catalyst. Chemical reaction
takes place because of collision between reacting molecules. The rate of reaction does
not depend upon total number of collisions rather it depends upon number of effective
collisions. In a redox reaction, if E°cell is +ve, ∆G° will be –ve and ‘K’ equilibrium
constant will be high i.e., products formed will be more than the reactants.
a) k (The rate constant), (Activation Energy) Ea and ‘A’ (Arrhenius constant) are
3 × 10–4 s–1, 104.4 kJ mol–1 and 6.0 × 1014 S–1 respectively. What is value of
‘k’ when T→ ꚙ?
b) What is meant by activation energy?
c) What does e–Ea/RT represent?
d) If Fe3+ + 2I– →Fe2+ + I2 has E° = 0.24V, 2
what is the value of log K? What does
value of ‘K’ indicate?
e) For a chemical reaction A→B, it is found that the rate of reaction doubles when
the concentration of A is increased four times. The order of reaction is
(a) Two
(b) One

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(c) Half
(d) Zero
f) For the reaction N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 if Δ[NH3]/Δt = 2 × 10-4 mol L-1s-1, the value
of −Δ[H2]/Δt would be
(a) 1 × 10-4 mol L-1s-1
(b) 3 × 10-4 mol L-1s-1
(c) 4 × 10-4 mol L-1s-1
(d) 6 × 10-4 mol L-1s-1

SECTION B
Q1 Define the following:
a) Order of a reaction.
b) Activation energy of a reaction.

Q2 If the rate constant of a reaction is k = 3 × 10-4 s-1, then identify the order of the reaction.

Q3 For a reaction R → P, half-life (t1/2) is observed to be independent of the initial

concentration of reactants. What is the order of reaction?

Q4 A reaction is of first order in reactant A and of second order in reactant B. How is the rate
of this reaction affected when?
(i) the concentration of B alone is increased to three times
(ii) the concentrations of A as well as B are doubled?

Q5 The rate constant for a reaction of zero order in A is 0.0030 mol L-1 s-1. How long will it
take for the initial concentration of A to fall from 0.10 M to 0.075 M?

Q6 The thermal decomposition of HCO2H is a first order reaction with a rate constant of 2.4 ×
10-3 s-1 at a certain temperature. Calculate how long will it take for three-fourths of initial
quantity of HCO2 H to decompose. (log 0.25 = -0.6021)

Q7 A first order gas phase reaction: A2B2(g) → 2A(g) + 2B(g) at the temperature 400°C has
the rate constant k = 2.0 × 10-4 sec-1. What percentage of A2B2 is decomposed on heating
for 900 seconds? (Antilog 0.0781 = 1.197)

Q8 For a chemical reaction R → P, the variation in the f concentration (R) vs. time (f) plot is
given as
(i) Predict the order of the reaction.
(ii) What is the slope of the curve?

Q9 For a reaction: 2NH2(g) ⟶Pt N2(g) + 3H2(g)

Rate = k

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(i) Write the order and molecularity of this reaction.

(ii) Write the unit of k.

Q10 For a chemical reaction R → P, variation in ln[R] vs time (f) plot is

given below:
For this reaction:
(i) Predict the order of reaction
(ii) What is the unit of rate constant (k)?

Q11 For a decomposition reaction the values of rate constant k at two different temperatures
are given below :
k1 = 2.15 × 10-8 L mol-1 s-1 at 650 K
k2 = 2.39 × 10-7 L mol-1 s-1 at 700 K
Calculate the value of activation energy for this reaction.
(R = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1)

Q12 Nitrogen pentoxide decomposes according to equation:

2N2O5(g) → 4 NO2(g) + O2(g).
This first order reaction was allowed to proceed at 40°C and the data below were collected
[N2O5] Time (Min)

0.400 0.00
0.289 20.0
0.209 40.0
0.151 60.0
0.109 80.0
(a) Calculate the rate constant. Include units with your answer.
(b) What will be the concentration of N2O5 after 100 minutes?
(c) Calculate the initial rate of reaction.

13 Match the items of Column I and Column II.

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14 Match the items of Column I and Column II.

LEARNING OUTCOMES -
Learners will be able to:
• know about chemical kinetics &rate of reaction
• understand the average and instantaneous rate of a reaction
• understand the differences between elementary (one step) and complex reactions (multiple
steps)
• understand the difference between Order and molecularity of reactions
• understand the Integrated rate expression for zero and first order reaction
• understand the Integrated rate expression for zero and first order reaction
• understand the temperature dependence of rate constant in terms of Arrhenius equation

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

CYCLE VIII
CHAPTER 5: SURFACE CHEMISTRY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES -
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Describe interfacial phenomenon and its significance
• Define adsorption and classify it into physical and chemical adsorption
• Explain mechanism of adsorption
• Explain the factors controlling adsorption from gases and solutions on solids
• Explain adsorption results on the basis of Freundlich adsorption isotherms
• Appreciate the role of catalysts in industry
• Enumerate the nature of colloidal state
• Describe preparation, properties and purification of colloids
• Classify emulsions and describe their preparation and properties
• Describe the phenomenon of gel formation
• List the uses of colloids.

POINTS TO REMEMBER
Molecules at the surface of a solid, a metal, or a liquid experience in net inward force of attraction
with free valencies.
• Adsorption: The accumulation of molecules species at the surface rather in the bulk of a solid
or liquid is termed adsorption.
• Adsorbate: The molecular species or substance, which concentrate at the surface.
• Adsorbent: The material on the surface of which the adsorption takes place.
Absorption Adsorption
(i) It is the phenomenon in which a (i) The accumulation of molecular species
substance is uniformly distributed at the surface rather than in the bulk
throughout the bulk of the solid. of a solid or liquid is termed as
adsorption.
(ii) It is a bulk phenomenon. (ii) It is a surface phenomenon.
(iii) The concentration is uniform (iii) The concentration of adsorbate
throughout the bulk of solid. increases only at the surface of the
adsorbent.

• Desorption: Removal of adsorbate from the surface of adsorbent is known as Desorption.

• Sorption:When adsorption and absorption both takes place simultaneously.
• Type of adsorption:
(i) Physical adsorption/physisorption: - When weak vander waal interaction involve between
adsorbate and adsorbent.
(ii) Chemical adsorption/chemisorption:-When chemical bonds form between adsorbate and
adsorbent.
• Features of Adsorption :

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Adsorption is essentially a surface phenomenon.

Adsorption is an exothermic process. In other words, ΔH of adsorption is always negative.
The adsorption increases with increase in pressure.
Adsorption increases with increases of surface area of adsorbent.
Easily liquefiable gases are readily adsorbed.
Low temperature is favorable for physical adsorption and High
temperature for chemisorption.
• Adsorption isotherm: The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by
the adsorbent with pressure at constant temperature can be expressed by
means of a curve termed as adsorption isotherm.
• Freundlich adsorption isotherm:Emperical relationship between the
quantity of gas (x g) adsorbed by unit
mass(m) of solid adsorbent and pressure at a particular
x
temperature. m = kP1/n (n>1). x/m first increases with increase
in pressure at low pressure but becomes independent of pressure
at high pressure.

• Catalysts - Substances, which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and themselves remain
chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction.
• Promoters - Substances that enhance the activity of a catalyst.
• Poisons – Substances that decrease the activity of a catalyst.
• Homogeneous catalysis When the reactants and the catalyst are in the same.
• Heterogeneous catalysis The catalytic process in which the reactants and the catalyst are in
different phases.
• The mechanism of heterogeneous catalysis involves five steps:
(i) Diffusion of reactants to the surface of the catalyst.
(ii) Adsorption of reactant molecules on the surface of the catalyst.
(iii) Occurrence of chemical reaction on the catalyst‘s surface through formation of an
intermediate
(iv) Desorption of reaction products from the catalyst surface.
(v) Diffusion of reaction products away from the catalyst‘s surface.
• Activity of catalyst: The ability of a catalyst to increase the rate of a chemical reaction is called
activity of a catalyst.
• Selectivity of catalyst: It is the ability of catalyst to direct a reaction to yield a particular
product.
• Shape-selective catalysis: The catalytic reaction that depends upon the pore structure of the
catalyst and the size of the reactant. Zeolites are good shape-selective catalysts.

• Steps of enzyme catalysis:

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i) Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex : E + S ES≠

ii) Decomposition of the activated complex to form product ES≠→ E + P

• Characteristics of enzyme catalysis:

i) Highly efficient and specific in nature,
ii) The rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction becomes maximum at a definite temperature
(Optimum temperature).
iii) They are highly active at a specific pH called optimum pH.
iv) Enzymatic activity can be increased in presence of coenzymes (Promoters).
v) Activators (generally metal ions) weakly bind to enzyme and increase its activity.
vi) Enzymes can also be inhibited or poisoned by the presence of certain substances
(Inhibitor).

• Colloids: A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one substance is dispersed as very fine
particles in another substance called dispersed medium.
• Dispersed phase: The substance which is dispersed as very fine particles
• Dispersion medium: The substance present in larger quantity

• Classificationof colloids:
(i) Based on the physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium:
Dispersed phase Dispersion Name Examples
medium
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust
Solid Liquid Sol Paints
Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured gem tones
Liquid Solid Gel Jellies, cheese
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, hair cream
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist, cloud
Gas Solid Solid sol Pumice stone, foam rubber
Gas Liquid Foam Whipped cream, froth

(ii) Based on interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium :

Lyophobic sols Lyophilic sols
These colloids are solvent repellant. These colloids are solvent attracting.
In these colloids the particles of In these colloids, the particles of dispersed
dispersed phase have no affinity for the phase have great affinity for the dispersion
dispersion medium. medium.
They are not stable. They are stable.
They can be prepared by mixing They are prepared only by special methods
substances directly.

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They need stabilizing agents for their They do not need stabilizing agents for their
preservation. preservation.
They are irreversible sols. They are reversible sols.

(iii) Based on the type of the particles of the dispersed phase

Multimolecular colloids Macromolecular colloids Associated colloids
(Micelles)
Atoms or molecules Solutions in which the size At low concentrations behave
aggregate together to of the macro molecules as normal strong electrolytes,
form colloidal range may be in the colloidal but at higher concentrations
species . range. exhibit colloidal behaviour
due to the formation of
aggregates.

• Kraft temperature (Tk)- Temperature above which the formation of micelles takes place.
• Critical micelle concentration (CMC) – Concentration above which the formation of micelles
takes place.
• Methods of preparation of colloids: Chemical methods
➢ Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s Arc method: In this method, electric arc is struck
between electrodes of the metal immersed in the dispersion medium. The intense heat produced
vaporizes the metal which then condenses to form particles of colloidal size.
➢ Peptization: Process of converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with dispersion
medium in the presence of a small amount of electrolyte.
• Purification of Colloidal Solutions Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance
from a colloidal solution by means of diffusion through a suitable membrane.
Electro-dialysis: Dialysis can be made faster by applying an electric field if the dissolved
substance in the impure colloidal solution is only an electrolyte.
Ultrafiltration: The process of separating the colloidal particles from the solvent and soluble
solutes present in the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which are permeable to
all substances except the colloidal particles.
Ultracentrifugation: Through this process, colloidal particles settle down at the bottom of the
tube and the impurities remain in solution. The settled particles are mixed with dispersion
medium to regenerate the sol.
• Properties of colloids:
Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends upon the wavelength of light scattered by the
colloidal particles which in turn depends upon the nature and size of particles. The colour also
depends upon the manner in which light is received by the observer.
Brownian movement: Colloidal particles move in zig – zag path. This type of motion is due
to colliding molecules of dispersion medium constantly with colloidal particles.

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Colligative properties: The values of colligative properties (osmotic pressure, lowering in

vapour pressure, depression in freezing point and elevation in boiling point) are of small order
as compared to values shown by true solutions at the same concentrations.
Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light by colloidal particles is called Tyndall effect.
The bright cone of light is called the Tyndall cone.
Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge. The nature
of this charge is the same on all the particles in a given colloidal solution and may be either
positive or negative.
Helmholtz electrical double layer: When the colloidal particles acquire negative or positive
charge by selective adsorption of one of the ions, it attracts counter ions from the medium
forming a second layer. The combination of these two layers of opposite charges around
colloidal particles is called Helmholtz electrical double layer.
Electrokinetic potential or zeta potential: The potential difference between the fixed layer
and the diffused layer of opposite charges is called electrokinetic potential or zeta potential.
Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under an applied electric potential is
called electrophoresis.
Coagulation or precipitation: The process of settling of colloidal particles as precipitate is
called coagulation.
Hardy – Schulze rules: i) Oppositely charged ions are effective for coagulation.
ii) The coagulating power of electrolyte increases with increase in charge on the ions used for
coagulation.
• Types of emulsions:
Water dispersed in oil: When water is the dispersed phase and oil is the dispersion medium.
Oil dispersed in water: When oil is the dispersed phase and water is the dispersion medium.
Emulsification: The process of stabilizing an emulsion by means of an emulsifier.
Emulsifying agent: The substances which are added to stabilize the emulsions are called
emulsifying agents or emulsifiers.
Demulsification: The process of breaking an emulsion into its constituent liquids is called
demulsification by freezing, boiling, centrifugation or some chemical methods.

