Unit 3 Notes: Posets and Lattices

Partially Ordered Sets (Posets)

Definition

A Partially Ordered Set (or poset) consists of a non-empty

set P and a binary relation ⪯ on P that is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive.

Reflexive: For every element a ∈ P , a ⪯ a. This means

every element is related to itself.

Antisymmetric: For any elements a, b ∈ P, if a⪯b and b ⪯ a,

then a = b. This means if two distinct elements are related

in both directions, they must be the same element.

Transitive: For any elements a, b, c ∈ P, if a⪯b and b ⪯ c,

then a ⪯ c. This means if there's a "chain" of relations, the

first element is related to the last.

Example

Let S = {1, 2, 3} and consider the "divides" relation |. The set (S,

|) is not a poset because, for example, 2 does not divide 3,

and 3 does not divide 2 (this part is fine for a partial order,
but let's use a clear example of a poset).

Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3, 6} with the "divides" relation |.

Reflexive: 1|1, 2|2, 3|3, 6|6.

 Antisymmetric: If a|b and b|a, then a=b. For example,
if x|y and y|x in A, then x must be equal to y.

Transitive: If a|b and b|c, then a|c. For example, 1|2 and 2|6,

so 1|6.

Thus, (A, |) is a poset.

Important things to remember

Not every pair of elements in a poset needs to be

comparable. If for two elements a and b, neither a ⪯ b nor b⪯

a holds, they are called incomparable.

The transitivity property is essential for defining a

partial order.

Hasse Diagrams

Definition

A Hasse diagram is a graphical representation of a finite

partially ordered set. It visualizes the structure of the poset
by drawing elements as nodes (vertices) and using line
segments or curves to show the covering relations. An
upward line from element x to element y means x is covered
by y (i.e., x ⪯ y and there is no z such that x ⪯ z ⪯ y, with x ≠
z and z ≠ y).

Rules for Drawing a Hasse Diagram

1. Each element of the poset is represented by a vertex.

2. If x ⪯ y, then the vertex for x is placed below the vertex
for y.

3. A line segment is drawn between x and y if y covers x.

4. Reflexive loops (edges from an element to itself) are

omitted because reflexivity is assumed.

5. Transitive edges (edges that can be inferred from other

paths) are omitted. For instance, if a⪯b and b ⪯ c, we draw
lines for a→b and b → c, but not directly from a→

c unless c covers a.

Example

Consider the poset ({1, 2, 3, 6}, |), where | denotes divisibility.

The Hasse diagram would be:

/\

2 3

\/

Explanation:

1 is at the bottom as it divides 2 and 3.

2 is above 1; 3 is above 1.

6 is at the top as it is divisible by 2 and 3.

 Lines connect 1 to 2, 1 to 3, 2 to 6, and 3 to 6. No line
from 1 to 6 directly, as it's implied by transitivity (1
divides 2 and 2 divides 6).

Important things to remember

Hasse diagrams uniquely represent a finite poset by

omitting redundant relations derivable from reflexivity and
transitivity.

Maximal elements are at the top of the diagram (no

outgoing upward edges).

Minimal elements are at the bottom of the diagram (no

incoming downward edges from distinct elements).

Elements in a Poset

Maximal Element

An element m in a poset (P, ⪯) is maximal if there is no other

element x ∈ P such that m ⪯ x and m ≠ x. In simpler terms, a
maximal element is one that does not have any element
strictly larger than it. A poset can have multiple maximal
elements.

Example: In the poset ({2, 4, 5, 10, 12, 20, 25}, /), the maximal
elements are 12, 20, and 25.

Minimal Element

An element m in a poset (P, ⪯) is minimal if there is no other

element x ∈ P such that x ⪯ m and x ≠ m. In simpler terms, a
minimal element is one that does not have any element
strictly smaller than it. A poset can have multiple minimal
elements.

Example: In the poset ({2, 4, 5, 10, 12, 20, 25}, /), the minimal
elements are 2 and 5.

Greatest Element

An element g in a poset (P, ⪯) is the greatest element if x ⪯

g for all x ∈ P. If a greatest element exists, it is unique and is

also the only maximal element.

Example: In ({1, 2, 3, 6}, |), 6 is the greatest element.

Least Element

An element l in a poset (P, ⪯) is the least element if l ⪯ x for

all x ∈ P. If a least element exists, it is unique and is also the
only minimal element.

Example: In ({1, 2, 3, 6}, |), 1 is the least element.

Important things to remember (Maximal, Minimal, Greatest,

Least)

A poset can have multiple maximal or minimal

elements.

If a poset has more than one maximal element, it

cannot have a greatest element. Similarly for minimal and
least elements.

Greatest/least elements are comparable to all other

elements; maximal/minimal elements are not necessarily.
Upper Bound and Lower Bound

Let (P, ⪯) be a poset and A ⊆ P.

An element u∈P is an upper bound of A if a⪯u for all a ∈ A.

An element l∈P is a lower bound of A if l⪯a for all a ∈ A.

Example: Consider the poset of divisors of 30, D30 =

{1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30} with divisibility. Let A = {2,3}.

