INTRODUCTION

Identity means the determination of the individuality of a person. Article 6 of

the universal declaration of human rights states that everyone has the right to

recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Therefore every citizen

has the right to posses his personal identity, unquestioned1.

Question of identification may arise in: 1) living person 2) Recently

dead person 3) Decomposed bodies 4) Mutilated bodies, and 5) Skeleton.

Also it is necessary in 1) Criminal cases like the persons accused of a assault,

murder, rape, interchange of newborn babies in hospital, impersonification,

etc. 2) In civil cases like marriage, inheritance, passport, insurance claims,

disputed sex, missing persons etc.2

The identifications of a living person is based entirely on known facts

like fingerprints, birthmarks or several personal impressions like regard to

characteristic gesture, movement, shape and other feature of teeth, eyes,

hairs or voice etc. The identification of a dead body is required in cases of

sudden and unexpected deaths, fires, explosions, railway or aircraft accident,

mutilated or hidden decomposed bodies, or foul play and often needs great

medico-legal acumen.

In India, when there is rapid decomposition of dead bodies in hot

season or damage caused by wild animals when exposed on the outskirts of a

village or deliberate mutilation by criminals. Visual identification becomes

difficult or impossible in such cases, also in mass disasters caused by fire,

1
explosion, aircraft accidents, etc. In such cases, the help of a medical man is

sought by the police for providing certain facts about an individual, a dead

body or fragmentary remains, which help the police for complete identification.

It is essential for a dead body to be thoroughly identified and the proof of

corpus delicti to be established before a sentence is passed.

Identification data includes race, religion, sex, age, general

development, stature, complexion, external peculiarities’ such as a mole,

birthmarks, malformation, scars, tattoo marks, wounds, occupation marks, etc.

Anthropometric measurements, fingerprints, footprint, teeth, personal effects,

clothes, jewellery, handwritings, speech, voice, gait, tricks of manner and

habit, memory and education. As no single feature is reliable for identification,

a combination of features is considered more helpful.

Stature Estimation

Stature is the distance from the bottom of the feet to the top of the

head in person,while standing erect.It is said that stature reach its

maximum,between 18-25 years.Stature falls short by 2.5cms for every 25

years.3

Stature also varies during different times of a day by 1.5 to 2 cams,

being less in the evening, strenuous activity due to reduced elasticity of

intervertebral discs and diminished muscle tone. It measures more in the

morning hours. Malnutrition, old age also reduces stature.

In case of dead bodies, if the body is fresh the length of the corpse

may approximate the stature of the subject when living. After an hour of

2
death, the body lengthens by 1.25 cms in males and 2cms in the females. The

length gets reduced comparatively in the state of rigormortis. 3 However

cadaver length more or less corresponds to the stature of an individual.

In case of mutilated bodies, the height may be ascertained

approximately by various measurement of the body. The relationship between

these and stature has been described by various authors. The measurement

considered helpful includes the length of the outstretched upper limbs in

horizontal position from the tip of one middle finger to tip of that of other hand.

The length of the head, the length of the vertex to symphysis pubis in adults of

more than 25 years of age, length from the suprasternal notch to the

symphysis pubis, distance between the tips of the olecranon process of the

ulna to the tip of the middle finger, length of long bones etc. The stature can

be calculated accordingly by using various formula of long bones mainly have

been explored by various authors for the estimation of stature, by using

multiplication factor or mathematical formulae. For more accurate estimation

of stature, various scientific derivation such as regression equations,

discriminant factor analysis are considered better. Since long bones are not

always available or cephalo-facial remains are only brought for postmortem

and forensic investigation, it became necessary to use other bones such as

the skull .Skull as it is composed of hard tissue, is the best preserved part of

skeleton after death and may be in many cases the only available part for

forensic examination.

3
 Skull measurements like maximum skull length, maximum skull breadth

and circumference are known to have good relationship with the height of

persons but are last exposed.

Estimation of gender

Subjective examination of skull is one of the commonest method used to

opine on the sex of an individual. It is considered second best after pelvis in

determination of sex.

In sexing the skull, the initial impression often is the deciding factor i.e.

a large skull is generally male and a small skull is that of female. The female

skull is usually rounder than the male etc. The method is subjected to error of

individual observation as craniofacial proportions are about the same, though

the female facial skeleton may be relatively more gracile becoming

pronounced at puberty and many are affected by the changes of senility. In

addition to the age phenomenon, the biological, racial, genetical, nature plays

an important role in the formation of skeletal sexual dimorphism. 4 Various

measurements like maximum cranial length, facial breadth, depth of

infratemporal fossa, length of mastoid process have been studied by various

authors and are found more reliable than the subjective observation. They

also derived statistical equations of formulae for more accuracy. At present

time advanced computer methods have resulted in a rise in accuracy of

determination as compared to previous naked eye observation then by simple

statistical analysis of general measurements.

4
 Relationship between stature, gender and skull measurements varies

with time, region and race. Very few studies have been done previously to

determine stature and gender from skull in India and none recently. The

problem is further worsened by intermixing of Indian and foreign population.

Also the data available is also about particular regional or racial population.

Considering its importance, the study is planned on determination of stature

and gender from the skull, using maximum skull length, maximum skull

breadth and maximum skull circumference in cosmopolitan population of

Delhi, by way of computation of data and derivation of scientific regression

equations for stature estimation and discriminant function analysis for

differentiation of gender.

5
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Stature reconstruction is important as it provides a forensic experts estimate

of the height of a person in the living state; playing a vital role in the

identification of individuals from their skeletal remains. Regression formulae

for stature estimation have been generated based on measurements of long

bones of upper and lower extremities etc. Since these bones are not always

available for forensic analysis, it became necessary to use other bones such

as the skull for stature estimation. A forensic medicine specialist, while a

conducting medico-legal autopsy, is often asked to opine about the identity of

the deceased in unknown fragmentary and dismembered remains.

Sometimes, cephalo-facial remains are brought for postmortem and forensic

examination.. Studies regarding stature estimation have been done by many

workers in the field of anthropology, anatomy and forensic medicine.

According to Sarangi5 et al. the somatometry on maximum anterior–

posterior length, maximum transverse length and circumference of skull in

220 autopsied cases, the correlation coefficient of stature was insignificant for

estimation of stature.

Introna, et al6 have evaluated the possible correlations between cranial

diameters and height in a population of 358 young males aged between 17 to

27 years old. The maximum anterior-posterior and lateral cranial diameters

were measured along with stature. Then, the data was correlated using the

SAS Program (Stepwise method) to obtain a multiple linear regression

6
between height (dependent variable) and the cranial diameters (independent

variable). Secondly, the Authors also studied the probable correlation

between height and cranial diameters obtained without including the thickness

of the soft tissues. In conclusion, they proposed a mathematical formula,

applicable in forensic investigation, regarding the determination of the actual

living stature.

Chiba and Terazawa7 investigated the possibility of estimating stature

from somatometry of the skull, and he carried out a study on 124 Japanese

cadavers (77 males and 47 females) that had been autopsied between July

1986 and June 1991. Somatometry of the skull was performed on diameter

and circumference. The regression equations were calculated for male female

and both sexes combined. Females showed smaller correlation coefficient

than males. S.E.s appears to be larger than those obtained for other parts of

the body. However, in cases where identification is required by means of only

the skull, this method could prove useful.

Jadhav and Shah.8 (2004-06) have studied Determination of personal

height from the length of head in Gujarat region. In this study they studied 727

medical students from Gujarat of 17 to 22yrs age. Length of head measured

between glabella and inion. They derive regression equation for male, female

and for both combined. Correlation coefficient between height and head

length in their study is +0.53 which is significant.

Patil and Mody9 studied to determine sex and estimate stature of an

individual using data derived from lateral cephalogram in Central Indian

7
population. Lateral cephalogram is ideal for the skull examination as it gives

details of various anatomical points in a single radiograph; also it easily

provides architectural and morphological details of skull superstructures and

intra-cranial details for comparisons. A discriminant function derived from 10

cephalometric variables provided 99% reliability in sex determination. The

formulae obtained from regression analysis using the maximum length of skull

showed very high degree of reliability for estimation of stature in males as well

as females.

Ryan and Bidmos10 (2006) studied ‘Skeletal height reconstruction from

measurements of the skull in indigenous South Africans’. The aim of the

present study was to investigate the usefulness of certain measurements of

the skull of indigenous South Africans in the estimation of adult stature.

Ninety-nine complete skeletons obtained from the Raymond A. Dart

Collection, School of Anatomical Sciences of the University of the

Witwatersrand, were used. Total skeletal height (TSH) was calculated for

each skeleton using the Fully’s (anatomical) method. Furthermore, six

variables were measured on each skull. TSH was regressed onto these

cranial measurements in order to obtain regression formulae. The correlation

coefficients obtained ranged between 0.40 and 0.54. The range of the

standard errors of estimate from the current study (4.37 and 6.24) is high in

comparison to that obtained for stature estimation based on intact long bones

and the calcaneus. Therefore, the equations presented in this study should be

used with caution in forensic cases when only the skull is available for human

identification.

8
 Krishan and Kumar11 studied to estimation of the stature from cephalo-

facial dimensions. A sample of 252 Koli male adolescents from North India

were examined. Along with stature, sixteen cephalo-facial measurements

were taken on each subject. The findings suggest that all the cephalo-facial

measurements are significantly correlated with stature (P<0.001, P<0.01); the

measurements of the cephalic region have strong correlation with stature than

those of the facial region. This was also supported by the regression analysis,

which shows that the cephalic measurements give better prediction of stature.

