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Cambridge O Level Additional Your notes

Maths
Integration
Contents
Introduction to Integration
Integrating Powers of x
Definite Integrals
Finding Areas with Integration
Finding Areas Between Lines & Curves
Integrating Trig Functions
Integrating e^x & 1/x
Reverse Chain Rule

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Introduction to Integration
Your notes
Introduction to Integration
What is integration?
Integration is the opposite to differentiation
Integration is the process of finding the expression of a function from an expression of the
derivative (gradient function)
What is the fundamental theorem of calculus?

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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that integration is the inverse process of differentiation
This form of the Theorem relates to Indefinite Integration
An alternative version of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus involves Definite Integration Your notes
What is the constant of integration (+c)?
When differentiating y, constant terms ‘disappear’
dy
for constants y = c, =0
dx
graphs of constants are horizontal lines and so have gradient of 0
dy
Integrating , to get y, cannot determine the constant
dx
To acknowledge this constant, “+ c” is used
c is called the constant of integration

What is the notation for integration?

An integral is normally written in the form

∫f (x ) dx

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the large operator ∫ means “integrate” Your notes

“dx ” indicates which variable to integrate with respect to
f (x ) is the function to be integrated
If it has more than one term the function to be integrated (called the integrand) should be in brackets
“Integrate” -– “all of (…)” -– “with respect to x”

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Worked example
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Integrating Powers of x
Your notes
Integrating Powers of x
How do I integrate powers of x?
Powers of x are integrated according to the following formulae:
x n +1
If f (x ) = x n then ∫ f (x ) dx =
n +1
+ c where n ∈ℚ, n ≠ − 1 and c is the constant
of integration
For each term …
… increase the power (of x) by 1
… divide by the new power
This does not apply when the original power is -1
the new power would be 0 and division by 0 is undefined

If the power of x is multiplied by a constant then the integral is also multiplied by that constant
ax n + 1
If f (x ) = ax n then ∫ f (x ) dx =
n +1
+ c where n ∈ℚ, n ≠ − 1 and a is a constant

and c is the constant of integration

Remember the special case:

∫a dx = ax + c
e.g. ∫4 dx = 4x + c
This allows constant terms to be integrated

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How do I integrate expressions containing powers of x?

The formulae for integrating powers of x apply to all rational numbers so it is possible to integrate any Your notes
expression that is a sum or difference of powers of x
e.g. If f (x ) = 8x 3 − 2x + 4 then
8x 3 + 1 2x 1 + 1
∫ f (x ) dx =
3+1
−
1+1
+ 4x + c = 2x 4 − x 2 + 4x + c

Functions involving roots will need to be rewritten as fractional powers of x first

1
3 3 and integrate
eg. If f (x ) = 5 x then rewrite as f (x ) = 5x
Functions involving fractions with denominators in terms of x will need to be rewritten as negative
powers of x first
4
e.g. If f (x ) = + x 2 then rewrite as f (x ) = 4x −2 + x 2 and integrate
x2
Products and quotients cannot be integrated this way so would need expanding/simplifying first
e.g. If f (x ) = 8x 2 (2x − 3) then
16x 4 24x 3
∫ f (x ) dx = ∫ (16x 3 − 24x 2) dx =
4
−
3
+ c = 4x 4 − 8x 3 + c

Exam Tip
You can speed up the process of integration in the exam by committing the pattern of basic
integration to memory
In general you can think of it as 'raising the power by one and dividing by the new power'
Practice this lots before your exam so that it comes quickly and naturally when doing more
complicated integration questions

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Worked example
Your notes
Given that

dy 1
= 3x 4 − 2x 2 + 3 −
dx x
find an expression for y in terms of x .

Rewrite all terms as powers of x using the laws of indices for fractional and negative powers on the last
term.

Find y by integrating each term.

Rewrite using the same format given in the question.

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Finding the Constant of Integration

How do I find the constant of integration? Your notes
STEP 1
Rewrite the function into a more easily integrable form
Each term needs to be a power of x (or a constant)
STEP 2
Integrate each term and remember “+c”
Increase power by 1 and divide by new power
STEP 3
Substitute the coordinates of a given point in to form an equation in c
Solve the equation to find c

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Your notes

Exam Tip
If a constant of integration can be found then the question will need to give you some extra
information
If this is given then make sure you use it to find the value of c

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Worked example
Your notes
(x + 3) 2
Given f'(x ) = and f (1) = 25, find f (x ) .
x

Rewrite in a form the can be integrated more easily.