SECTION A
1 At the equilibrium position in the process of adsorption ___________.
▪ (i) ΔH > 0
▪ (ii) ΔH = TΔS
▪ (iii) ΔH > TΔS
▪ (iv) ΔH < TΔS

2 The term ‘sorption’ stands for ____________.

▪ (i) absorption

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▪ (ii) adsorption
▪ (iii) both absorption and adsorption
▪ (iv) desorption

3 Extent of physisorption of a gas increases with ___________.

▪ (i) increase in temperature.
▪ (ii) decrease in temperature.
▪ (iii) decrease in surface area of adsorbent.
▪ (iv) decrease in strength of van der Waals forces.

4 Extent of adsorption of adsorbate from solution phase increases with ________.

▪ (i) increase in amount of adsorbate in solution.
▪ (ii) decrease in surface area of adsorbent.
▪ (iii) increase in temperature of solution.
▪ (iv) decrease in amount of adsorbate in solution.

5 Which one of the following is not applicable to the phenomenon of adsorption?

▪ (i) ΔH > 0
▪ (ii) ΔG < 0
▪ (iii) ΔS < 0
▪ (iv) ΔH < 0

6 Physical adsorption of a gaseous species may change to chemical adsorption with

______________.

7 In physisorption adsorbent does not show specificity for any particular gas because
______________.

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is

given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of
the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

8 Assertion : An ordinary filter paper impregnated with collodion solution stops the flow of
colloidal particles.
Reason : Pore size of the filter paper becomes more than the size of colloidal particle.

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9 Assertion : Coagulation power of Al3+ is more than Na+.

Reason : Greater the valency of the flocculating ion added, greater is its power to cause
precipitation (Hardy Schulze rule).

10 Assertion : Detergents with low CMC are more economical to use.

Reason : Cleansing action of detergents involves the formation of micelles. These are
formed when the concentration of detergents becomes equal to CMC.

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
I. Surface chemistry deals with phenomenon that occur at the surfaces. Corrosion electrode
processes, heterogeneous catalysis, dissociation and crystallisation occur at the surface.
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Adsorption takes place at the surface. Easily liquefiable
gas is more easily adsorbed on the surface of catalyst. Gas masses contain activated charcoal to
adsorb poisonous gases.
(a) Out of H2, N2, CO and NH3, which gas will absorb to maximum extent and why?
(b) Write the reaction at anode and cathode in corrosion of iron?
(c) What happen when O2 is adsorbed on the metallic surface?
(d) What will happen if aqueous solution of raw sugar is passed over activated charcoal and why?
(e) What happens of λm (molar conductivity) of an aqueous solution of soap (sodium stearate)
of CMC (Critical Micelle Concentration)?
II. Observe the graph between x/m (extent of adsorption) vs log P (Pressure) at constant
Temperature and answer the following questions that follow:
a) What does this graph show?
b) What is slope of line equal to?
c) What does intercept of line represent?
d) Write the expression of Freundlich adsorption isotherm
of moderate pressure.
e) What is the effect of temperature on chemisorption?

SECTION B
Q1 Give an example of ‘shape-selective catalyst’.

Q2 a) Define ‘electrophoresis’.
b) Write the dispersed phase and dispersion medium in butter.

Q3 What are lyophobic colloids? Give one example for them.

Q4 Out of NH3 and CO2 which gas will be adsorbed more readily on the surface of
activated charcoal and why?

Q5 Which of the following is most effective in coagulating positively charged

methylene blue sol and why?
(i) Na3PO4 (ii) K4[Fe(CN)6] (iii) Na2SO4

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Q6 What is meant by coagulation of a colloidal solution? Name any method by which

coagulation of lyophobic sols can be carried out.

Q7 Describe a conspicuous change observed when

a) a solution of NaCl is added to a sol. of hydrated ferric oxide.
b) a beam of light is passed through a solution of NaCl and then through a sol.

Q8 a) What are lyophilic and lyophobic colloids? Which of these sols can be easily
coagulated on the addition of small amounts of electrolytes?
b) What is the difference between oil/water (O/W) type and water/oil (W/O) type
emulsions? Give an example of each type.

Q9 Explain the following:

a) Deltas are formed when river and sea water meet.
b) Artificial rain is caused by spraying salt over clouds.
c) Physisorption is multi-layered, while chemisorption is mono layered.

Q10 What happens in the following activities and why?

(i) An electrolyte is added to a hydrated ferric oxide sol in water.
(ii) A beam of light is passed through a colloidal solution.
(iii) An electric current is passed through a colloidal solution.

Q11 Explain how the phenomenon of adsorption finds application in each of the
following processes:
(i) Production of vacuum
(ii) Heterogeneous catalysis
(iii) Froth Floatation process

Q12 (a) Adsorption of a gas on surface of solid is generally accompanied by a decrease

in entropy, still it is a spontaneous process. Explain.
(b) Some substances can act both as colloids’ and crystalloids. Explain.
(c) What will be the charge on Agl colloidal particles when it is prepared by
adding small amount of AgNO3 solution to KI solution in water? What is
responsible for the development of this charge?

LEARNING OUTCOMES –
Learners will be able to:
• understand the differences between physical and chemical adsorption
• know about Freundlich adsorption isotherms.
• understand the various types of colloids & its specific name
• Understand the Preparation& properties of various types of colloids and its uses in life
• understand the various types of catalysis - homogeneous and heterogeneous
• understand about the various types of catalytic reaction takes place in life
• know the methods of preparation of colloids

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CYCLE IX

CHAPTER 6: GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF

ELEMENTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES -
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Explain the terms minerals, ores, concentration, benefaction, calcination, roasting, refining, etc.
• Understand the principles of oxidation and reduction as applied to the extraction procedures
• Apply the thermodynamic concepts like that of Gibbs energy and entropy to the principles of
extraction of Al, Cu, Zn and Fe
• Explain why reduction of certain oxides like Cu2O is much easier than that of Fe2O3
• Explain why CO is a favourable reducing agent at certain temperatures while coke is better in
some other cases
• Explain why specific reducing agents are used for reduction purposes.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:

• Minerals: The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s crust which are obtained
by mining are known as minerals. Metals may or may not be extracted profitably from them.
• Ores: The rocky materials which contain sufficient quantity of mineral so that the metal can be
extracted profitably or economically are known as ores.
• Gangue: The earthy or undesirable materials present in ore are known as gangue.
• Metallurgy: The entire scientific and technological process used for isolation of the metal from
its ores is known as metallurgy.
• Steps of metallurgy:
a. Concentration of ore
b. Conversion of concentrated ore to oxide
c. Reduction of oxide to metal
d. Refining of metal
• Concentration of ore: The process of removal unwanted materials like sand, clay, rocks etc from
the ore is known as concentration, ore – dressing or benefaction. It involves several steps which
depend upon physical properties of metal compound and impurity (gangue). The type of metal,
available facilities and environmental factors are also taken into consideration.
• Hydraulic washing (or gravity separation): It is based on difference in densities of ore and
gangue particles. Ore is washed with a stream of water under pressure so that lighter impurities
are washed away whereas heavy ores are left behind.
• Magnetic separation: This method is based on the difference in magnetic and non – magnetic
properties of two components of ore (pure and impure). This method is used to remove tungsten
ore particles from cassiterite (SnO2). It is also used to concentrate magnetite (Fe3O4), chromite
(FeCr2O4) and pyrolusite (MnO2) from unwanted gangue.
• Froth Floatation Process: The principle of froth floatation process is that sulphide ores are
preferentially wetted by the pine oil, whereas the gangue particles are wetted by the water.
Collectors are added to enhance the non-wettability of the mineral particles. Examples are pine

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oil, fatty acids and xanthates are added to it. Froth stabilizers are added to stabilize the froth.
Examples are cresols, aniline. If two sulphide ores are present, it is possible to separate the two
sulphide ores by adjusting proportion of oil to water or by adding depressants. For example- In
the case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS, the depressant used is NaCN. It selectively prevents
ZnS from coming to froth but allows PbS to come with the froth.
• Leaching (Chemical separation): It is a process in which ore is treated with suitable solvent
which dissolves the ore but not the impurities.
• Conversion of ore into oxide: It is easier to reduce oxide than sulphide or carbonate ore.
Therefore, the given ore should be converted into oxide by suitable method.
• Reduction of oxide to metal: The process of converting metal oxide into metal is called
reduction. It needs a suitable reducing agent depending upon the reactivity or reducing power of
metal. The common reducing agents used are carbon or carbon monoxide or any other metals
like Al, Mg etc.
• Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy: Some basic concepts of thermodynamics help in
understanding the conditions of temperature and selecting suitable reducing agent in
metallurgical processes:
i. Gibbs free energy change at any temperature is given by ΔG = ΔH – TΔS where ΔG is free
energy change, ΔH is enthalpy change and ΔS is entropy change.
ii. The relationship between ΔGӨ and K is ΔGӨ = –2.303 RT log K where K is equilibrium
constant. R = 8.314 JK-¹ mol-1, T is temperature in Kelvin.
iii. A negative ΔG means +ve value of K i.e., products are formed more than the reactants.
The reaction will proceed in forward direction.
iv. If ΔS is +ve, on increasing temperature the value of TΔS increases so that TΔS > ΔH and
ΔG will become negative.
Ellingham diagrams: The plots between ΔfGӨ of formation of oxides of elements vs. temperature
are called Ellingham diagrams. It provides a sound idea about selecting a reducing agent in reduction
of oxides. Such diagrams help in predicting the feasibility of a thermal reduction of an ore. ΔG must
be negative at a given temperature for a reaction to be feasible.
The reducing agent forms its oxide when the metal oxide is reduced. The role of reducing agent is to
provide ΔG0 negative and large enough to make the sum of ΔG0 of the two reactions (oxidation of
the reducing agent and reduction of the metal oxide) negative.
The difference in the two ΔrG0 values after the intersection point determines whether reduction of
the oxide of the upper line is feasible by the element represented by the lower line.
If the difference is large, the reduction is easier.

• Limitations of Ellingham Diagrams: It does not take kinetics of reduction into consideration,
i.e., how fast reduction will take place cannot be determined.

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• Aluminothermic process: Chromic oxide is mixed with powdered Aluminium in the ratio 3:1
and is placed in a large fire clay crucible. A mixture of barium peroxide and Mg powder is
placed over this. The crucible is surrounded by sand which prevents loss of heat by radiation.
The mixture is ignited by a piece of Mg ribbon. During this process a large amount of heat is
liberated, in which Cr2O3 is reduced to chromium.
The molten chromium is collected in the crucible and aluminium oxide is removed as slag.
Cr2O3 + 2Al  2Cr + Al2O3 + 468.6 kJ

• Electrolytic Reduction (Hall – Heroult Process):

Purified bauxite ore is mixed with cryolite (Na3AlF6)
or CaF2 which lowers its melting point and increases
electrical conductivity.
Molten mixture is electrolysed using a number
of graphite rods as anode and carbon lining as
cathode.
The graphite anode is useful for reduction of
metal oxide to metal. Graphite rods get burnt forming
CO and CO2.
The aluminium thus obtained is refined electrolytically
using impure Al as anode, pure Al as cathode and molten cryolite as electrolyte.

• Reduction of iron oxide in blast furnace: Reduction of oxides takes place in different
zones.
i. Zone of reduction:- Temperature range 250oC-700oC
3Fe2O3 + CO  2Fe3O4 + CO2
Fe3O4+ 4CO  3Fe + 4CO2
Fe2O3 + CO  2FeO + CO2
ii. Zone of slag formation:- Temperature range 800oC-1000oC
CaCO3CaO and CO2
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3 Calcium silicate (Slag)
It floats over molten iron and prevents oxidation of iron.
The substance which reacts with impurity to form slag is called flux e.g. limestone is
basic flux.
S + O2 SO2
4P + 5 O2 2P2O5
Si + O2 SiO2
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3 (slag)
3CaO + P2O5Ca3(PO4)2 (slag)
iii. Zone of heat absorption: - Temperature range 1150oC-1350oC.
C + CO2 2CO; The reaction is endothermic.
FeO + CO  Fe + CO2; Iron produced in the upper region melts. FeO is reduced to e.

iv. Zone of fusion/combustion: - Temperature range 1450oC-1950oC

C + O2 CO2
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• Types of iron: a) Pig iron: The iron obtained from blast furnace is called pig iron. It is impure
from of iron contains 2-5% carbon and small amount of S,.P, Si and Mn. It can be casted into
variety of shapes. Pig Iron: - It contains Fe 93-95%, Carbon 2.5-5%, and Impurities 3%.
b) Cast iron: It is made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and coke using hot air blast. It is
extremely hard and brittle. Cast Iron: - It contains Fe 99.5-99.8%, Carbon 0.1-0.2% Impurities
0.3%.
c) Wrought iron: It is the purest form of commercial iron. It is also called malleable iron. It is
prepared by oxidative refining of pig iron in reverberatory furnace lined with haematite which
oxidizes carbon to carbon monoxide. Fe2O3 + 3C  2Fe + 3CO
• Smelting: The roasted ore is mixed with powdered coke and sand and is strongly heated in a
blast furnace . The blast furnace is made of steel and is lined with fire bricks. A blast of hot air
is introduced at the lower part of the furnace and changes occurring are:

a) Ferrous sulphide is oxidized to ferrous oxide which combines with silica to form slag.
2FeS + 3O2 2FeO + 2SO2
FeO + SiO2 FeSiO3 (slag)
The slag being lighter forms the upper layer and is removed from time to time.
b) During roasting if any oxide of copper is formed, it combines with FeS and is changed back
into its sulphide
2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
Cu2O + FeS  Cu2S + FeO (This changes to slag by combining with SiO2)
As a result two separate layers are formed at the bottom of furnace. Upper layer is slag which
is removed as waste. The lower layer of molten mass contains mostly cuprous sulphide and
some traces of ferrous sulphide. It is called matte and is taken out from tapping hole at bottom.
• Refining: It is the process of converting an impure metal into pure metal depending upon the
nature of metal.
• Distillation: It is the process used to purify those metals which have low boiling points, e.g.,
zinc, mercury, sodium, potassium. Impure metal is heated so as to convert it into vapours which
changes into pure metal on condensation and is obtained as distillate.
• Liquation: Those metals which have impurities whose melting points are higher than metal
can be purified by this method. In this method, Sn metal can be purified. Tin containing iron
as impurities heated on the top of sloping furnace. Tin melts and flows down the sloping surface
where iron is left behind and pure tin is obtained.
• Electrolytic refining: In this method, impure metal is taken as anode, pure metal is taken as
cathode, and a soluble salt of metal is used as electrolyte. When electric current is passed,
impure metal forms metal ions which are discharged at cathode forming pure metal.