Kalia et al12 investigated the possibility of estimating height from

odontometry and anthropometric data of the skull. The study was carried out

on 100 Mysorean patients, (50 males, and 50 females). Measurements of

mesiodistal widths of the six maxillary anterior teeth, circumference of the skull,

and height were made directly on each patient. Anteroposterior diameter of the

skull was obtained on the lateral cephalograph. Significant sexual dimorphism

was observed for the parameters studied (P 0.05). Highly significant correlation

was found between height and other parameters when combined data and data

for males were regressed. Equations were obtained by regressing height to

head circumference and skull diameter (P 0.0001 for both).

Rao et al13 Estimated stature from cranial sutures in a South Indian

male population. Study was to investigate the possibility of estimating height

from length of coronal and sagittal sutures of the skull for the positive

identification of the height in forensic investigations concerned with

fragmentary skeletal remains. The study was conducted on 87 male bodies

subjected to medico legal autopsy in the Department of Forensic Medicine,

9
Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, South India and the Department of

Forensic Medicine, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, South India.

Significant correlation was found between height and coronal suture length in

males, when compared to sagittal suture. The correlation coefficient between

height and coronal suture was 0.363. The correlation coefficient between

height and sagittal suture was 0.090. Linear regression equations for stature

estimation were derived from coronal suture length in male population.

Coronal suture length gives more accurate results in estimating stature than

sagittal suture. However, in cases where identification is required by means of

only skull, this method could prove useful.

Gruber et al14 (2009) said in their study that the foramen magnum is an

important landmark of the skull base. A total of 110 transverse and 111

sagittal diameters from Central European male and female dry specimens

dating from the Pleistocene to modern times were measured, and related to

sex, age, stature, ethnicity, and a possible secular trend. Only a moderate

positive correlation between the transverse and the sagittal diameter of the

foramen magnum was found. Surprisingly, neither sexual dimorphism,

individual age-dependency, nor a secular trend was found for either diameter.

Furthermore, the relationship between the individual stature and foramen

magnum diameters was weak: thus foramen magnum size cannot be used as

reliable indicator for stature estimation.

Ozaslan et al15 studied Estimation of stature from body parts. The

purpose of the paper is to analyze anthropometric relationships between

dimensions of the lower extremity and body height. Analysis is based on a

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sample of middle class male (N=203) and female (N=108) adult Turks

residing in Istanbul. Measurements taken are stature, trochanteric height,

thigh length, lower leg length, leg length, and foot height, breadth, and length.

In conclusion, the study suggested that estimation of a living height can be

made possible using various dimensions of the lower extremity. One must

consider differences between populations in order to apply functions as such

to others

Raxter et al16 study tested the accuracy and applicability of fully

method, and clarified measurement procedures. The study sample consisted

of 119 adult black and white males and females of known cadaveric statures

from the Terry Collection. Cadaveric statures were adjusted to living statures,

following the recommendations of Trotter and Gleser (1952 Am. J. Phys.

Anthropol. 10:469-514). They obtained the best results using maximum

vertebral body heights (anterior to the pedicles) and measurement of the

articulated talus and calcaneus height in anatomical position. Statures derived

using the original Fully technique are strongly correlated with living statures (r

= 0.96), but underestimate living stature by an average of about 2.4 cm.

Anatomical considerations also suggest that the correction factors applied by

Fully to convert summed skeletal height to living stature are too small. New

formulae are derived to calculate living stature from skeletal height. There is

no effect of sex or ancestry on stature prediction. Resulting stature estimates

are accurate to within 4.5 cm in 95% of the individuals, with no directional

bias.

11
 Jantz et al17 studied Sexing and stature estimation criteria for Balkan

populations. Two standard measurements, maximum femur length and head

diameter, were collected. Femur variation was considerable. Kosovans can be

characterized as short and robust, Bosnians as tall and less robust, and

Croatians are tall and gracile, resembling American Whites more than the

other groups. Kosovans were also shown to have experienced slight secular

increase in femur length over the past 70 years.

Estimation of Gender

Sex determination plays a crucial role in the identification of human

remains as it narrows the possibility for identification by 50%. Skull is one of

the commonest parts of the skeleton used to opine on the sex of an individual.

It is considered second best, after pelvis, in determination of sex. Sexual

dimorphism is insignificant in the prepubertal age group. Although adult skulls

show a few non metrical and metrical differences, there is paedomorphic

tendency in human skulls of either sex. Absolute sexual differences seldom

exist. Further, hormones, nutritional status, cultural differences and

environmental factors affect these variations. Skulls shapes may also vary

within a population and even among closely related. Traditionally sexing of the

skulls has been based on the non-metrical traits. Non metrical differences are

mainly in facial skeleton, vault and mandible. There are few studies which

have used exhaustive list of metrical parameters for sexing of skulls10.

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 Leopold and Novotny18 used multivariate discriminant analyses of

various skull length and breadth measurements and some measurements of

the ischio-pubic and/or sacro-iliac pelvic bone segments.

Song, et al18 studied Sex diagnosis of Chinese skulls using multiple

stepwise discriminant function analysis. Sixty Chinese skulls (30 males and

30 females) from Liaoning Province of the People's Republic of China were

used in this study. Forty-one variables on each skull were measured and one

group of 14 and a second group of 5 variables were selected .Discriminant

equations for the 14 and 5 variables for sex diagnosis were found to be

variables are highly significant. The discriminant rate for the group of 5

variables resulted in accurate sex determination in 96.7% of cases. For the

group of 14 variables there was 100% success rate.

Inoue19 et al studied Sex determination by discriminant function

analysis of lateral cranial form’. To sex the cranium, morphological features of

cranial specimens were quantified with a personal computer that automatically

measures distance and gradient for 39 craniometric points in the lateral

contour line of the skull, which were digitized by a tablet digitizer connected to

the computer. Specimens used for discriminant analysis were 50 male and 50

female adult Japanese skulls. The lateral contour showed sex differences in

the nasal bone, supraorbital ridge, forehead and vertex. From variables of the

gradient and distance showing significant sex differences, the discriminant

function was derived and tested in 21 other specimens (13 male and 8 female

skulls). The mean ratio of correct sexing of the human skull by the

discriminant function was 86%.

13
 Steyn and Iscan20 studied sexual dimorphism in the crania and

mandibles of south African whites. They studied 12 standard cranial and five

mandibular measurements were taken from 44 male and 47 female skeleton of

known sex and race average accuracy ranged from 80% (bizygomatic breadth

alone) to 86%(cranium).

Franklin et al21 studied Sexual dimorphism and discriminant function

sexing in indigenous South African crania. Univariate male/female ratios

indicate significant sexual dimorphism in the pooled South African crania.

Canonical variates analysis of the pooled sample showed that facial width is

the strongest discriminating morphometric variable; cranial length and basi-

bregmatic height are the next most significant features. Eight measurements

derived from the three-dimensional data were used to produce a series of

discriminant functions for sex determination in the pooled sample, for which

an accuracy of 77-80% was attained. Analysis of the calvaria and face,

separately, has shown that the sex of damaged material can be diagnosed

with a reasonable degree of accuracy (75-76%).

Patil and Mody9 studied to determine sex and estimate stature of an

individual using data derived from lateral cephalogram in Central Indian

population. Lateral cephalogram is ideal for the skull examination as it gives

details of various anatomical points in a single radiograph; also it easily

provides architectural and morphological details of skull superstructures and

intra-cranial details for comparisons. A discriminant function derived from 10

cephalometric variables provided 99% reliability in sex determination.

14
 Deshmukh and Devershi22 have studied comparison of cranial sex

determination by univariate and multivariate analysis, in which they studied 16

parameter including maximum skull length, maximum skull breadth above the

level of supramastoid crest at right angle to median sagittal plane , maximum

cranial circumference, study was done on 74 crania of known sex . By using

univariate analysis 32.41% of crania were sexed correctly. Maximum cranial

circumference was found to be most reliable. By using multivariate

analysis90% of male crania and 85.29% of female crania were sexed

correctly. The overall percentage for sexing crania correctly was 87.84%.

Ramshaler et al23 said in their a comparison between metric analysis

using Fordisc and morphological determination of sex, average accuracy for

both sexes was 86 vs. 94%, respectively, and males were identified more

accurately than females

Chimalgi24 et have done sexing of skull by new metrical parameter in

western India. This study was conducted on 85 adult skull of known sex

(43males and 42 females) .In this study they concluded identification points of

all the parameters could identify the sex of only few skulls in neutral zone.

However, maximum number of skulls could be sexed using IP of bizygomatic

diameter (60% of males and 40% of female skulls). The combination of

bizygomatic diameter and combined area of carotid canal was found to be

best in determining the sex of skulls with 100% accuracy.

Veyre-Goulet25 et al studied recent human sexual dimorphism study

using cephalometric plots on lateral teleradiography and discriminant function

15
analysis. To validate their work using a European population, 114 dry skulls

(59 men and 55 women) were examined. Cephalometric plots were made on

lateral teleradiography with orthodontic software and 18 cephalometric

variables were analyzed. Sex was determined with 95.6% accuracy using the

18 variables discriminant function. A subset of eight variables was selected

and could predict sex with the same accuracy. In conclusion, it can be said

that skull-sexing methods using lateral teleradiography seem always suitable

but the most indicative variables could differ relative to the ethnic population

concerned.