Integrate each term, remember to include a constant of integration.

Simplify.

Use f(1) =25 to find the value of c.

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Your notes

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Definite Integrals
Your notes
Definite Integration
What is definite integration?
Definite Integration occurs in an alternative version of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
This version of the Theorem is the one referred to by most textbooks/websites

a and b are called limits

a is the lower limit
b is the upper limit
f’(x) is the derivative of f(x)
The value can be positive, zero or negative

Why do I not need to include a constant of integration for definite integration?

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Your notes

“+c” would appear in both f(a) and f(b)

Since we then calculate f(b) – f(a) they cancel each other out
So “+c” is not included with definite integration

How do I find a definite integral?

STEP 1
Give the integral a name (if it does not already have one)
This saves you having to rewrite the whole integral every time!
STEP 2
If necessary rewrite the integral into a more easily integrable form
Not all functions can be integrated directly
STEP 3
Integrate without applying the limits
Notation: use square brackets [ ] with limits placed after the end bracket
STEP 4
Substitute the limits into the function and calculate the answer
Substitute the top limit first
Then substitute the bottom limit
Subtract the second value from the first

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Your notes

What are the special properties of definite integrals?

Some of these have been encountered already and some may seem obvious …
taking constant factors outside the integral

∫a ∫a
b b
k f (x ) dx = k f (x ) dx where k is a constant
useful when fractional and/or negative values involved

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integrating term by term

∫a ∫a ∫a
b b b
[f (x ) + g(x )] dx = f ( x ) dx + g(x ) dx Your notes
the above works for subtraction of terms/functions too
equal upper and lower limits

∫a f (x ) dx = 0
a

on evaluating, this would be a value subtracted from itself!

swapping limits gives the same, but negative, result

∫a ∫b f (x ) dx
b a
f ( x ) dx = −
compare 8 subtract 5 say, with 5 subtract 8 …
splitting the interval

∫a ∫a f (x ) dx + ∫c
b c b
f (x ) dx = f (x ) dx where a ≤ c ≤ b

this is particularly useful for areas under multiple curves or areas under the x -axis

Exam Tip
Look out for questions that ask you to find an indefinite integral in one part (so “+c” needed), then
in a later part use the same integral as a definite integral (where “+c” is not needed)

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Worked example
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Your notes

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Finding Areas with Integration

Your notes
Area Under a Curve
What does area under a curve mean?
The phrase “area under a curve” refers to the area bounded by …
... the x-axis
… the graph of y = f(x)
… the vertical line x = a
… the vertical line x = b

How do I find the area under a curve?

The value from definite integration is equal to the “area under a curve”

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Your notes

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Your notes

What if I am not told the limits?

If limits are not provided they will likely be the x-axis intercepts
Set y = 0 and solve the equation to find the x-axis intercepts

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Your notes

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Your notes
What happens if the graph is below the x-axis?
If the area lies underneath the x-axis the value of the integral will be negative
An area cannot be negative, so take the modulus of the integral

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Your notes

What if the area is made up of more than one section?

Be careful when one section is above and one section is below the x-axis
You will need a separate integral for each section, BUT...
...One section's integral will be negative
...One section's integral will be positive
So you’ll need to take the modulus before adding to find the total area

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Your notes

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Add information to any diagram provided in the question, as well as axes intercepts and values of
limits
Mark and shade the area you’re trying to find, and if no diagram is provided, sketch one!

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Worked example
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Finding Areas Between Lines & Curves

Your notes
Area Between a Curve & a Line
How do I find the area between a curve and a line?
The area enclosed will be the difference between …
the area under the line and
the area under the curve

These can be found separately

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Your notes

STEP 1
Find the intersections of the line and the curve (if not given)
STEP 2
Find the area under a curve, RC, using definite integration
STEP 3
Find the area under a line, RL, either using definite integration or the area formulae for basic shapes
STEP 4
To find the area, R, between the curve and the line subtract the smaller area from the larger area
If curve on top this will be RC – RL
If line on top this will be RL - RC
There may be easier ways to find the area under a line

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Your notes

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Can I subtract before integrating?