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• Zone refining: It is based on the principle that impurities are more soluble in the melt than in
the solid state of the metal.
The impure metal is heated with the help of circular heaters at one end of the rod of impure
metal. The molten zone moves forward along with the heater with impurities and reaches the
other end and is discarded. Pure metal crystallizes out of the melt. The process is repeated
several times and heater is moved in the same direction. It is used for purifying semiconductors
like B, Ge, Si, Ga and In.
• Vapour phase refining: Nickel is purified by
Mond’s process. Nickel, when heated in stream of
carbon monoxide forms volatile Ni(CO)4 which on further subjecting to higher temperature
decomposes to give pure metal.
• Van- Arkel method: It is used to get ultra pure metals. Zr
and Ti are purified by this process. Zr or Ti are heated in
iodine vapours at about 870 K to form volatile ZrI4 or TiI4
which are heated over tungsten filament at 1800K to give
pure Zr or Ti.

• Chromatographic method: It is based on the principle of separation or purification by

chromatography which is based on differential adsorption on an adsorbent. In column
chromatography, Al2O3 is used as adsorbent. The mixture to be separated is taken in suitable
solvent and applied on the column. They are then eluted out with suitable solvent (eluant). The
weakly adsorbed component is eluted first. This method is suitable for such elements which
are available only in minute quantities and the impurities are not very much different in their
chemical behaviour from the element to be purified.

• Alloys: An alloy is a solid solution of two or more elements with metallic property.
Formation of alloy (a) Increases the intensity of colour (b) Increases the hardness
(c) Decreases the conductivity (d) Decreases the corrosion (e) Decreases the melting point (f)
Increases the good casting.

• Alloys of mercury are called amalgams. Coating or alloying of metals like Fe with zinc is
called galvanization. Coatings or alloying of metal with tin is called tinning. Alloying of a
metal with Hg is known as amalgamation.

• Copper forms a number of alloys :

Brass: Cu + Zn, Bronze: Cu + Sn, Gun Metal: Cu + Sn + Zn, German silver : Cu + Zn + Ni

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• Steel alloy contains special constituents such as tungsten, chromium, nickel, cobalt,
Vanadium , molybdenum and manganese which impart desired properties to steel.
Some of them are as follows -
Stainless steel : Fe + Cr + Ni + C, Nickel steel : Fe + Ni, Tungsten steel : Fe + W + C
Alnico : Fe + Al + Ni + Co

• Silver coins are Ag-Cu alloys.

• 18 carat gold, which is an alloy containing 18 parts by weight of gold alloyed with 6
parts by weight of another metal generally copper.
• Extraction of Copper :

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SECTION A

1 Which of the following reactions is an example of auto reduction?

2 Zone refining is based on the principle that ___________.

▪ (i) impurities of low boiling metals can be separated by distillation.
▪ (ii) impurities are more soluble in molten metal than in solid metal.
▪ (iii) different components of a mixture are differently adsorbed on an adsorbent.
▪ (iv) vapours of volatile compound can be decomposed in pure metal.

3 Electrolytic refining is used to purify which of the following metals?

▪ (i) Cu and Zn
▪ (ii) Ge and Si
▪ (iii) Zr and Ti
▪ (iv) Zn and Hg

4 Extraction of gold and silver involves leaching the metal with CN ion. The metal is
recovered by ________________.
▪ (i) displacement of metal by some other metal from the complex ion.
▪ (ii) roasting of metal complex.
▪ (iii) calcination followed by roasting.
▪ (iv) thermal decomposition of metal complex.

5 In the extraction of copper from its sulphide ore, the metal is formed by the
reduction of Cu2O with
▪ (i) FeS
▪ (ii) CO
▪ (iii) Cu2S
▪ (iv) SO2

6 In the extraction of aluminium by Hall-Heroult process, purified Al2O3 is mixed

with CaF2 to _________________________.

7 In the Froth Floatation process, zinc sulphide and lead sulphide can be separated
by___________________________.

In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of

reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:

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i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation
of the assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.
8 Assertion : Nickel can be purified by Mond process.
Reason : Ni(CO)4 is a volatile compound which decomposes at 460K to give pure
Ni.
9 Assertion : Zone refining method is very useful for producing semiconductors.
Reason : Semiconductors are of high purity.
101. Assertion : Hydrometallurgy involves dissolving the ore in a suitable reagent
followed by precipitation by a more electropositive metal.
Reason : Copper is extracted by hydrometallurgy.
2.
Read the given passage and answer the questions that follow:
Aluminium is most abundant metal in earth crust. It is extracted by electrolytic
reduction of molten Al2O3 mixed with cryolite. Chemical reduction is used in
reduction of oxide of zinc, iron, copper. Mn and Cr can also extract by chemical
reduction using ‘Al’ as reducing agent. If at a particular temperature
∆G° of the reaction is –ve with a particular reducing agent then that reducing agent
is most effective of that temperature. In electrolytic reduction ∆G° = –nE°F, +ve, E°
value will make ∆G° negative and make the process feasible. More reactive metal
can displace less reactive metal from its salt solution or complex.
a) 2Cl– + 2H2O → 2OH– + H2 + Cl2, ∆G = +422 kJ, calculate the minimum
potential difference required for the process?
b) Which reagent is used in extraction of gold from [Au(CN)2], why?
c) Why limestone is used in extraction of iron?
d) Electrolytic reduction of Al2O3 to Al by Hall- Herault process is carried out
(a) in presence of NaCl.
(b) in presence of fluorite.
(c) in presence of cryolite which forms a melt with lower melting point.
(d) in presence of cryolite which forms a melt with high melting point.
e) Consider the following reaction at 1000° C

Choose the correct statement at 1000°C

(a) Zinc can be oxidised by carbon monoxide.
(b) Zinc oxide can be reduced by graphite.
(c) Both statements (a) and (b) are correct.
(d) Both statements (a) and (b) are false.

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SECTION B
Q1 Name the method used for refining of copper metal.

Q2 Which reducing agent is employed to get copper from the leached low -grade
copper ore?

Q3 Write the chemical reaction which takes place in Mond’s process for refining of
nickel.

Q4 (i) Name the method of refining of metals such as Germanium.

(ii) In the extraction of Al, impure Al2O3 is dissolved in cone. NaOH to form
sodium aluminate and leaving impurities behind. What is the name of this
process?

Q5 Write down the reactions taking place in different zones in the blast furnace
during the extraction of iron. How is pig iron different from cast iron?

Q6 (i) Name the method of refining to obtain silicon of high purity.

(ii) What is the role of SiO2 in the extraction of copper?
(iii) What is the role of depressants in froth flotation process?

Q7 (a) Giving examples differentiate between calcination and roasting.

(b) What is the role of cryolite in the extraction of aluminium?

Q8 Explain the role of each of the following in the extraction of metals from their
ores:
(i) CO in the extraction of nickel.
(ii) Zinc in the extraction of silver.
(iii) Silica in the extraction of copper.

Q9 Describe the principle involved in each of the following processes of metallurgy:

(i) Froth floatation method
(ii) Electrolytic refining of metals
(iii) Zone refining of metals

LEARNING OUTCOMES -
Learners will be able to:
• understand the various steps involved in the metallurgy i.e., concentration, oxidation, reduction
and refining.
• understand the different processes for refining.
• know the steps involved in the extraction of Al, Cu, Zn and Fe.

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CYCLE IX
CHAPTER 7: p – BLOCK ELEMENTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES –
After studying this unit, you would be able to:
• Appreciate general trends in the chemistry of elements of groups 15,16,17 and 18
• Learn the preparation, properties and uses of dinitrogen and phosphorus and some of their
important compounds
• Describe the preparation, properties and uses of dioxygen and ozone and chemistry of some
simple oxides
• Know allotropic forms of sulphur, chemistry of its important compounds and the structures of
its oxoacids
• Describe the preparation, properties and uses of chlorine and hydrochloric acid
• Know the chemistry of interhalogens and structures of oxoacids of halogens
• Enumerate the uses of noble gases
• Appreciate the importance of these elements and their compounds in our day-to-day life.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
p-Block elements: Elements belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the periodic table
General electronic configuration: The ns2np1-6
Inert pair effect: The tendency of ns2 electron pair to participate in bond formation decreases with
the increase in atomic size. Within a group the higher oxidation state becomes less stable with respect
to the lower oxidation state as the atomic number increases. This trend is called ‘inert pair effect’. In
other words, the energy required to unpair the electrons is more than energy released in the formation
of two additional bonds.

GROUP 16 ELEMENTS (CHALCOGENS)

Group 16 elements: O, S , Se, Te, Po ; General electronic configuration: ns2np4

• ATOMIC & PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

➢ Ionization enthalpy decreases from oxygen to polonium.

➢ Oxygen atom has less negative electron gain enthalpy than S because of the compact nature of
the oxygen atom. However from the S onwards the value again becomes less negative upto
polonium.
➢ Eletronegativity gradually decreases from oxygen to polonium , metallic character increases
from oxygen to polonium.
➢ Oxygen & S are non-metals, selenium & tellurium are metalloids. Po is a radioactive metal.

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➢ Oxygen is diatomic gas while S, Se & Te are octa atomic S8, Se8 & Te8 molecules which has
puckered ring structure.

• Oxidation States :

➢ Common oxidation states : -2, +2, +4 & +6.

➢ Due to inert effect, the stability of +6 state decreses down the group and stability of +4 state
increases.
➢ Oxygen exhibits +1 state in O2F2, + 2 in OF2.
Anamalous behaviour of oxygen - due to its small size, high electronegativity and absence of d
orbitals.
• Chemical Properties
Acidic character - H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
Thermal stability - H2O > H2S > H2Se >H2Te
Reducing character - H2S < H2Se < H2Te
Boiling point - H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2O
Reducing property of dioxides – SO2> SeO2> TeO2
Stability of halides - F-> Cl-> Br- > I –
• Reactivity with oxygen:
➢ Reducing character of dioxides decreases down the group
➢ Acidity also decreases down the group.
➢ SO2 is a gas whereas SeO2 is solid. This is because SeO2 has a chain polymeric structure
whereas SO2 forms discrete units.
➢ Reactivity with halogens: EX2 , EX4 and EX6
➢ The stability of halides decreases in the order F-> Cl-> Br-> I-.
• Oxides A binary compound of oxygen with another element is called oxide. Oxides can be
classified on the basis of nature
Acidic oxides: - Non metallic oxides. Aqueous solutions are acids. Neutralize bases to form
salts. Eg: SO2, CO2, N2O5 etc.
Basic oxides: - metallic oxides. Aqueous solutions are alkalis. Neutralize acids to form
salts. Eg:Na2O, K2O, Mgo etc.
Amphoteric oxides:- some metallic oxides exhibit a dual behavior. Neutralize both acids &
bases to form salts. Ex:- AlO3, Sb2O3, SnO, PbO2 etc…
• Sulphur exhibits allotropy:
a. Yellow Rhombic (α - sulphur) b. Monoclinic (β- sulphur): At 369 K both forms are
stable. It is called transition temperature. Both of them have S8 molecules. The ring is
puckered and has a crown shape.
• Sulphuric acid preparation
It is manufactured by contact process which involves 3 steps

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1. Burning of S or sulphide ores in air to generate SO2.