Dayal et al26 studied an assessment of sex using the skull of black

South Africans by discriminant function analysis. This study uses traditional

anthropometric measurements and equipment to address the question of sex

determination from the crania and mandible of blacks. One hundred and

twenty non-pathological skulls were randomly selected, equally distributed by

sex and belonging to individuals whose age at death ranges between 25 and

70 years. Fourteen cranial and six mandibular measurements were subjected

to discriminant function analyses and discriminant function equations were

derived for sex determination. Average accuracies ranged between 80% and

85% and were on par with that obtained in previous studies. This study shows

that traditional methods provide average accuracies that are comparable to

those obtained using more complex techniques.

Gruber27 et al said in their study the foramen magnum is an important

landmark of the skull base. A total of 110 transverse and 111 sagittal

diameters from Central European male and female dry specimens dating from

16
the Pleistocene to modern times were measured, and related to sex, age,

stature, ethnicity, and a possible secular trend. Only a moderate positive

correlation between the transverse and the sagittal diameter of the foramen

magnum was found. Surprisingly, neither sexual dimorphism, individual age-

dependency, nor a secular trend was found for either diameter. Furthermore,

the relationship between the individual stature and foramen magnum

diameters was weak: thus foramen magnum size cannot be used as reliable

indicator for stature estimation.

Robinson and Bidmosin28 in their study tested the validity of five

discriminant function equations, with accuracies of 80% and higher, that have

been derived by Steyn and Işcan for the skull and humerus of South Africans

of European Descent (SAED). These equations were tested on different

regional populations of SAED within South Africa. The study sample consisted

of 230 skulls and 264 humeri of SAED. A total of 14 measurements (12

cranial and 2 humeral) were taken on these skeletal elements. The observed

accuracies from the present study (72.0-95.5%), with the exception of one

sample's accuracy, compared well with the original classification rates (80.2-

92.5%) for most of the functions thereby confirming the validity of the

discriminant function equations for sex determination for the skull and

humerus of SAED, for SAED in all regions of South Africa.

Uthman29 at al undertook the study to test a simple system for the

identification of unknown bodies using spiral CT images of frontal sinus and

other skull measurements among selected Iraqi sample. Ninety patients (45

males and 45 females) with age range from 20 to 49 years were selected in

17
this study. Skull measurements included; maximum skull length, prostio-

bregmatic height and maximum skull width. The discriminative analysis

showed that the ability of the frontal sinus to identify gender was 76.9%,

adding the skull measurements to the frontal sinus measurements gave a

higher overall classification accuracy for gender (85.9%).

Naikmasur et al30 said skeletal components play significant role in sex

determination in forensic and anthropological fields. Skull is considered

second best, after pelvis, in determination of sex. The present study aimed at

obtaining and comparing the reliability of cranio-mandibular parameters in

South Indian and Indian immigrant of Tibetan populations using lateral and

postero-anterior (PA) cephalograms. A total of 11 cephalometric parameters

were traced on lateral and PA cephalograms manually. Among the chosen

parameters bizygomatic width, ramus height, depth of face contributed most

for sexual dimorphism in both the populations. Upper facial height was the

additional parameter for sexual dimorphism in immigrant Tibetan population.

The discrimination accuracy in South Indian population was 81.5% while that

of immigrant Tibetan population was 88.2%.

Shah and jadhav31 stated in their study that Cephalic index is an

important parameter for deciding the race and sex of an individual whose

identity is unknown. In the present study authors have tried to work out

Cephalic index in medical students of Gujarat. 500 medical students were

measured for head length and head breadth and cephalic index was worked

out. Comparing previous records of cephalic index with recent work proves

tendency towards "brachycephalisation" - evidence of continuous growth of

18
brain more in the lateral direction. The data collected by the authors will be of

utmost importance in forensic medicine, anthropology and in genetics.

Odokuma32 et al studied Patterns of cephalic indexes in three West

African Populations in which they stated. The mean cephalic index (CI)

between the sampled populations was 77.95 ± 4.34 cm. There was an

observed significant effect of age on cephalic index (p < 0.01) but gender

showed no significant effects on cephalic index. It was shown that Cephalic

index were significant indices for differentiation of population groups and

cultures. In spite of these observations, differences which enable intracultural

differentiation commonly occur as exhibited by the craniometric pattern in this

study. Inevitably therefore, craniometric studies are most essential in the

study of population dynamics especially with respect to quantitative variables.

Mahajan33 et al stated in their study that Cephalic Index (CI) is useful in

differentiation of racial and sexual differences. There is a lesser amount of

published literature about CI of Punjabi students. Hence, we under took this

study to document the cephalometric characteristics and gender differences in

CI of Punjabi community. Head length, head breadth and CI were determined

for 400 medical students (17-23 years) of Punjab. The mean CI for males was

81.34 and for females 85.75 which was statistically significant. On comparison

with the existing literature the Punjabi community can be categorized as

Brachycephalic/ Hyperbrachicephalic and the data presented can be useful

for experts in forensic science.

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 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEACH

AIM
1. Determination of stature and gender from skull measurements.

OBJECTIVES

1. Determination of stature from skull measurements by finding out

regression equations.
2. Determination of gender from skull measurements by finding out
discriminant function analysis.

20
 MATERIALS AND METHODS

PLACE OF STUDY

Department of forensic medicine University College of medical sciences and

Guru Teg Bahadur hospital Delhi 95.

STUDY GROUP

1. Dead bodies brought for medico legal autopsy to the mortuary during

the period November 2009 to February 2011 in Department of Forensic

medicine UCMS and GTB Hospital Delhi were studied for taking

various measurements.

2. Cases suspected to have suffered from, disease, deformity, or injuries

affecting the bones during life were excluded from the study.

STUDY DESIGN

Subjects in the age group of 20yrs to 50yrs were only included in the study.

The population was further sub-divided into groups of 5yrs each number of

males and females in each age group were 40 each. Total numbers of

480(240 male and 240 female) cases were studied. Age group and Gender

wise distribution of cases shown in following Table-1.

21
TABLE-1. Age group and Gender wise distribution of cases

N-480
Sr. No Age Groups
M- (n1=40) F (n-1=40)
1 20<25 40 40
2 25<30 40 40
3 30<35 40 40
4 35<40 40 40
5 40<45 40 40
6 45≤50 40 40

Instruments and documents used

The following instruments and documents were used for the study:

a. Standard Autopsy table having standardized graduation in cms

on side.

b. Normal autopsy instruments.

c. Standard Autopsy suit and gloves

d. Curved spreading scientific measuring caliper

e. Standardized Flexible Measuring tape for measurement of

maximum skull circumference.

f. Inquest papers and other related documents.

g. Documentary evidence, information from relative etc. for

assessment of accurate or near accurate age.

Universal precautions were taken while performing autopsies.

Consent was taken from relatives.

22
 A predesigned Case Record Form was used to enter the various data

for parameters being studied.

All measurements were taken as described by Krogman and Iscan4 and

Chiba et al7. All the measurements are taken in centimeters and mean of three

readings was used for computation of data.

PROCEDURE

The body was placed in supine position on the flat hard surfaced autopsy

table, with the knee and hip joints extended, and the neck and feet in a same

plane and thus stature was measured from vertex to heel. The whole

thickness of scalp was incised from the mastoid process on the either side

and the incision was extended over the vertex in the coronal plane using

scalpel knife. The anterior and posterior half of the scalp were separated from

the skull and then reflected forward and backward. The anterior flap was

reflected till nasion exposure (junction of internasal suture with nasofrontal

suture) and posterior flap was reflected down to a level just below the occipital

protuberance. The temporalis muscle was incised along the superior temporal

line on both sides. The soft tissues adherents to the periosteum were

scrapped.

Stature

Before measuring length of the body rigor mortis broken by sprinkling warm

water. The cadaver length was then measured from vertex of head to the

base of heel using graduations on side of autopsy table. (Picture-1)

23
 The skull measurements i.e. maximum skull length and maximum skull

breadth were measured with the help of curved scientific measuring caliper.

Maximum skull length

It was taken as maximum distance between the glabella (the most forward

projecting point on the forehead, i.e. Frontal bone) and opisthocranion (it is

the most posterior point on the occipital protuberance of head in mid sagittal

plane, taken as point marking maximum skull length, measured from glabella)

(Picture-2).

Maximum skull breadth

It was taken as the maximum transverse breadth at the level of parietal

eminences on either side (biparietal) was measured. (Picture-3)

Maximum skull circumference

It was measured as length around the skull through two points the glabella and

external occipital protuberance by using flexible measuring tape. (Picture-4)

Three measurements were taken for each parameter preferably by

three different people and their mean was calculated to minimize the error

of reading.

STATISTICAL METHODS

Statistical computation of data was done for each age group in both the

genders. For determination of stature the skull measurements i.e. maximum

skull length, maximum skull breadth and maximum skull circumference were

used for deriving linear multiple regression equations.

24
For gender determination the skull measurements were computed

1. To find out discriminating point by method of discriminant function

analysis.

2. Measurements of male and female were also compared in each age

group.

3. Cephalic Index: It was calculated and was compared age group wise in

male and female.

Formula used for calculating Cephalic Index is as under

25
 OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

The present study was conducted in the Department of Forensic Medicine,

University College of medical sciences, Delhi. The aim of the study was to

determine stature and gender from various measurements of 240 males and

240 females’ human skulls. The measurements included in the study were:

1. Maximum skull length

2. Maximum skull breadth

3. Maximum skull circumference.

All the measurements were taken in centimeters and mean of three

measurements were taken for computation of, (a) regression equation for

estimation of stature and (b) discriminant function equation for gender

discrimination. In addition cephalic index was calculated using maximum skull

length and maximum skull breadth, for determination of gender. Also the three

measurements in male and female were compared with each other, in each

age group. The age wise distribution shown in Table.1.