Your notes
Yes - see the next note on "Area between two curves"
Essentially you treat the line as a second curve
It can be easier to make mistakes using this method

Exam Tip
Add information to any diagram provided
Add axes intercepts, as well as intercepts between lines and curves
Mark and shade the area you’re trying to find
If no diagram is provided, sketch one!

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Worked example
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Your notes

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Area Between Two Curves

What is the area between two curves? Your notes
In general find the definite integral of “upper curve” – “lower curve”
However this does depend on …
… the area being found
… if the curves intersect (and cross over)

The area may have to be split into separate integrals

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Your notes

The points at which curves intersect may need to be calculated

How do I find the area between two curves?

STEP 1
Find the intersections of the curves if needed

STEP 2
Form the integral …
… using the intersections as limits
… “upper curve” – “lower curve” …

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… and find the value of the integral

Your notes
STEP 3
Repeat STEP 2 if more than one area needed

STEP 4
Add areas together

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Your notes

Exam Tip
If no diagram is provided sketch one, even if the curves are not accurate
Add information to any given diagram as you work through a question

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Worked example
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Integrating Trig Functions

Your notes
Integrating Trig Functions
How do I integrate sin, cos and sec^2?
The integrals for sine and cosine are

∫ sin x d x = − cos x + c
∫ cos x d x = sin x + c
where c is the constant of integration
Also, from the derivative of tan x

∫ sec 2 x d x = tan x + c
For the linear function ax + b , where a and b are constants,
1
∫ sin ( ax + b ) d x = − cos ( ax + b ) + c
a
1
∫ cos (ax + b ) d x = a sin (ax + b ) + c
1
∫ sec 2 (ax + b ) d x = a tan (ax + b ) + c
For calculus with trigonometric functions angles must be measured in radians

Exam Tip
Remember to add 'c', the constant of integration, for any indefinite integrals

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Worked example
Your notes
a) Find, in the form f (x ) + c , an expression for each integral

i. ∫cos x dx
ii. ∫sec2 ⎜3x −
⎛ π⎞
⎟ dx
⎝ 3⎠

i. This is a result you should be able to recall from memory.

ii. Use the standard result:

b) A curve has the following equation:

∫
y = 2sin ⎛⎜2x + ⎞⎟ dx
⎝
π
6⎠
⎛ π
The curve passes through the point with coordinates ⎜ , 3 ⎞⎟ .
⎝3 ⎠
Find an expression for y .

Factor out the 2 in front of the sin first, and then use the standard result:

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When multiplying the arbitrary constant , by 2, it is still just an arbitrary constant and so it is still
just written as
Your notes

Substitute in the given coordinate, and evaluate, to find

At

Rewrite the full expression for

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Integrating e^x & 1/x

Your notes
Integrating e^x & 1/x
How do I integrate exponentials and 1/x?
The integrals involving e x and ln x are
∫ ex d x = ex + c
1
∫ x
d x = ln  x  + c

where c is the constant of integration

For the linear function ( ax + b ) , where a and b are constants,

1
∫ e ax +b d x = e ax + b + c
a
1 1 
∫ ax + b dx =
a
ln  ax + b  + c

It follows from the last result that

a
∫ ax + b d x = ln  ax + b  + c

which can be deduced using Reverse Chain Rule

With ln, it can be useful to write the constant of integration, c , as a logarithm
using the laws of logarithms, the answer can be written as a single term
1
∫ x
d x = ln  x  + ln k = ln k  x  where k is a constant
This is similar to the special case of differentiating ln ( ax + b ) when b = 0

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Worked example
Your notes
3
A curve has the gradient function f '(x ) = + e4 − x .
3x + 2

Given the exact value of f (1) is ln 10 − e3 find an expression for f (x ) .

To find , we need to integrate the expression for

Rewrite as two separate integrals which can be found individually, and factor out any constants.

Use the two results:

The question states that , so substitute in and equate to the given

expression.