2 . Conversion of SO2 to SO3 in presence of V2O5 catalyst
3. Absorption of SO3 in H2SO4 to give oleum.
➢ Properties
(i) In aqueous solution it ionizes in 2 steps
H2SO4+H2O H3O++HSO4-
HSO4-+H2O H3O++SO42-
(ii) It is a strong dehydrating agent Eg:- charring action of sugar C12H22O11 12C+11H2O
(iii) It is a moderately strong oxidising agent.
Cu + 2 H2SO4(conc.)  CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
C + 2 H2SO4 (conc.) CO2 + 2 SO2 + 2H2O

GROUP 17 ELEMENTS (HALOGENS)

Group 17 elements: F, Cl, Br, I, At ; General electronic configuration: ns2np5

• Oxidation states: 1, However, chlorine, bromine and iodine exhibit + 1,+ 3, + 5 and + 7
oxidation states also.
Fluorine forms two oxides OF2 and O2F2. These are essentially oxygen fluorides because of
the higher electronegativity of fluorine than oxygen.
• Anamalous behaviour of fluorine - due to its small size, highest electronegativity, low F-F
bond dissociation enthalpy and absence of d-orbitals.
• Chemical Properties
Oxidising property – F2>Cl2>Br2>I2
Bond dissociation enthalpy : Cl2> Br2> F2> I2
Bond dissociation enthalpy of Cl2 is more than F2 because there are large electronic
repulsions of lone pairs present in F2.
Acidic strength – HF<HCl<HBr<HI
Stability & bond dissociation enthalpy - HF>HCl>HBr>HI
Boiling point: HCl < HBr < HI < HF
HF has strong intermolecular H bonding As the size increases van der Waals forces
increases and hence boiling point increases.
Stability of oxides of halogens – I >Cl >Br
Ionic character of halides – MF >MCl>MBr>MI.
• Colour: All halogens are coloured because of absorption of radiations in visible region which
results in the excitation of outer electrons to higher energy levels.

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• Interhalogen compounds: Reactivity of halogens towards other halogens:

Binary compounds of two different halogen atoms of general formula X X’n are called
interhalogen compounds where n = 1, 3, 5, or 7
These are covalent compounds. All these are covalent compounds.
Interhalogen compounds are more reactive than halogens because X-X’ is a more polar
than X-X bond.
All are diamagnetic.
Their melting point is little higher than halogens.
XX’ (CIF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IBr, IF) (Linear shape)
XX’3 (CIF3, BrF3, IF3, ICl3) (Bent T- shape)
XX’5 – CIF5, BrF5, IF5, (square pyramidal shape)
XX’7 – IF7 (Pentagonal bipyramidal shape)
• Oxoacids of halogens:
Acid strength: HOCl < HClO2 < HClO3< HClO4
Fluorine forms only one oxoacid HOF (Fluoric (I) acid or hypofluorous acid) due to high
electronegativity.
Acid strength: HOF > HOCl > HOBr > HOI (Fluorine is most electronegative)

GROUP 18 ELEMENTS

Group 18 elements: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe & Rn ; General electronic configuration: ns2np6
➢ Atomic radii – is large as compared to other elements in the period since it corresponds to
Vander Waal radii.
➢ Inert - Due to complete octet of outermost shell, very high ionization enthalpy & electron gain
enthalpies are almost zero.
The first noble compound prepared by Neil Bartlett was XePtF6 by mixing PtF6 &
xenon. O2+ PtF6- led to the discovery of XePtF6 since the first ionisation enthalpy of molecular
oxygen (1175kJmol–1) was almost identical with that of xenon (1170 kJ mol–1).
• Chemical Properties:
Xe + F2 XeF2
Xe(g) + 2F2(g)  XeF4(s)
Xe(g) + 3F2(g)  XeF6(s)
XeF6 + MF  M+ [XeF7]- (1bar, 673K)
XeF2 + PF5 [XeF]+ [PF6]- (7bar, 873k)
XeF6 + 3H2O  XeO3 + 6HF ( 573k,6070 bar)
XeF6 + 2H2O  XeO2 F2 + 4HF (partial hydrolysis)
• Oxides and Oxyacids of p block elements

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

SECTION A
1 Reduction potentials of some ions are given below. Arrange them in decreasing order of
oxidising power.

2 Which of the following is isoelectronic pair?

▪ (i) ICl2, ClO2
▪ (ii) BrO2– , BrF2+
▪ (iii) ClO2, BrF
▪ (iv) CN–, O3

3 A black compound of manganese reacts with a halogen acid to give greenish yellow gas.
When excess of this gas reacts with NH3 an unstable trihalide is formed. In this process the
oxidation state of nitrogen changes from _________.
▪ (i) – 3 to +3
▪ (ii) – 3 to 0
▪ (iii) – 3 to +5
▪ (iv) 0 to – 3

4 Which of the following are per oxoacids of sulphur?

▪ (i) H2SO5 and H2S2O8
▪ (ii) H2SO5 and H2S2O7
▪ (iii) H2S2O7 and H2S2O8
▪ (iv) H2S2O6 and H2S2O7

5 Which of the following is not tetrahedral in shape?

▪ (i) NH4+
▪ (ii) SiCl4
▪ (iii) SF4
▪ (iv) SO42–

6 The oxidation state of central atom in the anion of compound

NaH2PO2 will be_________________.
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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

7 If chlorine gas is passed through hot NaOH solution, two changes are observed in the
oxidation number of chlorine during the reaction. These are ________ and _______.
_______.
In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is
given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices:
i. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
ii. If both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not the correct explanation of
the assertion.
iii. If assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect.
iv. If both assertion and reason are incorrect.

8 Assertion : Both rhombic and monoclinic sulphur exist as S8 but oxygen exists as O2.
Reason : Oxygen forms pπ – pπ multiple bond due to small size and small bond length but pπ
– pπ bonding is not possible in sulphur.

9 Assertion : SF6 cannot be hydrolysed but SF4 can be.

Reason : Six F atoms in SF6 prevent the attack of H2O on sulphur atom of SF6.

10 Assertion : HI cannot be prepared by the reaction of KI with concentrated H2SO4

Reason : HI has lowest H–X bond strength among halogen acids.
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Group 15 elements consist of N, P, As, Sb, Bi and Mc (Moscovium) with general electronic
configuration ns2np3 and oxidation states +3 and +5. Nitrogen differs from rest of the
elements. Phosphorus show allotropy and is more reactive than Nitrogen. Hydrides of group
15 elements show variation in bond angle, boiling point, basic character, stability and
reducing character. Oxides of group 15 elements show decrease in acidic character and more
increase in basic character. Nitrogen forms large number of oxides. Halides of group 15
elements are mostly covalent. Nitrogen and phosphorus form oxoacids along with As. Nitric
acid is manufactured by Ostwald process and useful for nitration and as oxidising agent. NH3
is used in manufacture of fertilisers. HNO3 reacts with metals and non-metals to give
different products under different conditions. Phosphorus reacts with oxygen, halogens, nitric
acid, NaOH to form different products
a) Why does reducing character increases from NH3 to BiH3?
b) Draw the structure of oxides of nitrogen in which oxidation state of nitrogen is +5.
c) What happens when white phosphorus reacts with NaOH in inert atmosphere? Write
the reaction involved.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

d) H2S is more acidic than H2O because

(a) oxygen is more electronegative than sulphur.
(b) atomic number of sulphur is higher than oxygen.
(c) H — S bond dissociation energy is less as compared to H — O bond.
(d) H — O bond dissociation energy is less also compared to H — S bond.

e) The boiling points of hydrides of group 16 are in the order

(a) H2O > H2Te > H2S > H2Se
(b) H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te
(c) H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S
(d) None of these.
f) The set with correct order of acidity is
(a) HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
(b) HClO4 < HClO3 < HClO2 < HClO
(c) HClO < HClO4 < HClO3 < HClO2
(d) HClO4 < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO

SECTION B

Q1 Though nitrogen exhibits +5 oxidation state, it does not form pentahalide. Why?
Q2 Complete the following equations:
(i) P4 + H2O →
(ii) XeF4 + O2F2 →
Q3 Draw the structures of the following:
(i) H2SO4
(ii) XeF2
Q4 What happens when:
(i) Concentrated H2SO4 is added to calcium fluoride?
(ii) SO3 is passed through water?
Q5 Complete the following reactions:
(i) Cl2 + H2O →
(ii) XeF6 + 3H2O →
Q6 Complete the following chemical equations:
(i) F2 + 2Cl– →
(ii) 2XeF2 + 2H4O →
Q7 Draw the structures of the following:
(a) XeF4
(b) BrF5
Q8 “Orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) is non-reducing whereas hypophosphorus acid (H3PO2) is a
strong reducing agent.” Explain and justify the above statement with suitable example.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Q9 (a) What is the covalence of nitrogen in N2O5?

(b) BiH3 is a stronger reducing agent than SbH3, why?
Q10 Account for the following:
(i) Two S-O bond lengths in SO2 are equal.
(ii) Fluorine shows only -1 oxidation state in its compounds.
Q11 Account for the following:
(i) NH3 is a stronger base than PH3.
(ii) Sulphur has a greater tendency for catenation than oxygen.
(iii) Bond dissociation energy of F2 is less than that of Cl3
Q12 Explain the following observations:
(i) Fluorine does not exhibit any positive oxidation state.
(ii) The majority of known noble gas compounds are those of Xenon.
(iii) Phosphorus is much more reactive than nitrogen
Q13 How would you account for the following:
(i) H2S is more acidic than H2O?
(ii) Both O2 and F2 stabilize high oxidation states but the ability of oxygen to stabilize the
higher oxidation state exceeds that of fluorine.
Q14 How would you account for the following:
(i) The electron gain enthalpy with negative sign is less for oxygen than that for sulphur.
(ii) Phosphorus shows greater tendency for catenation than nitrogen.
(iii) Fluorine never acts as the central atom in polyatomic interhalogen compounds?
Q15 How would you account for the following:
(i) NCl3 is an endothermic compound while NF3 is an exothermic one.
(ii) XeF2 is a linear molecule without a bend.
(iii) The electron gain enthalpy with negative sign for fluorine is less than that for chlorine,
still fluorine is a stronger oxidising agent than chlorine?

LEARNING OUTCOMES -
Learners will be able to:
• understand the general trends in the chemistry of elements of group 15, 16 ,17.and 18.
• learn the preparation and properties of certain compounds of these groups
• draw the structure of oxide of nitrogen, oxoacids of sulphur, halogens and some compounds of
Xenon.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

HALF YEARLY EXAMINATION (2022-23)

GRADE- XII
CHEMISTRY (043)
Time allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 70
General Instructions:
Read the following instructions carefully.

a) There are 33 questions in this question paper. All questions are compulsory.
b) Section A: Q. No. 1 to 16 are objective type questions. Q. No. 1 and 2 are passage-based
questions carrying 4 marks each while Q. No. 3 to 16 carry 1 mark each.
c) Section B: Q. No. 17 to 25 are short answer questions and carry 2 marks each.
d) Section C: Q. No. 26 to 30 are short answer questions and carry 3 marks each.
e) Section D: Q. No. 31 to 33 are long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.
f) There is no overall choice. However, internal choices have been provided.
g) Use of calculators and log tables is not permitted

SECTION A (OBJECTIVE TYPE)

Q1. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions: (1x4=4)

The d-block of the periodic table contains the elements of the groups 3 to 12 and
are known as transition elements. In general, the electronic configuration of these
elements is (n–1)d1–10ns1–2 . The d-orbitals of the penultimate energy level in their
atoms receive electrons giving rise to the three rows of the transition metals i.e.,
3d, 4d and 5d series. However, Zn, Cd and Hg are not regarded as transition
elements. Transition elements exhibit certain characteristic properties like
variable oxidation stables, complex formation, formation of coloured ions, alloys,
catalytic activity etc. Transition metals are hard (except Zn, Cd and Hg) and have
a high melting point.

The following questions are multiple choice questions. Choose the most
appropriate answer:

(i) Why are Zn, Cd and Hg non-transition elements?

a. Atoms or ions do not have incomplete d subshell
b. Low metallic strength
c. Last electron enters in s subshell
d. Last electron enters in d subshell

(ii) Which transition metal/(s) of 3d series does not show variable oxidation state?
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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

a. Mn and Zn
b. Cr and Cu
c. Sc, Cr and Zn
d. Sc and Zn
OR

(ii) Which of the following ions do not show colour in presence of ligands?
a. Mn2+ and Zn2+
b. Cr+ and Cu+
c. Sc3+, Cr+ and Zn2+
d. Sc3+ and Zn2+

(iii) Why do transition metals and their compounds show catalytic activity?
A. have variable oxidation state
B. can form intermediate complexes
C. have large surface area for adsorption of gases
D. have high enthalpy of atomization
a. B, C and D b. C only c. A, B and C d. A and D

(iv) Which element in 3d series has lowest enthalpy of atomisation and why?
a. Chromium due to half-filled stable configuration
b. Zinc due to absence of unpaired electrons
c. Manganese due to a greater number of oxidation states
d. Copper due to low hydration enthalpy

Q2. In these questions (Q. No i-iv), a statement of assertion followed by a statement (1x4=4)
of reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct
explanation for assertion.
b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct
explanation for assertion.
c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

Answer the questions on the basis of data and related studied concepts.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

(i) Assertion: Cresols are stronger acids than Phenol.