TABLE - 1. Age group wise distribution of cases N=480

N-480
Sr. No Age Groups
M- (n1=40) F-(n-1=40)
1 20<25 40 40
2 25<30 40 40
3 30<35 40 40
4 35<40 40 40
5 40<45 40 40
6 45≤50 40 40

26
 For the purpose of the study, computation of data and thus

comparison all the measurements taken are grouped as:

1. All age groups combine male + female

2. All age groups combine males only.

3. All age group combine females only.

4. Individual age group wise

a) Male separate

b) Female separate

STATURE

For estimation of stature the cadaver length was measured from vertex of

head to the base of heel using standardized graduated Autopsy table.

(Picture-1) It was observed that Stature in total population i.e. male and

female both combined varied from 144cms to 184 cms with a mean value as

162.83 and standard deviation of ±7.512cms, The minimum stature of

144*cms was observed in a female in age group of 20<25yrs and maximum

was found in a male in age group of 45≤50yrs as 184**cms. This is depicted

in Table-2.

27
TABLE-2. Age wise comparison of stature in male & female Combined N=480

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms Cms cms Cms
20<25 80(M=40,F=40) 144* 177 161.66 8.275
25<30 80(M=40,F=40) 150 177 162.18 7.344
30<35 80(M=40,F=40) 150 183 162.71 8.468
35<40 80(M=40,F=40) 150 176 162.53 6.244
40<45 80(M=40,F=40) 146 182 164.61 7.291
45≤50 80(M=40,F=40) 148 184** 163.31 7.127

Stature in males when studied for all age groups, ranged from 148cms to

184cms with a mean value of 167.74cms and standard deviation of ±5.445cms.

The minimum stature of 148*cms and maximum of 184**cms are found in same

age group i.e. 45≤50yrs as. This is depicted in Table-3.

TABLE - 3. Comparison of stature in males n=240

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms cms cms Cms
20<25 40 159 177 167.83 4.248
25<30 40 156 177 167.2 4.67
30<35 40 157 183 168.8 6.132
35<40 40 150 176 166.05 5.421
40<45 40 164 182 169.75 4.396
45≤50 40 148* 184** 166.83 6.793

Similarly the stature in Females ranged from 144cms to 176 cms with

mean value of 157.93cms and standard deviation of ±5.929cms, the minimum

stature of 144*cms is observed in a female in age group of 20<25yrs and

28
maximum is found in a female in age group of 25>30yrs as 176**cms. This is

depicted in Table-4.

TABLE - 4. Comparison of Stature in Females-n=240

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms Cms Cms cms
20<25 40 144* 170 155.5 6.54
25<30 40 150 176** 157.15 5.947
30<35 40 150 168 156.62 5.624
35<40 40 150 170 159 4.909
40<45 40 146 170 159.48 5.848
45≤50 40 148 170 159.8 5.608

Maximum Skull Length

Maximum distance between the glabella and opisthocranion (taken as point

marking maximum skull length, measured from glabella.) was measured with

a spreading curved caliper. (Picture-2)

Maximum skull length when measured in total population i.e. male and

female both included varied from 14.5cms to 20.1 cms with a mean value as

17.462 and standard deviation of ±0.7855cms, Minimum and maximum value

i.e. 14.5cms and 20.1cms, are found in the same age group of 35<40yrs. The

minimum is in a female and maximum is in a male. This is depicted in Table-5

29
TABLE 5- Age wise comparison of maximum skull length. (male and
female combined) N=480

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms Cms Cms cms
20<25 80 15.8 19.5 17.466 0.6827
25<30 80 16 19 17.168 0.6535
30<35 80 16 18.5 17.176 0.5637
35<40 80 14.5* 20.1** 17.468 0.9363
40<45 80 16 19.6 17.679 0.8407
45≤50 80 16 19.4 17.818 0.7752

Regression equations derived using from maximum skull length in combined groups

and gender

S = MSL×2.94 +111.499; S.E ±7.159cms, r = 0.307

While formulating linear regression equations, a multiplication factor

and addition factor was also derived by computation. These factors are

specific to respective parameters age wise and gender wise.

Taking male population alone the maximum skull length was found to

vary between 16.3cms to 20.1 cms with a mean value as 17.807cms and

standard deviation of ±0.7187cms, The minimum value being observed in age

group 20<25 yrs while maximum value is observed in age group 35<40 yrs.

This is depicted in Table-6

30
TABLE - 6. Comparison Maximum skull Length in Males. N=240

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms Cms Cms cms
20<25 40 16.3* 19.5 17.742 0.6675
25<30 40 16.4 19 17.49 0.623
30<35 40 17 18.5 17.435 0.408
35<40 40 16.4 20.1** 17.725 0.8454
40<45 40 17 19.6 18.195 0.5866
45≤50 40 16.7 19.4 18.252 0.7016

Regression equation for all males together is,

S = 0.879 × MSL +152.089; SE. ±5.420cms, r = 0.116,

Taking female population alone the maximum skull length in varied

from 14.5cms to 18.2cms with a mean value as 17.118cms and standard

deviation of ±0.6942cms, The minimum value is observed in age group of

35<40 yrs while maximum value is observed in females of age group 20<25

yrs, 35<40yrs and 40<45yrs This is depicted in Table-7.

TABLE - 7. Comparison of Maximum skull Length-Females N=240

Age No. of Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Group cases cms Cms Cms Cms
20<25 40 15.8 18.2** 17.19 0.5848
25<30 40 16 18.1 16.845 0.5134
30<35 40 16 17.8 16.918 0.583
35<40 40 14.5* 18.2** 17.21 0.9618
40<45 40 16 18.2** 17.162 0.7354
45≤50 40 16 18.1 17.383 0.5804

31
Regression equation for all females together is

S = 165.5 – MSL× 0.443; S.E. ± 5.934cms, r = 0.052,

Maximum skull breadth: It was measured as the maximum

transverse distance at the level of parietal eminences (biparietal) and

standard spreading curved caliper was used for taking measurements.

(Picture-3)

Maximum skull breadth in total population i.e. male and female both

included varied from 10.5cms to 14.5 cms with a mean value as 12.645cms

and standard deviation of ±0.5981cms, The minimum value is observed in a

female of age group 35<40 yrs while maximum value is observed in a male of

age group 35<40 yrs. This is depicted in Table-8 as under

TABLE - 8. Age wise comparison of Maximum skull Breadth-male&

female combined N=480

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No of cases
cms cms cms Cms
All 80(m=40,f=40) 10.5 14.5 12.645 0.5981
20<25 80(m=40,f=40) 11 13.7 12.555 0.5226
25<30 80(m=40,f=40) 11.5 14.2 12.55 0.6479
30<35 80(m=40,f=40) 11.6 14.1 12.756 0.5034
35<40 80(m=40,f=40) 10.5* 14.5** 12.652 0.6551
40<45 80(m=40,f=40) 11.3 14.1 12.711 0.5761
45≤50 80(m=40,f=40) 11.5 14.4 12.644 0.6537

Regression equation from maximum skull breadth for all cases together is

S = MSB × 3.097 +123.678; S.E ±7.291cms, r = 0.246,

32
 Maximum skull breadth in total male population varied from

11.5cms to 14.5cms with a mean value as 12.878cms and standard deviation

of ±0.553cms, The minimum value is observed in age group 25<30 yrs while

maximum value is observed in age group 35<40 yrs. This is depicted in

Table-9.

TABLE - 9. compared maximum skull breadth males, N=240

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms Cms Cms Cms

20<25 40 12 13.7 12.663 0.4527

25<30 40 11.5* 14.2 12.867 0.5708

30<35 40 12 14.1 12.895 0.5787

35<40 40 12 14.5** 12.885 0.5582

40<45 40 12 14.1 13.028 0.4224

45≤50 40 11.5 14.4 12.928 0.6672

Regression equation for all males is

S = MSB × 1.867 +143.694; S.E ±5.357cms, r = 0.190,

Maximum skull breadth in total female population varied from

10.5cms to 13.5cms with a mean value as 12.412cms and standard deviation

of ±0.5498cms, The minimum value is observed in age group 35<40 yrs while

maximum value is observed in age group 20<25 yrs, 35<40yrs This is

depicted in Table-10.

33
TABLE - 10. Comparison of Maximum skull breadth in Females, n=240

Minimum Maximum Mean SD (+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms Cms Cms Cms
20<25 40 11 13.5** 12.447 0.5697
25<30 40 11.5 13.2 12.232 0.5636
30<35 40 11.6 13.3 12.618 0.3727
35<40 40 10.5* 13.5** 12.42 0.6684
40<45 40 11.3 13.3 12.395 0.5375
45≤50 40 11.5 13.2 12.36 0.5053

Regression equation for all females:-

S =184.411 –2.134 ×MSB; S.E ±5.824cms, r = 0.198,

Maximum skull circumference: It was measured as length around the

skull through two points the glabella and external occipital protuberance by

using flexible measuring tape. (Picture-4)

Maximum skull circumference in total population i.e. male and female

both included varied from 41cms to 56 cms with a mean value as 50.42cms

and standard deviation of ±1.804cms, The minimum value observed in a

females of age group 35<40 yrs while maximum value is observed in a males

of age group 45≤50 yrs. This is depicted in Table-11 as under

34
TABLE-11. Age wise Maximum skull circumference-male & female combined,
N=480.

Minimum Maximum Mean SD (+)

Age Group NO. of cases
cms Cms cms Cms
20<25 80(m-40,f-40) 46 54 50.35 1.607
25<30 80(m-40,f-40) 48 54 50.37 1.835
30<35 80(m-40,f-40) 47 54 50.17 1.54
35<40 80(m-40,f-40) 41* 55 50.06 2.31
40<45 80(m-40,f-40) 47 54 50.8 1.705
45≤50 80(m-40,f-40) 48 56** 50.77 1.643

Regression equation for all cases of both genders together:

S= MSC × 1.871 + 68.510; S.E ±6.721, r = 0.449.