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Your notes
Simplify and solve to find

Recall from laws of logarithms that

Rewrite the full expression for

or by combining logs, this could be written as

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Reverse Chain Rule

Your notes
Reverse Chain Rule
What is the reverse chain rule?
The Chain Rule is a way of differentiating two (or more) functions
The Reverse Chain Rule (RCR) refers to integrating by inspection
Spotting that chain rule would be used in the reverse (differentiating) process

How do I know when to use the reverse chain rule?

The reverse chain rule is used when we have the product of a composite function and the derivative of
its second function
Integration is trickier than differentiation; many of the shortcuts do not work
1
For example, in general ∫ef(x ) dx ≠ f'(x ) ef(x )
However, this result is true if f (x ) is linear ( ax + b )
Formally, in function notation, the reverse chain rule is used for integrands of the form

∫
I = g ' (x ) f '(g (x ) ) dx
This does not have to be strictly true, but ‘algebraically’ it should be
If the coefficients do not match ‘adjust and compensate’ can be used
2 2
For example, ex differentiates to 2x ex with the chain rule

so∫2x ex dx = ex + c with the reverse chain rule

2 2

But to do ∫5x ex dx we need to:

2

Take out the five: 5 ∫x ex dx

2

5
Force a 2 inside (adjust) and divide the outside by a 2 (compensate):
2 ∫2x ex 2
dx
The bit inside the integral is now a reverse chain rule
5 x2
The answer is e +c
2
A particularly useful instance of the reverse chain rule to recognise is

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f '(x )
I= ∫ f (x ) dx = ln | f (x ) | + c
Your notes
i.e. the numerator is (almost) the derivative of the denominator
'adjust and compensate' may need to be used to deal with any coefficients
e.g.
x2 + 1 1 x2 + 1 1 3x 2 + 3 1
I= ∫ x 3 + 3x
d x =
3 ∫ 3
x 3 + 3x
dx = ∫
3 x 3 + 3x
dx =
3
ln | x 3 + 3x | + c

Exam Tip
You can always check your work by differentiating, if you have time

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Worked example
Your notes
A curve has the gradient function f '(x ) = 5x 2sin(2x 3) .

Given that the curve passes through the point (0, 1) , find an expression for f (x ) .

Write f(x) as an integral.

Take 5 out of the integral as a factor.

The main function is sin(...), which would have come from -cos(...).
Adjust and compensate the coefficients.
2x3 would differentiate to 6x2 so -cos(2x3) would differentiate to (6x2)sin(2x3)

Integrate.

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Integrating Composite Functions (ax+b)

What is a composite function? Your notes
A composite function involves one function being applied after another
A composite function may be described as a “function of a function”
This Revision Note focuses on one of the functions being linear – i.e. of the form ax + b
How do I integrate linear (ax+b) functions?
The reverse chain rule can be used for integrating functions in the form y = (ax + b)n
Make sure you are confident using the chain rule to differentiate functions in the form y = (ax + b)n
The reverse chain rule works backwards
For n = 2 you will most likely expand the brackets and integrate each term separately
If n > 2 this becomes time-consuming and if n is not a positive integer we need a different method
completely

∫
To use the reverse chain rule ( ax + b ) n dx (provided n is not -1)
Raise the power of n by 1
Divide by this new power
Divide this whole function by the coefficient of x
( ax + b ) n + 1 1
∫ ( ax + b ) n dx =
n +1
× +c
a
You can check your answer by differentiating it
You should get the original function when you differentiate your answer
Note that this method only works when the function in the brackets is linear (ax + b)
The special cases for trigonometric functions and exponential and logarithmic functions are
1
∫sin(ax + b ) dx = − a cos(ax + b ) + c
1
∫cos(ax + b ) dx = a sin(ax + b ) + c
1
∫ e ax b dx = eax b + c
+
a
+

1 1 
∫ ax + b d x =
a
ln  ax + b  + c
c , in all cases, is the constant of integration
All the above can be deduced using reverse chain rule
However, spotting them can make solutions more efficient

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Worked example
Your notes
Find the following integrals
5
a) ∫3(7 − 2x ) 3 dx

Name the integral.

Using the rule 'raise the power by one, divide by the new power and then multiply by the reciprocal of
the derivative' integrate the expression.

Simplify.

1
b) ∫ 2 cos(3x − 2) dx
Name the integral.

Using the rule , integrate the expression.

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Your notes
Simplify.

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