Reason: Methyl groups are electron releasing and they destabilize the
phenoxide ion.

(ii) Assertion: Phenols are more acidic than Alcohols.

Reason: Alkoxide ions are more stabilized through resonance.

(iii) Assertion: Phenol molecule is less stable than phenoxide ion.

Reason: Phenol molecule undergoes resonance.

(iv) Assertion: Presence of nitro group increases the acidic strength of Phenols.
Reason: Nitro group stabilizes the phenoxide ion.
OR
(iv) Assertion: Water is more acidic than Alcohols.
Reason: Alkoxide ion is a stronger base than hydroxide ion.

Q3. Which of the following compounds will dissolve in an alkali solution after it 1
undergoes reaction with Hinsberg’s reagent?
(a) (CH3)3N (b) CH3NH2 (c) (C2H5)2NH (d)
C6H5NHC6H5

Q4. Heating a mixture of sodium benzoate and soda lime gives 1

(a) Calcium benzoate (b) Benzene (c) Benzoic acid (d) Benzamide
OR
Acidic hydrolysis of Alkyl cyanides gives:
(a) Alcohols (b) Carboxylic acids (c) Amines (d) Esters

Q5. Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high 1
altitude is due to:
(a) low temperature (b) low atmospheric pressure
(c) high atmospheric pressure (d) both low temperature and high
atmospheric pressure

Q6. Which of the following reagents cannot be used to distinguish phenol and benzyl 1
alcohol?
(a) NaOH (b) NaHCO3 (c) Br2/CCl4 (d) FeCl3
OR
Which of the following compounds is oxidised to methyl ethyl ketone?
(a) 2-Propanol (b) 1-Butanol (c) 2-Butanol (d) tert. Butyl
alcohol

Q7. An organic compound ‘A’ on treatment with NH3 gives ‘B’ which on heating 1
gives ‘C’. ‘C’ when treated with Br2 in the presence of KOH produces
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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

ethylamine. Compound ‘A’ is

OR
Which of the following statements about primary amines is ‘false’?
(a) Alkylamines are stronger bases than arylamines.
(b) Alkylamines are stronger bases than ammonia.
(c) Alkylamines react with nitrous acid to produce alcohols.
(d) Arylamines react with nitrous acid to produce phenols.

Q8. Carbonyl group undergoes 1

(a) Electrophilic addition reaction (b) Nucleophilic addition
reactions
(c) Both (d) None
OR
Ethyl alcohol on oxidation with K2Cr2O7 gives
(a) Acetic acid (b) Acetaldehyde (c) Formaldehyde (d)
Formic acid

Q9. If we place the blood cells in a solution containing less than 0.9% (m/V) sodium 1
chloride. They would swell. This is because
(a) the solution is hypotonic (b) the solution is isotonic
(c) the solution is hypertonic (d) none of these

Q10.In acidic medium, one mole of MnO4– ion accepts how many moles of electrons 1
in a redox process?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 5 (d) 6

Q11.Best method for preparing primary amines from alkyl halides without changing 1
the number of carbon atoms in the chain is
(a) Hoffmann Bromamide reaction (b) Gabriel phthalimide
synthesis
(c) Sandmeyer reaction (d) Reaction with NH3

In the following questions (Q. No. 12 - 16) a statement of assertion followed by a statement of
reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation for
assertion.
c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

Q12.Assertion (A): At higher altitudes, people suffer from a disease called anoxia. 1
Reason (R): At higher altitudes, partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at
ground level, so that concentration becomes less in blood or tissues and people
become agile and cannot think clearly.

Q13.Assertion (A): Electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes are easier than 1

that of benzene Reason (R): Halogen atom decreases the electron density in
benzene ring due to Inductive effect.

Q14.Assertion (A): In transition elements ns orbital is filled up first and (n – 1)d 1

afterwards, during ionization ns electrons are lost prior to (n–1)d electrons.
Reason (R): The effective nuclear charge felt by (n – 1)d electrons is higher as
compared to that by ns electrons.
OR
Assertion (A): The most common oxidation state exhibited by actinoids is +2.
Reason (R): All actinoids possess two electrons in 7s subshell.

Q15.Assertion (A): The vapour pressure of a liquid decreases if some non-volatile 1

solute is dissolved in it.
Reason (R): The relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing a
non-volatile solute is equal to the mole fraction of the solute in the solution.

Q16.Assertion (A): Addition reaction of water to but-1-ene in acidic medium yields 1

butan-2-ol. Reason (R): Addition of water in acidic medium proceeds through the
formation of primary carbocation.

SECTION B
Q.No. 17 – 25 are short answer type and carry 2 marks each.
Q17.Arrange the following as indicated: 2
(a) 1-bromopentane, 2-bromopentane, 2-bromo-2-methylpentane (increasing
order of reactivity towards SN1 displacement)
(b) CH3F, CH3Cl, CCl4 (increasing order of dipole moment)
OR
Convert the following:
(a) Prop-1-ene to 1-fluoropropane
(b) Ethanol to Propanenitrile

Q18.Give the mechanism for the formation of ethene from ethanol. 2

Q19.Gas (A) is more soluble in water than Gas (B) at the same temperature. Which 2
one of the
two gases will have the higher value of KH (Henry’s constant) and why?
OR
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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Differentiate between molarity and molality for a solution. How does a change in
temperature influence their values?

Q20.Complete the following equations: 2

OR
Draw the structures of chromate and dichromate ions.

Q21.The boiling point of benzene is 353.23 K. When 1.80g of a non-volatile solute 2

was dissolved in 90g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to 354.11K. Calculate
the molar mass of the solute.
Kb for benzene is 2.53 K kg mol-1.

Q22.The boiling points of some compounds of molecular masses 58 and 60 are given. 2
Observe it carefully and answer the following questions.

(a) Boiling point of propan-1-ol is higher than methoxyethane. Why?

(b) Why boiling point of acetone is higher than propanal?

Q23.The magnetic moment is associated with its spin angular momentum and orbital 2
angular momentum. What is the spin only magnetic moment value of Cr3+ ion?
[At. No. of Cr = 24]

Q24.Write the structure and the IUPAC name of DDT. 2

Q25.Which one of these has the highest freezing point and why? 2
(a) 1 M glucose (b) 1 M NaCl (c) 1 M CaCl2

SECTION C
Q.No. 26 -30 are Short Answer Type II carrying 3 mark each.

Q26.(a) What is the role of pyridine in the acylation reaction of amines? 3

(b) Ammonolysis of alkyl halide does not give corresponding amine in pure state.
Why?
(c) Ethylamine is soluble in water, whereas aniline is not.
OR

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Arrange the following:

(a) In decreasing order of basic strength in aqueous medium and gaseous phase:
C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N and NH3
(b) Increasing order of solubility in water:
(C2H5)3N, (C2H5)2NH and C2H5NH2

Q27.Write the structures of main products when aniline reacts with the following 3
reagents:
(a) Br2 water (b) HCl (c)
(CH3CO)2O/pyridine
OR
Write the structures of A, B and C in the following:

Q28.The graphical representation of vapour pressures of two component system as a 3

function of composition is given alongside.
By graphic inspection, answer the
following questions:

(a) Are the A–B interactions weaker,

stronger or of the same magnitude as A–A
and B–B?
(b) Name the type of deviation shown by
this system from Raoult’s law.
(c) Predict the sign of ΔmixH for this
system.
(d) Predict the sign of ΔmixV for this
system.
(e) Give an example of such a system.
(f) What type of azeotrope will this system
form, if possible?
Q29.Give reasons for the following: 3
(a) Transition metals form large number of complex compounds.
(b) Actinoids show wide range of oxidation states.
(c) Oxygen stabilizes the highest oxidation states more than fluorine.

Q30.0.6 mL of acetic acid (CH3COOH), having density 1.06 g/mL, is dissolved in 1 3

litre of water. The depression in freezing point observed for this strength of acid
was 0.0205oC. What is the percentage dissociation of acid in solution?

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SECTION D
Q.No. 31 to 33 are long answer type carrying 5 marks each.
Q31.(a) Write the equations involved in the following reactions: 5
(i) Wolff-Kishner reduction
(ii) Etard reaction
(b) A compound ‘A’ (C2H6O) on oxidation by PCC gave ‘B’, which on treatment
with aqueous alkali and subsequent heating furnished ‘C’. ‘B’ on oxidation by
KMnO4, forms a monobasic carboxylic acid with molar mass 60g/mole. Draw the
structures of A, B and C.
OR
(a) Give simple chemical test to distinguish between Butanal and Butanone.
(b) Draw an oxime of Acetophenone.
(c) Identify the compounds A, B and C in the following reaction:

Q32.(a) Given alongside is the sketch of a plant for carrying out a process. 5

(i) Name the process

occurring in the given
plant.
(ii) To which container
does the net flow of
solvent take place?
(iii) Name one SPM
which can be used in this plant.
(iv) Give one practical use of the plant.
(b) A solution containing 15 g urea (molar mass = 60 g mol–1) per litre of solution
in water has the same osmotic pressure as a solution of glucose (molar mass =
180 g mol–l) in water. Calculate the mass of glucose present in one litre of its
solution.
OR
(a) Explain why on addition of 1 mol glucose to 1 litre water the boiling point of
water increases. (b) Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water is 1.67 × 108 Pa at 298
K. Calculate the number of moles of CO2 in 500 ml of soda water when packed
under 2.53 × 105 Pa at the same temperature.

Q33.(a) Write balanced equations to represent what happens when acidified Potassium 5
dichromate solution is reacted with iron (II) solution. (Ionic equation)
(b) The figure given illustrates the first ionization enthalpies of first, second and
third series of transition elements. Answer the question that follows:

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

(i) Which series amongst the first, second and third series of transition elements
have the highest first ionization enthalpy and why?
(ii) Separation of lanthanoid elements is difficult. Explain why?
(iii) Sm2+, Eu2+ and Yb2+ ions in solutions are good reducing agents but an
aqueous solution of Ce4+ is a good oxidising agent. Why?
OR
(a) The elements of 3d transition series are given as:
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Answer the following:
(i) Which element has the highest melting point and why?
(ii) Which element is a strong oxidising agent in +3 oxidation state and why?
(iii) Which element is soft and why?
(b) Write the equations involved in the preparation of Potassium dichromate from
sodium chromate (Na2CrO4).

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

HALF YEARLY EXAMINATION (2022-23)

GRADE- XII
CHEMISTRY (043)
ANSWER KEY

SECTION A (OBJECTIVE TYPE)

Q1. (i) a. Atoms or ions do not have incomplete d subshell (1x4=4)

(ii) d. Sc and Zn
OR
(ii) d. Sc3+ and Zn2+
(iii) c. A, B and C
(iv) b. Zinc due to absence of unpaired electrons

Q2. (i) d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement. (1x4=4)
(ii) c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(iii) b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct
explanation for assertion.
(iv) a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct
explanation for assertion.
OR
(iv) b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct
explanation for assertion.

Q3. (b) CH3NH2 1

Q4. (b) Benzene 1

OR
(b) Carboxylic acids

Q5. (b) low atmospheric pressure 1

Q6. (b) NaHCO3 1

OR
(c) 2-Butanol

Q7. (d) 1
OR
(d) Arylamines react with nitrous acid to produce phenols.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Q8. (b) Nucleophilic addition reactions 1

OR
(a) Acetic acid

Q9. (a) the solution is hypotonic 1

Q10. (c) 5 1

Q11. (b) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis 1

Q12. a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct 1
explanation for assertion.

Q13. d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement. 1

Q14. a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct 1
explanation for assertion.
OR
d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

Q15. b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct 1
explanation for assertion.

Q16. c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement. 1

SECTION B
Q.No. 17 – 25 are short answer type and carry 2 marks each.
Q17. (a) 1-bromopentane < 2-bromopentane < 2-bromo-2-methylpentane 2
(b) CCl4 < CH3F < CH3Cl
OR
(a)

(b)

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Q18. 2

Q19. According to Henry’s law, p = KH x, i.e., higher the value of KH lower is the 2
solubility of the gas in
the liquid. Therefore, Gas B will have higher value of KH than gas A.
OR
Molality is the number of moles of solute per thousand grams of solvent whereas
molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre of solution.
Molality is independent of temperature whereas molarity changes with change in
temperature as volume changes with temperature.

Q20. (a) 2

(b)

OR

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Q21. 2

Q22. (a) Propan-1-ol has hydrogen bonding between them. 2

(b) As ketones are more polar than aldehydes. So, intermolecular force of
attraction is higher for ketones as compared to aldehyde.

Q23. 2

Q24. IUPAC Name: 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane 2

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Q25. 1M glucose has the highest freezing point as other two can break into ions. More 2
the number of ions, more is the depression in freezing point as colligative
properties depend on the number of particles.
SECTION C
Q.No. 26 -30 are Short Answer Type II carrying 3 mark each.