Maximum skull circumference in total male population varied from

47cms to 56cms with a mean value as 51.47cms and standard deviation of

±1.633cms, The minimum value is observed in age group of 35<40 yrs while

maximum value is observed in age group 45≤50yrs. This is depicted in Table-12.

TABLE-12. Comparison of Maximum skull circumference, Males N=240

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms Cms Cms Cms
20<25 40 48 54 51.2 1.482
25<30 40 48 54 51.76 1.303
30<35 40 48 54 51.01 1.385
35<40 40 47* 55 51.07 2.16
40<45 40 49 54 52.01 1.371
45≤50 40 48 56** 51.75 1.753

35
Regression equation for all males together is

S = MSC × 0.538 + 140.075; S.E ±5.385cms, r = 0.161.

Maximum skull circumference in total female population varied from

41cms to 54cms with a mean value as 49.38cms and standard deviation of

±1.29cms, The minimum value observed in of age group 35<40 yrs while

maximum value is observed in of age group 25<30 yrs, This is depicted in

Table-13.

TABLE - 13. Comparison of Maximum skull circumference-Females

Minimum Maximum Mean SD(+)

Age Group No. of cases
cms Cms Cms Cms
20<25 40 46 52 49.5 1.245
25<30 40 48 54** 48.97 1.065
30<35 40 47 52 49.34 1.208
35<40 40 41* 52 49.05 2.009
40<45 40 47 52 49.6 1.017
45≤50 40 49 51 49.8 0.672

Regression equation for all females together:

S=MSC × 0.281 +143.983; S.E ±5.930cms, r = 0.061.

Estimation of Stature

Regression equations for each gender were also derived for each age group

using measurements maximum skull length, maximum skull breadth and

maximum skull circumference.

36
TABLE-14. Comparison of Regression equations derived using maximum skull
length

No. ‘SE of
Age Gende Correlation
of Reg. Equation estimate
group r coeficient
cases (±)cms
Both 480 2.94×MSL+111.499 7.159 +0.307
ALL M 240 0.879×MSL+152.089 5.42 +0.116
F 240 165.5 - 0.443×MSL 5.934 +0.052
M 40 169.767 -0.109×MSL 4.303 +0.017
20<25
F 40 0.360×MSL+149.313 6.04 +0.032
M 40 2.053×MSL+131.286 4.55 +0.274
25<30
F 40 168.081 - 0.649×MSL 6.04 +0.056
M 40 4.141×MSL+96.6 5.972 +0.276
30<35
F 40 198.4 -2.469×MSL 5.507 +0.256
M 40 0.432×MSL+158.388 5.479 +0.067
35<40
F 40 185.095 - 1.516×MSL 4.749 +0.297
M 40 171.445×MSL- 0.093 4.453 +0.012
40<45
F 40 0.38×MSL+152.956 5.918 +0.048
M 40 1.582×MSL+137.956 6.79 +0.163
45≤50 F 40 170.570 - 0.620×MSL 5.669 +0.064

From the, Table no 14. It is observed that when data of male and

female population was used for deriving regression equation for estimation of

stature, the S.E of prediction was ± 7.159cms while the value of standard

error is comparatively less when the equation derived for individual age group

in either sex.

37
 Positive value of r (correlation coefficient) suggests maximum skull

length is positively related with the stature but since value is less than 0.5 in

every age group, the relationship can not be regarded as very good.

TABLE-15. Comparison of Regression equations derived using

maximum skull Breadth.

SE of
Correlatio
Age No. of Regression estimate
Gender n
group cases equation
coefficient
(±)cms
Both(M+F 3.097×MSB+123.67
480 7.291 +0.246
) 8
1.867×MSB+143.69
All M 240 5.357 +0.19
4
184.411 -
F 240 5.824 +0.198
2.134×MSB
1.506×MSB+148.75
M 40 4.248 +0.16
20<25 7
F 40 198.811 - 3.48×MSB 6.314 +0.303
M 40 3.444×MSB+122.89 5.639 +0.421
25<30 167.415 -
F 40 6.03 +0.079
0.839×MSB
4.446×MSB+111.46
M 40 5.639 +0.42
30<35 9
F 40 208.88 - 4.141×MSB 5.478 +0.274
M 40 185.636-1.520×MSB 5.424 +0.157
35<40 177.462 -
F 40 4.871 +0.202
1.486×MSB
1.994×MSB+143.77
M 40 4.37 +0.192
8
40<45
183.260 -
F 40 5.832 +0.176
1.919×MSB
45≤50 M 40 0.996×MSB+153.94 6.849 +0.098
8

38
 180.433 -
F 40 5.616 +0.15
1.669×MSB

From the, Table no 15. It is observed that when data of male and

female population was used for deriving regression equation for estimation of

stature, the S.E of prediction was ± 7.291cms while the value of standard

error is comparatively less when the equation derived for individual age group

in either sex.

Positive value of r(correlation coefficient )suggests maximum skull

breadth is positively related with the stature but since value is less than 0.5 in

every age group , the relationship can not be regarded as very good.

TABLE-16. Comparison of Regression equations derived using

maximum skull circumference.

SE of Correlation
Age No. of Regression
Gender estimate
groups cases equation.
(±)cms coefficient
Both 480 1.871×MSC+68.510 6.721 +0.449
All M 240 0.538×MSC+140.075 5.385 +0.161
F 240 0.282×MSC+143.983 5.93 +0.061
M 40 0.878×MSC+122.88 4.097 +0.306
20<25
F 40 188.025 - 0.657×MSC 6.573 +0.125
M 40 1.026×MSC+114.087 4.533 +0.286
25<30
F 40 2.573×MSC+31.161 5.375 +0.459
M 40 0.837×MSC+126.132 6.1 +0.189
30<35
F 40 0.997×MSC+107.438 5.565 +0.214
M 40 0.260×MSC+152.782 5.462 +0.104
35<40
F 40 177.888 - 0.385×MSC 4.911 +0.158
40<45 M 40 1.153×MSC+109.765 4.155 +0.36

39
 F 40 0.771×MSC+121.236 5.871 +0.134
M 40 178.903 - 0.233×MSC 6.87 +0.06
45≤50
F 40 224.597 - 1.301×MSC 5.612 +0.156

From the, Table no 16. It is observed that when data of male and

female population was used for deriving regression equation for estimation of

stature, the S.E of prediction was ± 6.721cms while the value of standard

error is comparatively less when the equation derived for individual age group

in either sex.

Positive value of r (correlation coefficient) suggests maximum skull

circumference is positively related with the stature but since value is less than

0.5 in every age group, the relationship can not be regarded as very good.

ESTIMATION OF GENDER

Cephalic Index: It was calculated by using following formula

Cephalic index in total male population varied from 62.2cms to

87.9cms with a mean value as 72.417cms and standard deviation of

±3.9587cms, The minimum value is in age group 45≤50 yrs while

maximum value is observed in age group 35<40yrs. This is depicted in

Table-17. TABLE-17. Comparison of Cephalic Index-Males N=240

Age Group No of cases Minimum Maximum Mean SD(±)

All 240 62.2 82 72.417 3.9587

40
 20<25 40 63.7 80.7 71.467 3.7174
25<30 40 65.7 82.4 73.647 3.9183
30<35 40 69.4 80 73.984 3.4299
35<40 40 62.8 87.9** 72.837 4.4559
40<45 40 65.9 77.9 71.665 3.1365
45≤50 40 62.2* 82 70.904 4.1595

Cephalic index in female when computed was found to vary from 64.7

to 81.6 with a mean value as 72.573 and standard deviation of ±3.3069. Both

minimum and maximum value was found in the same age group 20<25 yrs.

This is depicted in Table-18.

TABLE-18. Comparison of Cephalic Index-Females N=240

Age Group No of cases Minimum Maximum Mean SD (+)

All 240 64.7 81.6 72.573 3.306
20<25 40 64.7* 81.6** 72.474 3.788
25<30 40 65.9 77.2 72.647 3.220
30<35 40 69.4 78.3 74.633 2.423
35<40 40 65.9 77.6 72.243 3.105
40<45 40 66.1 80.1 72.292 3.279
45≤50 40 65.5 78.1 71.151 3.059

In addition to the cephalic index, differentiation of gender from three

measurements viz., MSL, MSB,MSC by discriminant function analysis was

also done. The two methods employs are

1. Derivation of direct discrimination point.

41
 2. Derivation of Discriminant equations by canonical discriminant function

analysis procedure. In this method the discrimnant score is calculated

by multiplying the dimension by its raw coefficient, this is then added to

the constant (both raw coefficient and constant are dimension specific

and derived by computer).

Centroid is the area of doubtful prediction of gender, beyond which an

negative side is definitely female and on positive side is definitely male of that

particular age group.