Q26. (a) Pyridine and other bases are used to remove the side product, i.e., HCl from 3
the reaction mixture.
(b) Ammonolysis of alkyl halides does not give a single amine but gives a
mixture of primary, secondary and tertiary amines which further react with alkyl
halide to form quaternary ammonium salt. It is difficult to separate this mixture
into individual amines therefore, it is difficult to prepare pure amines by
ammonolysis of alkyl halides.
(c) Ethylamine dissolves in water because it forms H-bonds with water
molecules. In aniline, due to the large hydrocarbon part the extent of H-bonding
decreases considerably and
hence aniline is insoluble in water.

OR
(a) In aqueous medium:
(C2H5)2NH > (C2H5)3N > C2H5NH2 > NH3.
In gaseous phase:
(C2H5)3N > (C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > NH3
(b) (C2H5)3N < (C2H5)2NH < C2H5NH2

Q27. 3

OR

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Q28. (a) A-B interactions are stronger than A-A or B-B. 3

(b) Negative deviation from Raoult's law.
(c) ΔmixH is less than zero i.e. negative.
(d) ΔmixV is less than zero i.e. negative.
(e) chloroform and acetone
(f) Maximum Boiling Azeotrope

Q29. (a) The tendency to form complex compounds is due to: 3

—Small size and high charge on metal ion.
—The availability of d orbitals for accommodating electrons donated by the
ligand.
(b) This is due to small energy gap between 5f, 6d and 7s subshells in actinoids.
(c) Oxygen can form multiple bonds with metals, while fluorine can't form
multiple bonds with metals. Hence, oxygen has more ability to stabilize higher
oxidation state rather than fluorine.

Q30. 3

= 4%

SECTION D
Q.No. 31 to 33 are long answer type carrying 5 marks each.
Q31. (a) (i) 5

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(ii) Etard reaction:

(b)

OR
(a) Any one of the following:

Distinguishing Test Butanal Butanone

Tollen’s test: Organic Silver mirror is No reaction
comp. + ammonical obtained
silver nitrate solution+
heat

Fehling’s Test: Organic Red ppt of copper oxide No reaction

Comp. + Fehling’s A and is obtained
B

(b)

(c)
Q32. (a) (i) Reverse osmosis. (ii) Fresh water container. (iii) Cellulose acetate placed 5
on a suitable support. (iv) Desalination of sea water.

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(b)

OR
(a) On addition of glucose, a non-volatile solute to water (a volatile solvent) the
vapour pressure of water decreases. In order to make the solution boil, its vapour
pressure must be increased by raising the temperature above the boiling point of
pure water. In other words, there is an increase in the boiling point of water.
(b)

Q33. (a) 5

(b) (i) Third series has the highest first ionization energy due to poorest shielding
effect of the fully filled 4f subshell.
(ii) Due to lanthanoid contraction, some pair of elements have almost similar size
and as a result, such pairs have very similar properties which makes their
separation difficult.
(iii) Sm2+, Eu2+ and Yb2+ ions are good reducing agents as they tend to acquire
common oxidation state of + 3 shown by lanthanoids by the loss of one electron
while Ce4+ gains one electron to attain +3. Hence, Ce4+ is an oxidising agent.
OR
(a) (i) Cr, the highest melting point of Cr is attributed to the involvement of
greater number of electrons (5) from 3d in addition to 4s electrons in interatomic
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metallic bonding.
(ii) Mn, because the change from Mn3+ (d4) to Mn2+ (d5) results in the half-filled
configuration which has extra stability.
(iii) Zn, in Zn (3d10 4s2) all the electrons present in d-orbitals are paired and
hence metallic bonds present in it are weak. That is why, it is soft.

(b) Sodium chromate is acidified with sulphuric acid to give a solution from
which orange sodium dichromate, Na2Cr2O7.2H2O can be crystallized.

Sodium dichromate is more soluble than potassium dichromate. The latter is

therefore, prepared by treating the solution of sodium dichromate with potassium
chloride.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

PREBOARD-I EXAMINATION (2022-23)

GRADE- XII
CHEMISTRY (043)

Time allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 70

General Instructions:
Read the following instructions carefully.

a) There are 35 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

b) SECTION A consists of 18 multiple-choice questions carrying 1 mark each.
c) SECTION B consists of 7 very short answer questions carrying 2 marks each.
d) SECTION C consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.
e) SECTION D consists of 2 case- based questions carrying 4 marks each.
f) SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.
g) All questions are compulsory.
h) Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed

SECTION A
The following questions are multiple-choice questions with one correct answer.
Each question carries 1 mark. There is no internal choice in this section.

Q1. Which of the following compounds is oxidised to methyl ethyl ketone? 1

(a) 2-Propanol (b) 1-Butanol (c) 2-Butanol (d) tert. Butyl
alcohol

Q2. Molecules whose mirror image is non superimposable over them are known as chiral. 1
Which of the following molecules is chiral in nature?
(a) 2-Bromobutane (b) 1-Bromobutane (c) 2-Bromopropane (d) 2-
Bromopropan-2-ol

Q3. KMnO4 acts as an oxidising agent in alkaline medium. When alkaline KMnO4 is 1
treated with KI, iodide ion is oxidised to:
(a) IO– (b) I2 (c) IO4– (d) IO3–

Q4. The half-life for a first order reaction is 4 minutes. The time after which 99.9% 1
reaction gets completed is:
(a) 32 minutes (b) 40 minutes (c) 16 minutes (d) 8
minutes

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Q5. The following curve is obtained when molar conductivity λm (y -axis) is plotted 1
against the square root of concentration C1/2 (x -axis)
for two electrolytes A and B .

What can you infer about the nature of the two

electrolytes A and B?
(a) A is weak electrolyte and B is strong electrolyte
(b) A is strong electrolyte and B is weak electrolyte
(c) A and B both are strong electrolytes
(d) A and B both are weak electrolytes

Q6. According to Arrhenius equation rate constant k is equal to Ae-Ea/RT. Which of the 1
following options represents the graph of ln k vs 1/T?

Q7. Which of the following has highest pKb value? 1

(a) CH3CH2NH2 (b) NH3 (c) CH3NH2 (d) C6H5NH2

Q8. In which of the following ions, number of unpaired electrons is zero? 1

(a) Fe++ (Z=26) (b) Cr++ (Z=24)
++
(c) Zn (Z=30) (d) Cu++ (Z=29)

Q9. Williamson’s synthesis of preparing dimethyl ether is a/an: 1

(a) SN2 reaction (b) SN1 reaction
(c) Elimination reaction (d) Nucleophilic addition reaction

Q10. The source of nitrogen in Gabriel synthesis of amines is ___________. 1

(a) Sodium azide, NaN3 (b) Sodium nitrite, NaNO2
(c) Potassium cyanide, KCN (d) Potassium phthalimide, C6H4(CO)2N–K+

Q11. What would be the reactant and reagent used to obtain 2, 4-dimethyl pentan-3-ol? 1
(a) 2-dimethytpropanone and methyl magnesium iodide

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

(b) 2-methylpropanal and isopropyl magnesium iodide

(c) Propanal and propel magnesium bromide
(d) 3-methytbutanal and 2-methyl magnesium

Q12. Consider the given figure and mark the correct option. 1
(a) Activation energy of both forward and backward
reaction is E1+E2 and reactant is more stable than product.
(b) Activation energy of forward reaction is E1+E2 and
product is less stable than reactant.
(c) Activation energy of forward reaction is E1+E2 and
product is more stable than reactant.
(d) Activation energy of backward reaction is E1 and
product is more stable than reactant.

Q13. Which of the following energy level diagram for [FeF6 ]3– is correct on the basis of 1
crystal field theory? [At no. of Fe = 26]

Q14. The reagent with which acetaldehyde and acetone both react easily is: 1
(a) Grignard reagent (b) Schiff’s reagent
(c) Tollen’s reagent (d) Fehling solution

In the following questions (Q. No. 12 - 16) a statement of assertion followed by a statement of
reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation for
assertion.
c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

Q15. Assertion (A): Phenol is more reactive than benzene towards electrophilic substitution 1
reaction. Reason (R): In the case of phenol, the intermediate carbocation is more
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resonance stabilized.

Q16. Assertion (A): In presence of enzyme, substrate molecule can be attacked by the 1
reagent effectively.
Reason (R): Active sites of enzymes hold the substrate molecule in a suitable position.

Q17. Assertion (A): Actinoids form relatively less stable complexes as compared to 1
lanthanides.
Reason (R): Actinoids can utilize their 5f orbitals along with 6d orbitals in bonding,
but lanthanoids do not use their 4f orbital for bonding.

Q18. Assertion (A): Tertiary amines have higher boiling points than those of primary and 1
secondary amines of comparable molecular masses.
Reason (R): Tertiary amines are unable to form intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

SECTION B
This section contains 7 questions with internal choice in two questions. The
following questions are very short answer type and carry 2 marks each.

Q19. Time required to decompose SO2Cl2 to half of its initial amount is 60 minutes. If the 2
decomposition is a first order reaction, calculate the rate constant of the reaction.

Q20. Give the plausible explanation for the following: 2

(a) Glucose doesn’t give 2, 4-DNP test.
(b) The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary.
OR
What happens when D-glucose is treated with the following? Give equation to support
your answer.
(a) HI (b) HNO3

Q21. Predict the order of reactivity of the following compounds in SN1 and SN2 reactions: 2
C6H5CH2Br, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br, C6H5CH(CH3)Br, C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br
OR
Give reasons for the following:
(a) Chloroethane is insoluble in water.
(b) Thionyl chloride method is preferred for preparing alkyl chlorides from alcohols.

Q22. Determine the structure and magnetic behaviour of [CoCl4]2– using valence bond 2
theory.
[At no. of Co = 27]

Q23. Out of the following pairs, predict with reason which pair will allow greater 2
conduction of electricity: (a) Silver wire at 30°C or silver wire at 60°C.
(b) 0.1 M CH3COOH solution or 1 M CH3COOH solution.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Q24. For the reaction, 2

2N2O5 (g) → 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
the rate of formation of NO2 (g) is 2.8×103 Ms-1. Calculate the rate of disappearance
of N2O5 (g).

Q25. What happens when acetone undergoes aldol condensation? Write the reaction and 2
name of the products.
SECTION C
This section contains 5 questions with internal choice in two questions. The following
questions are short answer type and carry 3 marks each.

Q26. What happens when 3

(a) phenol reacts with bromine water
(b) ethanol reacts with CH3COCl/pyridine
(c) anisole reacts with HI?
Write chemical equations in support of your answer.

Q27. (a) Write the IUPAC name of the following complex: 3

[Co(NH3)4(H2O)Cl]C12
(b) What is the difference between an Ambidentate ligand and a Bidentate ligand?
(c) Out of [Fe(NH3)6)]3+ and [Fe(C2O4)3]3–, which complex is more stable and
why?

Q28. The boiling point of solution obtained by dissolving 6 g urea (NH2CONH2) in 200 g 3
water, is 100.280C. What will be the freezing point of this solution? For water, molal
elevation constant and molal depression constant are respectively 0.52°C molal-1 and
1.86°C molal-1. [At masses: N= 14u, C = 12u, O = 16u, H= 1u]

Q29. Give reasons for any 3 of the following observations: 3

(a) Amides are more acidic than amines.
(b) Aniline gets coloured on standing in air for a long time.
(c) Benzene diazonium chloride is not stored and is used immediately after its
preparation
(d) The presence of a base is needed in the ammonolysis of alkyl halides.

Q30. (a) Propose the mechanism of the reaction taking place when (–)-2-Bromooctane 3
reacts with sodium hydroxide to form (+)-Octane-2-ol.
(b) Why is chlorobenzene resistant to nucleophilic substitution reaction? Give any
two reasons.
OR
(a) How will you distinguish between chlorobenzene and benzyl chloride?
(b) Write the structure of the product when chlorobenzene is treated with methyl
chloride in the presence of sodium metal and dry ether.
(c) Write the structure of alkene formed by dehydrohalogenation of 1-bromo-1-
methylcyclohexane with alcoholic KOH.
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SECTION D
The following questions are case-based questions. Each question has an internal choice and
carries 4 (1+1+2) marks each. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that
follow.

Q31. The basic chemical formula of DNA is now well established. As shown in figure, it 4
consists of a very long chain, the backbone of which is made up of alternate sugar and
phosphate groups, joined together in regular 3’5’
phosphate di-ester linkages. To each sugar is attached a
nitrogenous base, only four different kinds of which are
commonly found in DNA.
Two of these–adenine and guanine are purines, and the
other two thymine and cytosine are pyrimidines. A fifth
base, 5-methyl cytosine, occurs in smaller amounts in
certain organisms, and a sixth, 5-hydroxy-methyl-
cytosine, is found instead of cytosine in the T even phages.
It should be noted that the chain is unbranched, a
consequence of the regular intemucleotide linkage. On the
other hand, the sequence of the different nucleotides is, as
far as can be ascertained, completely irregular. Thus, DNA has some features which are
regular, and some which are irregular. A similar conception of the DNA molecule as a
long thin fiber is obtained from physicochemical analysis involving sedimentation,
diffusion, light scattering, and viscosity measurements. These techniques indicated that
DNA is a very asymmetrical structure approximately 20. A wide and many thousands
of Angstroms long. Estimates of its molecular weight currently center between 5 × 106
and 107 (approximately 3 × 104 nucleotides). Surprisingly each of these measurements
tend to suggest that the DNA is relatively rigid, a puzzling finding in view of the large
number of single bonds (5 per nucleotide) in the phosphate-sugar back bone. Recently
these indirect inferences have been confirmed by electron microscopy.