Direct discrimination point analysis is done for all age group using all

the three parameters. Best gender discrimination was possible in age group

35<40yrs. The comparison is shown in Table.19.

TABLE-19. Age group wise gender discrimination

PARAMETE
All 20<25 25<30 30<35 35<40 40<45 45≤50
R

F<17.462< F<17.466< F<17.168< F<17.176< F<17.468< F<17.679< F<17.818<

MS D.P
M M M M M M M
L
Ctd. ±0.487 ±0.440 ±0.565 ±0.514 ±0.284 ±0.776 ±0.676

F<12.645< F<12.555< F<12.550< F<12.756< F<12.885< F<12.711< F<12.644<

MS D.P
M M M M M M M
B
Ctd ±0.422 ±0.209 ±0.560 ±0.285 ±0.378 ±0.654 ±0.479

MS D.P F<50.42<M F<50.35<M F<50.37<M F<50.17<M F<50.06<M F<50.80<M F<50.77<M

C Ctd ±0.710 ±0.622 ±1.175 ±0.642 ±0.486 ±0.997 ±0.732

“”(All values are significant at P<0.05)

Canonical Discriminant Function Analysis

While deriving discriminant equation by this method when the data of all age

groups male and female respectively was used. The best gender

42
discrimination was achieved by MSC with percentage of accuracy as 81.90%.,

all equations are statistically significant. This is shown in Table.20.

43
TABLE - 20. Discriminant equation for all subjects together-

Demarking
Variable Discriminant equation centroid p-value
point

MSL 1.415×MSL - 24.714 F<17.462<M ±0.487 0.000

MSB 1.813×MSB - 22.930 F<12.645<M ±0.422 0.000

MSC 0.680×MSC - 34.263 F<50.42<M ±0.710 0.000

Discriminant function equations and demarking point for each variable

for all subjects together are:

(1.415×MSL – 24.714); F<17.462<M; with 64% accuracy,

(1.813×MSB – 22.930); F<12.645<M; with 62% accuracy,
(0.680×MSC – 34.263); F<50.42<M; with 81.9% accuracy,

Derivation of discriminant function analysis for age group of 20<25yrs

the best gender discrimination was achieved by MSC with percentage

accuracy of 75% ,but MSB gives statistically insignificant results. This is

shown in Table 21.

TABLE-21. Discriminant equations for 20<25 age group-

Demarking
Variable Discriminant equation centroid P-value
point

MSL 1.594×MSL - 27.834 F<17.466<M ±0.440 0.000

MSB 1.943×MSB- 24.399 F<12.555<M ±0.209 0.065

MSC 0.731×MSC - 36.789 F<50.35<M ±0.622 0.000

Discriminant function equations and demarking point for each variable for all

subjects of 20<25yrs age group are:

(1.594×MSL – 27.834); F<17.466<M; with 66% accuracy

44
(1.943×MSB – 24.399); F<12.555<M; with 48.8% accuracy,
(0.731×MSC – 36.789); F<50.35<M; with 75% accuracy,
In 25<30yrs age group gender can be discriminated upto 92.50%

accuracy by MSC. Table.22.

TABLE-22. Discriminant equations for age group25<30:

Demarking
Variable Discriminant equation centroid P-value
point
MSL 1.752×MSL - 30.075 F<17.168<M ±0.565 0.000
MSB 1.763×MSB - 22.126 F<12.55<M ±0.560 0.000
MSC 0.840×MSC - 42.33 F<50.37<M ±1.175 0.000

Discriminant function equations and demarking point for each variable for all

subjects of 25<30yrs age group are:

(1.752×MSL – 30.075); F<17.168<M; with 66.33% accuracy,

(1.763×MSB – 22.126); F<12.55<M; with 70% accuracy,
(0.840×MSC – 42.33); F<50.37<M; with 92.50% accuracy

Derivation of discriminant function analysis for age group of 30<35yrs

the best gender discrimination was achieved by MSC with percentage

accuracy of 82.50%. This is shown in Table 23.

Table-23. Discriminant equations for age group 30<35

Discriminant
Variable Demarking point centroid p-value
equation
MSL 1.987×MSL - 34.135 F<17.176<M ±0.514 0.000
MSB 2.055×MSB - 26.209 F<12.756<M ±0.285 0.013
MSC 0.770×MSC - 38.618 F<50.17<M ±0.642 0.000

45
 Discriminant function equations and demarking point for each variable

for all subjects of 30<35yrs age group are:

(1.987×MSL – 34.135); F<17.176<M; with 61.30% accuracy,

(2.055×MSB – 26.209); F<12.756<M; with 57.50% accuracy,
(0.770×MSC – 38.618); F<50.17<M; with 82.50% accuracy,

Derivation of discriminant function analysis for age group of 35<40yrs

the best gender discrimination was achieved by MSC with percentage

accuracy of 78.80%. This is shown in Table 24.

Table-24. Discriminanr equation for age group 35<40

Variabl Discriminant Demarking centroi

p-value
e equation point d

MSL 1.104×MSL - 19.291 F<17.468<M ±0.284 0.013

MSB 1.624×MSB - 20.548 F<12.885<M ±0.378 0.001

MSC 0.479×MSC- 24.003 F<50.06<M ±0.486 0.000

Discriminant function equations and demarking point for each variable for all

subjects of 35<40yrs age group are:

(1.104×MSL – 19.291); F<17.468<M; with 50% accuracy,

(1.624×MSB – 20.548); F<12.885<M; with 55% accuracy,
(0.479×MSC – 24.003); F<50.06<M; with 78.80% accuracy,

Derivation of discriminant function analysis for age group of 40<45yrs

the best gender discrimination was achieved by MSC with percentage

accuracy of 83.80%. This is shown in Table 25

46
TABLE-25 Discriminant equation for age group 40<45

Discriminant
Variable Demarking point centroid P-value
equation

MSL 1.503×MSL - 26.577 F<17.679<M ±0.776 0.000

MSB 2.069×MSB - 26.301 F<12.711<M ±0.654 0.000

MSC 0.828×MSC - 42.085 F<50.80<M ±0.997 0.000

Discriminant function equations and demarking point for variable for all

subjects of 40<45yrs age group are:

(1.503×MSL – 26.577); F<17.679<M; with 76.3% accuracy,

(2.069×MSB – 26.301); F<12.711<M; with 75% accuracy,
(0.828×MSC – 42.085); F<50.80<M; with 83.8% accuracy,

Derivation of discriminant function analysis for age group of 45≤50yrs

the best gender discrimination was achieved by MSC with percentage

accuracy of 82.50%. This is shown in Table 26.

TABLE-26. Discriminant equation for sixth age group 45≤50

Demarking
Variable Discriminant equation Centroid P-value
point

MSL 1.553×MSL - 27.672 F<17.818<M ±0.676 0.000

MSB 1.690×MSB - 21.366 F<12.644<M ±0.479 0.000

MSC 0.753×MSC - 38.241 F<50.77<M ±0.732 0.000

Discriminant function equations and demarking point for each variable

for all subjects of 45≤50yrs age group are:

(0.681×MSL – 27.672); F<17.818<M; with 70% accuracy,

(1.690×MSB – 21.366); F<12.644<M; with 65% accuracy,

47
(0.753 ×MSC – 38,241); F<50.77<M; with 82.50% accuracy.

48
 DISCUSSION

Bodily proportions and absolute dimensions vary widely with respect to age,

sex, within racial groups and among racial groups. In spite of this variation,

height has been estimated from measuring various parameters of the body by

refining formulae. The values have become increasingly important in the

identification of persons. The stature of an individual mainly being genetically

predetermined is an inherent characteristic, the estimate of which is

considered to be an important assessment in the identification of unknown

human remains.

In present study, stature and gender has been estimated from skull

measurements. There are few studies for estimation of stature from

cephalometry or craniometry.

STATURE

In present study estimation of stature is based upon derivation of standard

linear regression equation only. The cosmopolitan population of Delhi is

standard, so as to derive uniform formula. Age group wise measurements of

stature in both male and female were taken. In male a uniform increasing

pattern in maximum stature is found except for the marginal deviation in age

groups of 30<35yrs and 35 to 40yrs. However no such pattern is found in

minimum stature. In female the pattern is thus found is reversed to male as

regard to maximum stature i.e. the stature is found to be decreasing in higher

age group, no uniform pattern is found in minimum stature as in males. Mean

49
total height measured in present study in males is 167.74 cms which is

marginally on the higher side as compared to Saxena34 et al. (1981) which

was 162.18cms. Values of other author are also similar to our study as shown

in Table.27.

Table-27. Comparison of stature.

Year of Population Stature in cms

Study
study Studied. (N) Male Female
Nagpur.(75M,75F) M-164.78
Patil and mody9 2005 F-150.55
25-54yrs
Manglore (87M)
Rao et al 13 2005 166.83 ----
20-60yrs
Chiba and Japan (77M,47F) 164.8
Terazawa7 1998 153
14-82yrs
Mysore (50M,50F)
Kalia et al 12 2006 171.654 155.672
20- 40yrs
Saxena et al34 1981 25-30yrs 162.186 ---
Ahmedabad Gujrat
Jadhav & shah 31
2004 (468M,259F) 169.92 157.8
17-22yrs
Delhi (240M,240F) 167.74
Present study 2009-11 157.93
20-50yrs

Maximum Skull Length

As for the stature there is no fixed pattern of increase in minimum skull length

in either gender. However in males showed marginally higher values for

maximum skull length in older age group 40 to 45yrs and 45 to 50 yrs. Which

is contrary to females as mean values in middle age group 25 to 30 yrs and

50
30 to 35yrs are slightly lower and are almost same in other age groups.