Based on the above passage answer the following questions:

(a) A nitrogenous based is attached to each sugar and only four of its kinds are
commonly found in DNA. Name the purines present in DNA.
(b) Which of the four kinds of nitrogenous bases commonly found in DNA has been
replaced in some organisms?
(c) As shown in figure, DNA has a long chain. What is the backbone of DNA made
up of and how is it joined?
OR
(a) As given, DNA has some regular and some irregular features. Which features of
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DNA are regular and which are irregular? Which analysis provide the same
concept of DNA?

Q32. Solubility in Binary Solutions 4

Binary solutions can be of nine different types depending upon the nature of the solute
and solvent whether solid, liquid or gas. They may be further classified as solid, liquid
and gaseous solutions based on the component which acts as the solvent. However, the
liquid solutions are the most important. Both solids and gases dissolve in liquids
resulting in homogeneous mixtures i.e., solutions. The solubility is governed by number
of factors such as nature of solute and solvent, temperature, pressure etc. The
concentrations of the solutions can be expressed in different ways such as normality,
molarity, molality, mole fraction etc. Out of these,
molality and mole fraction are better as they do not
change with the change in temperature.
Based on the above passage, answer the following
questions:
(a) Solubility curve of Na2SO4.10H2O in water with
temperature is given as:
What do you infer about the temperature variation
of curve with solubility process?
(b) On what factor does the maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved
in a specified amount of a given liquid solvent not depend upon?
(c) What is the molality of a sulphuric acid solution in which mole fraction of water is
0.85?
OR
(c) How much amount of salt is contained in 1000 g of a 4% solution of salt?

SECTION E
The following questions are long answer type and carry 5 marks each. Two questions have
an internal choice.

Q33. (a) State two advantages of H2—O2 fuel cell over ordinary cell. 5
(b) Write the reaction occurring at anode and cathode and the products of electrolysis
of aq NaCl.
(c) At what pH of HCl solution will hydrogen gas electrode show electrode potential
of –0.118 V? H2 gas is passed at 298 K and 1 atm pressure.
OR
(a) How much charge is required for the reduction of 1 mol of Zn2+ to Zn?
(b) Using the Eo values of X and Y, predict which is better for coating the surface of
iron to prevent rust and why?
Given: [Eo(Fe2+/Fe) = – 0.44 V] , [Eo(X2+/X) = – 2.36 V], [Eo(Y2+/Y) = – 0.14 V]
(c) Write the cell reaction and calculate the e.m.f. of the following cell at 298 K:
Sn(s) | Sn2+ (0.004 M) || H+ (0.020 M) | H2(g) (1 bar) | Pt(s) (Given: E0Sn2+/Sn = –
0.14 V)

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Q34. (a) How will you convert propanoic acid to acetic acid? Write the reactions involved. 5
(b) An alkene with molecular formula C5H10 on ozonolysis gives a mixture of two
compounds, B and C. Compound B gives positive Fehling test and also reacts with
iodine and NaOH solution. Compound C does not give Fehling solution test but
forms iodoform. Identify the compounds A, B and C.
OR
(a) An organic compound (A) has characteristic odour. On treatment with conc. NaOH,
it forms compounds (B) and (C). Compound (B) has molecular formula C7H8O
which on oxidation gives back (A). The compound (C) is a sodium salt of an acid.
When (C) is treated with soda-lime, it yields an aromatic compound (D). Deduce
the structures of (A), (B), (C) and (D).
(b) Do the following conversions in not more than two steps:
(i) Benzoic acid to Benzaldehyde
(ii) Ethyl benzene to Benzoic acid

Q35. Answer the following: 5

(a) Why is Eo(Mn2+/Mn) value highly negative as compared to other elements?
(b) [Ti(H2O)6]3+ is coloured while [Sc(H2O)6]3+ is colourless. Why?
(c) Why Eu2+ is a strong reducing agent?
(d) Why does orange colour of dichromate ion changes to yellow in alkaline medium?
(e) Zirconium (Z = 40) and Hafnium (Z = 72) have almost similar atomic radii. Why?

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

PREBOARD-I EXAMINATION (2022-23)

GRADE- XII
CHEMISTRY (043)
ANSWER KEY

SECTION A
The following questions are multiple-choice questions with one correct answer.
Each question carries 1 mark. There is no internal choice in this section.

Q1. (c) 2-Butanol 1

Q2. (a) 2-Bromobutane 1

Q3. (d) IO3– 1

Q4. (b) 40 minutes 1

Q5. (b) A is strong electrolyte and B is weak electrolyte 1

Q6. (a) 1

Q7. (d) C6H5NH2 1

Q8. (c) Zn++ (Z=30) 1

Q9. (a) SN2 reaction 1

Q10. (d) Potassium phthalimide, C6H4(CO)2N–K+ 1

Q11. (b) 2-methylpropanal and isopropyl magnesium iodide 1

Q12. (b) Activation energy of forward reaction is E1+E2 and product is less stable than 1
reactant.

Q13. (c) 1

Q14. (a) Grignard reagent 1

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Q15. a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation 1
for assertion.

Q16. a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation 1
for assertion.

Q17. c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement. 1

Q18. d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement. 1

SECTION B
This section contains 7 questions with internal choice in two questions. The following
questions are very short answer type and carry 2 marks each.

Q19. 2

Q20. (a) Glucose doesn’t give 2,4-DNP test because the – CHO group in glucose is 2
involved in hemiacetal formation and thus it is not free.
(b) The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary because the
hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases.
OR

(a)

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(b)

Q21. C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(C6H5)Br > C6H5CH(CH3)Br > C6H5CH2Br (SN1). 2

C6H5C(CH3)(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(C6H5)Br < C6H5CH(CH3)Br < C6H5CH2Br (SN2).
OR
(a) Chloroethane is unable to form hydrogen bonds with water. Hence, it is insoluble
in water.
(b) The byproducts of the reaction, i.e., SO2 and HCl being gases escape into the
atmosphere leaving behind alkyl chlorides in almost pure state.

Q22. Structure: Tetrahedral 2

Magnetic Behaviour: Paramagnetic

Q23. (a) Silver wire at 30∘C because with increase in temperature, metallic conduction 2
decreases due to vibration of kernels.
(b) 0.1 M CH3COOH solution because degree of dissociation increases on dilution
and hence number of ions increases which increases the conductance.

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Q24. 2

Q25. 2

SECTION C
This section contains 5 questions with internal choice in two questions. The following
questions are short answer type and carry 3 marks each.

Q26. 3

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Q27. (a) Tetraammineaquachloridocobalt (III) chloride. 3

(b) A bidentate ligand is one which has two donor sites such that it can co-ordinate
lone pairs from both the donor atoms simultaneously to the metal atom/ion. Ex:
ethylenediamine (en)
The ambidentate ligands have two donor sites but only one of the two atoms co-
ordinate their lone pair at any given instant. Ex: in NO2–, the donor atom is nitrogen
whereas in ONO-, the donor atom is oxygen.
(c) [Fe(C2O4)3]3- is more stable complex because of chelation present in the complex.

Q28. 3

= 373 + 0.26
Tb = 373.26 K

Q29. (a) Due to +R effect, availability of lone pair of electrons on N of —NH2 group 3
decreases. As a result, acid amide is much weaker base than amines. Because of the
positive charge on N, as a result of resonance, N can easily lose a proton and behaves,
as a weak acid.

(b) Due to electron-donating effect (+R-effect) of —NH2 group, the electron density
on the benzene ring increases. As a result, aniline is easily oxidised on standing in air
for a long time to form coloured products.
(c) Benzene diazonium chloride is very unstable.
(d) To remove HX formed so that the reaction shifts in the forward direction.

Q30. (a) When (-)-2-bromooctanes is treated with NaOH, it undergoes SN2 reaction in 3
which OH− ion attacks from the backside. Inversion of configuration occurs and (+)-
octan-2-ol is formed.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

(b) The two reasons for less reactivity of chlorobenzene towards nucleophilic
substitution reactions are resonance in chlorobenzene and sp2 hybridised nature of
carbon atom bonded to chlorine atom.
OR
(a) Take both the compounds in a test tube. Add 1 - 2 ml of aqueous KOH to each of
the test tubes. Acidify with dilute HNO3 and add AgNO3. Benzyl chloride gives white
precipitate while chlorobenzene does not.
(b)

(c)

SECTION D
The following questions are case-based questions. Each question has an internal choice and
carries 4 (1+1+2) marks each. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that
follow.

Q31. (a) Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) 4

(b) In the case of RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil.
(c) DNA is polymer of deoxyribonucleotides; each of which is made up of sugar,
nitrogenous base and phosphate moiety. Two successive nucleotides are joined by
phosphodiester bond between 3' hydroxyl of one nucleotide and 5' phosphate of next
nucleotide.
OR

(c) The chain is unbranched, a consequence of the regular internucleotide linkage. On

the other hand, the sequence of the different nucleotides is, as far as can be
ascertained, completely irregular.
Physicochemical analysis involving sedimentation, diffusion, light scattering, and
viscosity measurements provide the same concept of DNA.

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Q32. Ans: (a) Solution process is endothermic till 34∘C and exothermic thereafter. 4
(b) The maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount
of a given liquid solvent does not depend upon pressure.
(c) The sum of moles fractions of all the components is one.
Given:
Mole fraction of water = 0.85
Mole fraction of sulphuric acid = 1–0.85=0.15
Molar mass of water = 18 grams/mole.

= 9.8 M
OR
(c)

SECTION E
The following questions are long answer type and carry 5 marks each. Two questions have
an internal choice.

Q33. (a) Advantages of fuel cell: (any two) 5

(i) It is a pollution-free device since no harmful products are formed.
(ii) Its efficiency is about 75% which is considerably higher than conventional
cells.
(iii) It is a continuous source of energy if the supply of gases is maintained.
(b) Cathode:

Anode:

(c)

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

OR
(a) Quantity of charge required for the reduction of one mole of Zn2+ = 2F = 2 ×
96500 C = 193000 C
(b) X, as its standard reduction potential is less than Y. Therefore, it will undergo
oxidation more easily than Y.
(c)

Q34. (a) 5

(b) A: 2-Methylbut-2-ene/CH3CH—C(CH3)2
B: Ethanal/Acetaldehyde /CH3CHO
C: Propanone/Acetone /CH3COCH3

OR
(a)
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(b)

Q35. (a) This is due to extra stability of half-filled 3d-orbitals of Mn2+(3d5). 5

(b) This is due to d-d transition of electron in [Ti(H2O)6]3+ complex. Ti3+ has one
electron in d-orbital (3d1) which absorbs energy corresponding to blue-green
region and jumps from t2g to eg set of d-orbitals. But Sc3+ has no electron in the d-
orbital.
(c) This is because Eu2+ tends to change to Eu3+ as +3 is the common oxidation state
of lanthanoids.
(d) On adding NaOH, pH of solution increases and the orange colour of the solution
changes to yellow due to conversion of dichromate ion to chromate ion.

(e) This is due to filling of 4f-orbitals which have poor shielding effect (Lanthanoid
contraction).

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

SAMPLE PAPER (2022-23)

CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)
Time allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 70

General Instructions:
Read the following instructions carefully.

a) There are 35 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

b) SECTION A consists of 18 multiple-choice questions carrying 1 mark each.
c) SECTION B consists of 7 very short answer questions carrying 2 marks each.
d) SECTION C consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.
e) SECTION D consists of 2 case- based questions carrying 4 marks each.
f) SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.
g) All questions are compulsory.
h) Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed

SECTION A
The following questions are multiple-choice questions with one correct answer.
Each question carries 1 mark. There is no internal choice in this section.

Q1. The major product of acid catalysed dehydration of 1-methylcyclohexanol is: 1

a. 1-methylcyclohexane
b. 1-methylcyclohexene
c. 1-cyclohexylmethanol
d. 1-methylenecyclohexane

Q2. Which one of the following compounds is more reactive towards SN1 reaction? 1
a. CH2=CHCH2Br
b. C6H5CH2Br
c. C6H5CH(C6H5)Br
d. C6H5CH(CH3)Br

Q3. KMnO4 is coloured due to: 1

a. d-d transitions
b. charge transfer from ligand to metal
c. unpaired electrons in d orbital of Mn
d. charge transfer from metal to ligand
Q4. Which radioactive isotope would have the longer half- life 15O or 19O? (Given rate 1
constants for 15O and 19O are 5.63x 10-3 s-1 and k = 2.38 x 10-2s-1 respectively.)
a. 15O
b. 19O
c. Both will have the same half-life

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

d. None of the above, information given is insufficient

Q5. The molar conductivity of CH3COOH at infinite dilution is 390 Scm2/mol. 1

Using thegraph and given information, the molar conductivity of CH3COOK
will be:

a. 100 Scm2/mol
b. 115 Scm2/mol
c. 150 Scm2/mol
d. 125 Scm2/mol

*Q5 *FOR VISUALLY CHALLENGED LEARNERS

What is the molar conductance at infinite dilution for sodium chloride if the molar
conductance at infinite dilution of Na+ and Cl- ions are 51.12 × 10-4 Scm2/mol and
73.54× 10-4 Scm2/mol respectively?

a. 124.66 Scm2/mol
b. 22.42 Scm2/mol
c. 198.20Scm2/mol
d. 175.78 Scm2/mol

Q6. For the reaction, A +2B → AB2, the order w.r.t. reactant A is 2 and w.r.t. reactant B. 1
What will be change in rate of reaction if the concentration of A is doubled and B is
halved?

a. increases four times

b. decreases four times
c. increases two times
d. no change

Q7. Arrange the following in the increasing order of their boiling points: 1
A: Butanamine, B: N,N-Dimethylethanamine, C: N- Ethylethanaminamine

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

a. C<B<A
b. A<B<C
c. A<C<B
d. B<C<A
Q8. The CFSE of [CoCl6]3- is 18000 cm-1 the CFSE for [CoCl4] will be: 1
a. 18000 cm-1
b. 8000cm-1
c. 2000 cm-1
d. 16000 cm-1

Q9. What would be the major product of the following reaction? 1

C6H5-CH2-OC6H5 + HBr → A + B

a. A= C6H5CH2OH, B= C6H6
b. A=C6H5CH2OH, B= C6H5Br
c. A=C6H5CH3, B= C6H5Br
d. A=C6H5CH2Br, B= C6H5OH

Q10. Which of the following statements is not correct for amines? 1

a. Most alkyl amines are more basic than ammonia solution.
b. pKb value of ethylamine is lower than benzylamine.
c. CH3NH2 on reaction with nitrous acid releases NO2 gas.
d. Hinsberg’s reagent reacts with secondary amines to form sulphonamides.

Q11. Which of the following tests/ reactions is given by aldehydes as well as ketones? 1
a. Fehling’s test
b. Tollen’s test
c. 2,4 DNP test
d. Cannizzaro reaction

Q12. Arrhenius equation can be represented graphically as follows:

The (i) intercept and (ii) slope of the graph are:
a. (i) ln A (ii) Ea/R
b. (i) A (ii) Ea
c. (i) ln A (ii) - Ea/R
d. (i) A (ii) -Ea

*Q12 *FOR VISUALLY CHALLENGEDLEARNERS

The unit of rate constant for the reaction
2A + 2B → A2B2
which has rate = k [A]2[B] is:
a. mol L-1s-1

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

b. s-1
c. mol L-1
d. mol-2 L2 s-1

Q13. The number of ions formed on dissolving one molecule of

FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2Oin water is:

a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

Q14. The oxidation of toluene to benzaldehyde by chromyl chloride is called

a. Etard reaction
b. Riemer-Tiemann reaction
c. Stephen’s reaction
d. Cannizzaro’s reaction

In the following questions (Q. No. 12 - 16) a statement of assertion followed by a statement of
reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation for
assertion.
c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.

Q15. Assertion (A): An ether is more volatile than an alcohol of comparable molecular 1
mass.
Reason (R): Ethers are polar in nature.

Q16. Assertion (A): Proteins are found to have two different types of secondary structures 1
viz alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheet structure.
Reason (R): The secondary structure of proteins is stabilized by hydrogen bonding.

Q17. Assertion: Magnetic moment values of actinides are lesser than the theoretically 1
predicted values.
Reason: Actinide elements are strongly paramagnetic.

Q18. Assertion (A): Tertiary amines are more basic than corresponding secondary and 1
primary amines in gaseous state.
Reason (R): Tertiary amines have three alkyl groups which cause +I effect.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

SECTION B
This section contains 7 questions with internal choice in two questions. The following
questions are very short answer type and carry 2 marks each.

Q19. A first-order reaction takes 69.3 min for 50% completion. What is the time needed 2
for 80% of the reaction to get completed?
(Given: log 5 =0.6990, log 8 = 0.9030, log 2 = 0.3010)

Q20. Account for the following: 2

a. There are 5 OH groups in glucose
b. Glucose is a reducing sugar
OR
What happens when D – glucose is treated with the following reagents
a. Bromine water
b. HNO3

Q21. Give reason for the following: 2

a. During the electrophilic substitution reaction of haloarenes, para substituted
derivative is the major product.
b. The product formed during SN1 reaction is a racemic mixture.
OR
a. Name the suitable alcohol and reagent, from which 2-Chloro-2-methylpropane can
be prepared.
b. Out of the Chloromethane and Fluoromethane, which one is has higherdipole
moment and why?

Q22. The formula Co(NH3)5CO3Cl could represent a carbonate or a chloride. Write 2

the structures and names of possible isomers.

Q23. Corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon. The oxygen in moist air reacts as 2

follows:
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– → 4OH– (aq).
Write down the possible reactions for corrosion of zinc occurring at anode, cathode,
and overall reaction to form a white layer of zinc hydroxide.

Q24. Explain how and why will the rate of reaction for a given reaction be affected when 2
a. a catalyst is added
b. the temperature at which the reaction was taking place is decreased.

Q25. Write the reaction and IUPAC name of the product formed when 2-Methylpropanal 2
(isobutyraldehyde) is treated with ethyl magnesium bromide followed by hydrolysis.

SECTION C
This section contains 5 questions with internal choice in two questions. The following

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

questions are short answer type and carry 3 marks each.

Q26. Write the equations for the following reaction: 3

a. Salicylic acid is treated with acetic anhydride in the presence of conc.H2SO4
b. Tert butyl chloride is treated with sodium ethoxide.
c. Phenol is treated with chloroform in the presence of NaOH

Q27. Using Valence bond theory, explain the following in relation to the 3
paramagneticcomplex [Mn(CN)6]3-
a. type of hybridization
b. magnetic moment value
c. type of complex – inner, outer orbital complex.

Q28. Answer the following questions: 3

a. State Henry’s law and explain why are the tanks used by scuba diversfilled
with air diluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1%
oxygen)?
b. Assume that argon exerts a partial pressure of 6 bar. Calculate the solubility
of argon gas in water. (Given Henry’s law constant for argondissolved in
water, KH = 40kbar)

Q29. Give reasons for any 3 of the following observations: 3

a. Aniline is acetylated before nitration reaction.
b. pKb of aniline is lower than the m-nitroaniline.
c. Primary amine on treatment with benzene sulphonyl chloride forms a product
which is soluble in NaOH however secondary amine gives productwhich is
insoluble in NaOH.
d. Aniline does not react with methyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AlCl3
catalyst.

Q30. a. Identify the major product formed when 2-cyclohexylchloroethane undergoes a 3

dehydrohalogenation reaction. Name the reagent which isused to carry out the
reaction.
b. Why are haloalkanes more reactive towards nucleophilic substitutionreactions than
haloarenes and vinylic halides?
OR
a. Name the possible alkenes which will yield 1-chloro-1-methylcyclohexaneon
their reaction with HCl. Write the reactions involved.
b. Allyl chloride is hydrolyzed more readily than n-propyl chloride. Why?

SECTION D
The following questions are case-based questions. Each question has an internal choice and
carries 4 (1+1+2) marks each. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that
follow.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Q31. Strengthening the Foundation: Chargaff Formulates His "Rules" 5

Many people believe that James Watson and Francis Crick discovered DNA in the
1950s. In reality, this is not the case. Rather, DNA was first identified in the late
1860s by Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher. Then, in the decades following
Miescher's discovery, other scientists--notably, Phoebus Levene and Erwin Chargaff-
-carried out a series of research efforts that revealed additional details about the DNA
molecule, including its primary chemical components and the ways in which they
joined with one another. Without the scientific foundation provided by these
pioneers, Watson and Crick may never have reached their groundbreaking conclusion
of 1953: that the DNA molecule exists in the form of a three-dimensional double
helix.
Chargaff, an Austrian biochemist, as his first step in this DNA research, set out to see
whether there were any differences in DNA among different species. After
developing a new paper chromatography method for separating and identifying small
amounts of organic material, Chargaff reached two major conclusions:
(i) the nucleotide composition of DNA varies among species.
(ii) Almost all DNA, no matter what organism or tissue type it comes from maintains
certain properties, even as its composition varies. In particular, the amount of
adenine (A) is similar to the amount of thymine (T), and the amount of guanine
(G) approximates the amount of cytosine (C). In other words, the total amount of
purines (A + G) and the total amount of pyrimidines (C + T) are usually nearly
equal. This conclusion is now known as "Chargaff's rule."
Chargaff’s rule is not obeyed in some viruses. These either have single- stranded
DNA or RNA as their genetic material.
Answer the following questions:

a. A segment of DNA has 100 adenine and 150 cytosine bases. What is the total
number of nucleotides present in this segment of DNA?
b. A sample of hair and blood was found at two sites. Scientists claim that the
samples belong to same species. How did the scientists arrive at this conclusion?
c. The sample of a virus was tested and it was found to contain 20% adenine, 20%
thymine, 20 % guanine and the rest cytosine. Is the genetic material of this virus
(a) DNA- double helix (b) DNA-single helix (c) RNA? What do you infer from
this data?
OR
How can Chargaff’s rule be used to infer that the genetic material of an organism is
double- helix or single- helix?

Q32. Henna is investigating the melting point of different salt solutions. 5

She makes a salt solution using 10 mL of water with a known mass of NaCl salt.She
puts the salt solution into a freezer and leaves it to freeze.
She takes the frozen salt solution out of the freezer and measures thetemperature
when the frozen salt solution melts.
She repeats each experiment.

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

S.No Mass of the salt Melting point in 0C

used in g
Readings Set 1 Reading Set 2
1 0.3 -1.9 -1.9
2 0.4 -2.5 -2.6
3 0.5 -3.0 -5.5
4 0.6 -3.8 -3.8
5 0.8 -5.1 -5.0
6 1.0 -6.4 -6.3

Assuming the melting point of pure water as 0oC, answer the following
questions:
a. One temperature in the second set of results does not fit the pattern. Which
temperature is that? Justify your answer.
b. Why did Henna collect two sets of results?
c. In place of NaCl, if Henna had used glucose, what would have been the melting
point of the solution with 0.6 g glucose in it?
OR
What is the predicted melting point if 1.2 g of salt is added to 10 mL of water?
Justify your answer.

SECTION E
The following questions are long answer type and carry 5 marks each. Two questions have
an internal choice.

Q33. a. Why does the cell voltage of a mercury cell remain constant during its lifetime?
b. Write the reaction occurring at anode and cathode and the products ofelectrolysis of aq
KCl.
c. What is the pH of HCl solution when the hydrogen gas electrode showsa potential of -
0.59 V at standard temperature and pressure?
OR
a. Molar conductivity of substance “A” is 5.9×103 S/m and “B” is 1 x 10-16 S/m.
Which of the two is most likely to be copper metal and why?
b. What is the quantity of electricity in Coulombs required to produce 4.8 g ofMg
from molten MgCl2? How much Ca will be produced if the same amount of
electricity was passed through molten CaCl2? (Atomic mass of Mg = 24 u,
atomic mass of Ca = 40 u).
c. What is the standard free energy change for the following reaction at room
temperature? Is the reaction spontaneous?

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 CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT BOOKLET: GRADE XII 2023-24

Sn(s) + 2Cu2+ (aq) → Sn2+ (aq) + 2Cu+ (s)

Q34. A hydrocarbon (A) with molecular formula C5H10 on ozonolysis gives two products
(B) and (C). Both (B) and (C) give a yellow precipitate when heated with iodine in
presence of NaOH while only (B) give a silver mirror on reaction with Tollen’s
reagent.
a. Identify (A), (B) and (C).
b. Write the reaction of B with Tollen’s reagent
c. Write the equation for iodoform test for C
d. Write down the equation for aldol condensation reaction of B and C.
OR
An organic compound (A) with molecular formula C2Cl3O2H is obtained when (B)
reacts with Red P and Cl2. The organic compound (B) can be obtained on the
reaction of methyl magnesium chloride with dry ice followed by acid hydrolysis.
a. Identify A and B
b. Write down the reaction for the formation of A from B. What is this reaction
called?
c. Give any one method by which organic compound B can be prepared from its
corresponding acid chloride.
d. Which will be the more acidic compound (A) or (B)? Why?
e. Write down the reaction to prepare methane from the compound (B).

Q35. Answer the following:

a. Why are all copper halides known except that copper iodide?
b. Why is the Eo(V3+/V2+) value for vanadium comparatively low?
c. Why HCl should not be used for potassium permanganate titrations?
d. Explain the observation, at the end of each period, there is a slight increase in the
atomic radius of d block elements.
e. What is the effect of pH on dichromate ion solution?

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