Comparisons with other authors is shown below in Table 28.

TABLE-28. Comparison of maximum skull length.

Study Maximum skull length in cms

M=17.657
Patil & mody9
F=16.344

M=18.651
Chimmalgi 24et al
F=15.348

M=18.26
Shah and jadhav31
F=16.5

M=17.6
Chiba & Terazawa7
F=16.5

M=17.597
Kalia 12et al
F=16.392

M=17.3
Deshmuk 22et al
F=16.6

M=17.807
Present study F=17.118
C=17.462

Maximum Skull Breadth

It does not show any pattern of increase or decrese with age groups in either

of the gender. Comparison with other auther shown in Table-29.

51
Table-29: Comparison of Maximum skull breadth

Study Maximum skull breadth in cms

M-13.1
Deshmukh22 et al
F-12.7

M=14.56
Shah & jadhav31
F=14.1

M=14.34
Hong et al
F=13.62

M=15.68
Mahajan et al33
F=14.72

M=12.878
Present study F=12.412
C=12.645

Maximum Skull Circumference

Similar to the skull breadth the circumference of skull, in either gender did not

show any pattern of increase or decrese, and it may be inferred that both skull

breadth and skull circumference achieves their maximum after age of around

20yrs in both males and females. Comparison shown in Table 30.

52
TABLE-30: Comparison of Maximum skull circumference

Study Maximum skull circumference in cms

M=55.09
Kalia et al12
F=50.694

M=50.91
Hong et al
F=49.88

M=52.4
Chiba & terazawa7 F=50.8
C=51.8

M=49.6
Deshmuk et al22
F=47.9

M=51.47
Present study F=49.38
C=50.42

Regression equations

When regression equations are derived for estimation of stature from these

parameter independently, the positive value of correlation coefficient is

indicator of positive relationship between the parameter and stature. The

value of correlation coeeficient varies from -1.0 to +1.0. The negative value

suggests the inverse proportions of increase or decrease of the two

parameters and vice versa. Since the value of the ‘r’ less than 0.5 suggests

that there is no proportionate increase in two parameter.

Maximum skull length

Regression equations for estimation of the stature from MSL when derived

using all the data combined male and female together, the stature prediction

53
was possible but with very high degree of standard error i.e upto ±7.159 cms

on the contrary when the data for male, all group together used , SE is less

i.e.±5.42cms.

For female the stature prediction using data of all age group together

he stature prediction is possible upto 5.934cms of standard error. However

the regression equation when derived for individual age group gives

marginally better results.

Regression equation for individual age group derived using MSL is

given below:-

TABLE-31 (a): Regression equation for individual age group derived

using MSL, Males

For Males-

Correlation
Sr. No Regression equation SE in cms (±)
coefficient

1). 169.767 -0.109×MSL ±4.303 +0.017

2). 2.053×MSL+131.286 ±4.55 + 0.274

3). 4.141×MSL+96.6 ±5.972 +0.276

4). 0.432×MSL+158.388 ±5.479 +0.067

5). 171.445×MSL- 0.093 ±4.453 +0.012

6). 1.582×MSL+137.956 ±6.79 +0.163

54
TABLE-31 (a): Regression equation for individual age group derived
using MSL, Females

For Females-

Correlation
Sr.No Regression equation SE in cms (±)
coefficient

1). 0.360×MSL+149.313 ±6.04 +0.032

2.) 168.081 - 0.649×MSL ±6.04 + 0.056

3) 198.4 -2.469×MSL ±5.507 +0.256

4) 185.095 - 1.516×MSL ±4.749 +0.297

5) 0.38×MSL+152.956 ±5.918 +0.048

6) 170.570 - 0.620×MSL ±5.669 +0.064

Maximum Skull Breadth

Regression equations for estimation of the stature from MSB when derived

using all the data combined male and female together, the stature prediction

was possible but with very high degree of standard error i.e upto ±7.291 cms

on the contrary when the data for male and female, all group together used.

The individual regression equation derived age group wise gives

comparatively better results in both male and females. The best prediction

being in 20-25yrs age group (S.E± 4.248) in males and in females ± 4.480.

Regression equation for individual age group derived using MSB is given

below:-

55
TABLE-32 (a): Regression equation for individual age group derived
using MSB, Males

For Males-

Correlation
Sr. No Regression equation SE in cms (±)
coefficient

1). 1.506×MSB+148.757 ±4.248 +0.160

2.) 3.444×MSB+122.89 ±5.639 +0.421

3) 4.446×MSB+111.469 ±5.639 +0.420

4) 185.636-1.520×MSB ±5.424 +0.157

5) 1.994×MSB+143.778 ±4.37 + 0.192

6) 0.996×MSB+153.948 ±6.849 +0.098

TABLE-32 (a): Regression equation for individual age group derived

using MSB, Females

For Females-

Sr. Correlation
Regression equation SE in cms(±)
No. coefficient

1) 198.811 - 3.48×MSB ±6.314 0.303

2) 167.415 - 0.839×MSB ±6.030 0.079

3) 208.88 - 4.141×MSB ±5.478 0.274

4) 177.462 - 1.486×MSB ±4.871 0.202

5) 183.260 - 1.919×MSB ±5.832 0.176

6) 180.433 - 1.669×MSB ±5.616 0.150

56
Maximum Skull Circumference

While deriving regression equations for estimation of the stature from MSC

similar pattern of prediction is found in both the genders as was seen for MSL

& MSB. The standard error for males is in vicinity of ±4.097 to ±5.8cms. and

for females it is ±4.91 to ±6.57cms. Data for male and female all age group

combined also gives almost similar predictions standard error being

±6.72cms. which is marginally on the higher side.

Regression equation for individual age group derived using MSB is given

below:-

TABLE-33 (a): Regression equation for individual age group derived

using MSC, Males

For Males

Correlation
Sr. No Regression Equation SE in cms(±)
coefficient

1) 0.878×MSC+122.88 ±4.097 +0.306

2) 1.026×MSC+114.087 ±4.533 +0.286

3) 0.837×MSC+126.132 ±6.100 +0.189

4) 0.260×MSC+152.782 ±5.462 +0.104

5) 1.153×MSC+109.765 ±4.155 +0.360

6) 178.903 - 0.233×MSC ±6.87 + 0.060

57
TABLE-33 (b): Regression equation for individual age group derived
using MSC, Females

For Females-

Correlation
Sr. No Regression Equation SE in cms(±)
coefficient

1) 188.025 – 0.657×MSC ±6.573 +0.125

2) 2.573×MSC+31.161 ±5.375 +0.459

3) 0.997×MSC+107.438 ±5.565 +0.214

4) 177.888 - 0.385×MSC ±4.911 +0.158

5) 0.771×MSC+121.236 ±5.871 +0.134

6) 224.597 - 1.301×MSC ±5.612 +0.156

On comparing the least standard error in either gender for all three

parameter, values are almost same with statistically insignificant variations

meaning there by that accuracy of stature prediction will be almost same

using either of the three parameter.

In case where the age of the person is not known the regression

equation derived for all age groups combined will predict the stature by

additional ±1cms as will be predicted by using age group specific regression

equations.

Where the gender of the skull is also not known application of

regression equation derived using combined data respectively for either of the

three parameter will predict the stature by another ±1cms margin on either

side.

58
 Therefore stature of a person can be best estimated by using age

group specific regression equations.

TABLE 34. Comparison of standard error of all age group combines.

(±)SE in cms MSL MSB MSC

M 5.42 5.35 5.38

F 5.93 5.82 5.93

TABLE- 35. Comparison of best SE

BEST (±)SE in
MSL MSB MSC
cms

M 4.30 4.24 4.09

F 4.74 4.87 4.91

Comparison with other authors is shown in Table 33.

Table-35. Comparison of Regression equation equations with other authors.

Similar
Gende S.E in cms Correlatio
Study Paramete Regression Equation.
r (±) n coeff
r
M 3.89×MSL +96.3 ±7.09 +0.39
MSL F -0.02×MSL + 153.4 ±6.97 +0.003

Chiba & Both 4.34×MSL + 85 ±8.59 +0.40

Terazawa7 M 1.50×MSC +86.7 ±7.12 +0.38
MSC F 1.28×MSC + 87.8 ±6.59 +0.32
Both 2.30×MSC + 41 ±8.14 +0.50
M 1.77×MSL +138.77 ------
Jadhav & +0.53
MSL F 1.72×MSL + 128.03 -------
Shah8
Both 4.93×MSL + 78.92 -------
Kalia et al12 MSC 1.339×MSC +
M ±0.48 +0.38
978.685
F 1.28×MSC + 87.8 ±6.59 +0.32

59
 Similar
Gende S.E in cms Correlatio
Study Paramete Regression Equation.
r (±) n coeff
r
Both 2.30×MSC + 41 ±8.14 +0.50
2.214×MSL+ Continued.....
M ±0.78 +0.13
1342.882
0.479×MSL +
MSL F ±1.29 +0.00
1478.164
5.966×MSL +
Both ±0.78 +0.38
622.807
M 3.69×MSL + 101.83 ---- +0.715
MSL F 3.86×MSL + 226.60 ---- +0.470
Isurani Both 3.38×MSL + 103.72 ----- ---
ilayperuma3
5 M 3.84×MSB + 111.61 ----- +0.312
MSB F 3.33×MSB + 111.76 ----- +0.454
Both 6.04×MSB + 764.98 ----- -------

Krishnan MSL M 4.674×MSC + 88.671 ±4.136 +0.774

k11 MSB M 5.320×MSC + 98.056 ±4.792 +0.682
(Percut.) MSC M 2.034×MSC + 65.156 ±3.726 +0.781

0.879×MSL+152.089 ±5.42 +0.116

M
MSL F 165.5 - 0.443×MSL ±5.934 +0.052
Both 2.94×MSL+111.499 ±7.159 +0.307

1.867×MSB+143.694 ±5.357 +0.19

Present M
study MSB F 184.411 - 2.134×MSB ±5.824 +0.198
Both 3.097×MSB+123.678 ±7.291 +0.246

0.538×MSC+140.075 ±5.385 +0.161

M
F 0.282×MSC+143.983 ±5.93 +0.061
MSC
Both 1.871×MSC+68.510 ±6.721 +0.449

60
GENDER

Cephalic Index

While comparing cephalic index in whole population no significant age group

wise pattern found in either minimum or maximum values. The mean value of

cephalic index ranged from 70.904 to 73.989. the lowest being in age group

45<50 and highest value is in age group 30<35yrs. Suggesting that there is

no age wise fix pattern of rise/fall in cephalic index. Values of cephalic index

reported by other authers in different parts of the country are on higher side

as they studied different population. There is regional variation in cephalic

index in different parts of the country the comparison is shown in Table.5

Table 36.-Comparison of Cephalic Index.

Mean Cephalic
S. No. Race Workers No.
Index

1 K.Vangaja Basu (1963) 100 79.50

2 Bhils Bhargav and Kher (1960) 100 76.98

3 Barelas Bhargav and Kher (1961) 100 79.80

4 Gujarati Shah& jadhav8 302 80.42

5 Delhi Present study 480 72.495

From the observations it is found that demarking points of the two

methods i.e. direct and canonical discriminant function analysis for the three

parameters are the same on the contrary in the method of canonical DFA the

results are statistically insignificant for the MSB age group 20<25yrs as

indicated by p-value.

61
Comparison is shown in Table 37.

Table 37. Comparison of gender discriminations.

PARAMETE
All 20<25 25<30 30<35 35<40 40<45 45≤50
R

1.415×MSL 1.594×MSL 1.752×MSL 1.987×MSL 1.104×MSL 1.503×MSL 1.553×MSL

D.E
- 24.714 - 27.834 - 30.075 - 34.135 - 19.291 - 26.577 - 27.672
M
F<17.462< F<17.168< F<17.176< F<17.679< F<17.818<
D.P F<17.466<M F<17.468<M
S M M M M M
L
Ctd ±0.487 ±0.440 ±0.565 ±0.514 ±0.284 ±0.776 ±0.676

p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.013 0.000 0.000

1.813×MS 1.943×MSB 1.763×MS 2.055×MS 1.624×MSB 1.503×MSL 1.690×MS

D.E
B - 22.930 - 24.399 B - 22.126 B - 26.209 - 20.548 - 26.577 B - 21.366
M
F<12.645< F<12.550< F<12.756< F<12.711< F<12.644<
D.P F<12.555<M F<12.885<M
S M M M M M
B
Ctd ±0.422 ±0.209 ±0.560 ±0.285 ±0.378 ±0.654 ±0.479

p-value 0.000 0.065 0.000 0.013 0.001 0.000 0.000

0.680×MS 0.731×MSC 0.840×MS 0.770×MS 0.479×MSC 0.828×MS 0.753×MS

D.E
C - 34.263 - 36.789 C - 42.33 C - 38.618 - 24.003 C - 42.085 C - 38.241
M
D.P F<50.42<M F<50.35<M F<50.37<M F<50.17<M F<50.06<M F<50.80<M F<50.77<M
S
C p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Ctd ±0.710 ±0.622 ±1.175 ±0.642 ±0.486 ±0.997 ±0.732

Percentage accuracy of present study for gender discrimination ranged

between 48.8 to 81.90%.this is similar to other authors with marginal

variations depending upon the variable used. Comparisons are depicted in

Table 37.

62
TABLE- 38. Comparison of gender discrimination percentage accuracy.

Percentage
Auther Area Variable
accuracy
Shandong
Ding 2-5 85.7---94.3
china
Hongkong
Wang 6-8 80.3---93.1
Taiyang,
Wang China 3-9 81.5---85.3
Hanihara Japan 4-5 85.6---89.6
Giles USA 9 83.5---87.6
Tanaka Japan 18 94.94
Hong et al Han nationality 14 100
Hong et al China(north east) 5 96.67
Present study Delhi 1-4 50.40---81.90

63
 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

From the present study we concluded that

1. There exists appositive correlation in male and female both between the

stature and the three parameters studied viz.

Maximum skull length

Maximum skull breadth

Maximum skull circumference

2. All the regression equations derived are statistically significant.

3. The stature of a person can be satisfactorily estimated by using

regression equations derived for respective age group and gender.

4. The best estimation of stature can be predicted by using maximum skull

circumference in males and maximum skull length in females.

5. In cases where differentiation of sex is not possible, the stature can be

satisfactory and statistically significantly can be estimated by using the

regression equations derived for the combine data of male and female.

6. Both MSB and MSC achieves their maximum after age of 20yrs in both

male and female.

7. Cephalic index did not show any statistically significant difference in

males and females in any of the age group. The results are similar to

other authors.

64
8. Gender of a person can be statistically significantly differentiated by

direct discriminant function analysis.

9. The results for gender differentiation by using canonical discriminant

function analysis are encouraging when the data of all age group for

male and female is use.

10. Percentage accuracy for gender differentiation is statistically significant

and is very high and is best for maximum skull circumference.

11. Out of the two methods direct and CDFA the second method

differentiates the gender better than first method.

12. The relationship between stature gender and the parameters varies with

race region and time it is recommended that more research should be

undertaken on this with more number of cases and with wider age group

for better accuracy.

65
 SUMMARY

The study was conducted in the department of Forensic medicine UCMS and

GTB hospital from the period of 1st November 2009 to 30th February, 2011.

Total 240 males and 240 females cases were studied. Present study was

undertaken to determine stature from skull measurements which include

maximum skull length, maximum skull breadth, and maximum skull

circumference, stature was measured from vertex of head to base of heel. Also

gender is determined from these parameters and cephalic index. Data collected

were subjected to statistical analysis. Statures from skull measurements were

determined by finding multiple regression equation while gender was

determined by finding out discriminant function analysis. The results of the

present study are summarized as follows:

1. There exists a positive correlation in male and female both between the

stature and the three parameters studied viz.

Maximum skull length

Maximum skull breadth

Maximum skull circumference

2. All the regression equations derived are statistically significant.

3. The stature of a person can be satisfactorily estimated by using

regression equations derived for respective age group and gender.

66
4. The best estimation of stature can be predicted by using maximum skull

circumference in males and maximum skull length in females.

5. In cases where differentiation of sex is not possible, the stature can be

satisfactory and statistically significantly can be estimated by using the

regression equations derived for the combine data of male and female.

6. Both MSB and MSC achieves their maximum after age of 20yrs in both

male and female

7. Cephalic index did not show any statistically significant difference in

males and females in any of the age group. The results are similar to

other authors.

8. Gender of a person can be statistically significantly differentiated by

direct discriminant function analysis.

9. The results for gender differentiation by using canonical discriminant

function analysis are encouraging when the data of all age group for

male and female is use.

10. Percentage accuracy for gender differentiation is statistically significant

and is very high and is best for maximum skull circumference.

11. Out of the two methods direct and Canonical discriminant function

analysis, the second method differentiates the gender better than first

method.

67
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 APPENDIX-1
CONSENT FORM

I am told and understand that some research work is being carried out
by the doctors of Department of forensic medicine on Determination of stature
and gender from skull measurements for which certain measurements will be
required to be taken from the dead body, Considering the importance of
medical research.
I……………………..S/o………………………….R/o…………………………….......
relation with deceased ……………………….have no objection for taking
measurements from the body of deceased ……………………….....................
S/o ……………………….R/o……………………………I am further informed that
the measurements will be used for medical research purpose only.

Date:
Signature:………………

Relation with deceased:……………

Name:………………….

jksxh dk lgefr i=k

'kks/ dk fo"k; % DETERMINATION OF STATURE AND GENDER FROM

SKULL MEASUREMENTS, AN AUTOPSY STUDY.

eSa iq=k@iq=kh@iRuh
viuh LosPNk ls ewRkd --------------------------
Ikq=k@iq=kh@iRuh ------------------------- dks fpfdRldh; vè;;u
esa lfEefyr djus dh lgefr iznku djrk@djrh gw¡A

fpfdRld ds gLrk{kj% -------------------------------

fnukad% ------------------------------------------------------- uke%
-----------------------------------------------------------
xokg dk uke% ------------------------------------------- xokg ds lkFk
laca/% -----------------------------------

72
xokg ds gLrk{kj% -------------------------------------- fnukad%
-------------------------------------------------------

73
 APPENDIX-2
Case Record Form

PM No Date

1. Age ……………………………… Sex ……M/F………….

2. Date & time of death…………….

3. STATURE……1……………2………….3……………Mean……………

4. MAXIMUM SKULL LENGTH 1……………..2……………..3…………….

Mean…………..

5. MAXIMUM SKULL BREADTH 1…………….2………………3……………

Mean………………

6. MAXIMUM SKULL CIRCUMFERANCE

…1…………2…………..3…………………Mean……………….

74