Upper bounds of A: {6, 30}. (Since 2|6, 3|6 and 2|30, 3|30)

Lower bounds of A: {1}. (Since 1|2, 1|3)

Least Upper Bound (LUB) / Supremum (sup)

An element s∈P is the least upper bound

(LUB) or supremum of a subset A⊆P if s is an upper bound
of A, and for any other upper bound u of A, we have s ⪯ u. If it
exists, the LUB is unique.

In a lattice, the LUB of {a, b} is often denoted as a∨

b (join).

Example: For A = {2,3} in D30, the upper bounds are {6, 30}.
Since 6|30, 6 is the LUB. So, LUB({2,3}) = 6.

Greatest Lower Bound (GLB) / Infimum (inf)

An element i∈P is the greatest lower bound

(GLB) or infimum of a subset A⊆P if i is a lower bound of A,
and for any other lower bound l of A, we have l ⪯ i. If it exists,
the GLB is unique.
 In a lattice, the GLB of {a, b} is often denoted as a∧

b (meet).

Example: For A = {2,3} in D30, the lower bounds are {1}. Thus,
1 is the GLB. So, GLB({2,3}) = 1.
For A = {6,10} in D30, lower bounds are {1,2}. Since 1|2,

GLB({6,10}) = 2.

Important things to remember (LUB, GLB)

LUB and GLB do not always exist in a general poset for

every subset or even every pair of elements.

If they exist, they are unique.

Lattices

Definition

A Lattice is a partially ordered set (L, ⪯) in which every pair of

elements {a, b} ⊆ L has both a least upper bound (LUB or join,
denoted a ∨ b) and a greatest lower bound (GLB or meet,
denoted a ∧ b). This is the key distinction from a general poset.

Example

The poset ({1, 2, 3, 6}, |) is a lattice.

For {2,3}: LUB is 6 (LCM), GLB is 1 (GCD).

For {1,2}: LUB is 2, GLB is 1.

The power set of a set S, P(S), with the subset relation (⊆) is
a lattice. For any two subsets A, B ⊆ S, their LUB is A∪B and
 their GLB is A ∩ B. For example, P({a,b}) = {∅, {a}, {b},

{a,b}} with ⊆ is a lattice.

Identifying a Lattice from a Hasse Diagram

To determine if a finite poset is a lattice from its Hasse

diagram, one must check if for every pair of elements, their
LUB and GLB exist. This may involve tracing paths to find
common ancestors (upper bounds) and descendants (lower
bounds) and then identifying the least/greatest among them.
If any pair lacks either a LUB or a GLB, it's not a lattice.

Join and Meet Operations

Join (∨): a ∨ b = LUB{a, b}. It's also called supremum.

Meet (∧): a ∧ b = GLB{a, b}. It's also called infimum.

How Join and Meet Relate to Partial Order

The join and meet operations are defined in terms of the

partial order.

a⪯b is equivalent to a ∨ b = b.

a⪯b is equivalent to a ∧ b = a.

Properties of Lattices

For any elements a, b, c in a lattice L:

1. Idempotent Laws:

o a∨a=a
o a∧a=a
 Proof (for a ∨ a = a): a ∨ a = LUB(a, a). The set of upper bounds
for {a, a} is simply the set of upper bounds for a, which
are all elements x such that a ⪯ x. The least among these
is a itself. Hence, a ∨ a = a. Similarly for a ∧ a = a.

2. Commutative Laws:

o a∨b=b∨a
o a∧b=b∧a

Proof (for a ∨ b = b ∨ a): a ∨ b = LUB(a, b). The set {a, b} is the

same as {b, a}. Therefore, LUB(a, b) = LUB(b, a), which means a∨

b = b ∨ a. Similarly for meet.

3. Associative Laws:

o a ∨ (b ∨ c) = (a ∨ b) ∨ c
o a ∧ (b ∧ c) = (a ∧ b) ∧ c

Proof (sketch for a ∨ (b ∨ c) = (a ∨ b) ∨ c): Both sides represent

the LUB of the set {a, b, c}. The LUB of a set of three
elements is unique, regardless of the order in which
pairs are taken.

4. Absorption Laws:

o a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a
o a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a

Proof (for a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a): We know a∧b⪯a by definition of

GLB. Since a⪯a and a ∧ b ⪯ a, a is an upper bound for {a, a ∧

b}. Also, any upper bound u for {a, a ∧ b} must satisfy a ⪯ u.

Therefore, a is the LUB of {a, a ∧ b}. Hence, a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a.

Important things to remember (Lattices)

 Every finite lattice has a greatest element (often
denoted by 1 or ⊤) and a least element (often denoted by 0
or ⊥). The greatest element is the join of all elements, and
the least element is the meet of all elements.

Not every poset is a lattice. A common counterexample

is a Hasse diagram where two elements have common
upper bounds, but no *least* common upper bound.

Types of Lattices

Bounded Lattice

A lattice L is bounded if it has both a greatest element

(denoted by 1 or ⊤, also called the universal upper bound) and
a least element (denoted by 0 or ⊥, also called the universal
lower bound).

For any a ∈ L: 0 ⪯ a ⪯ 1.

Also, a ∨ 0 = a, a ∧ 1 = a, a ∨ 1 = 1, a ∧ 0 = 0.

Example: The power set lattice (P(S), ⊆) is bounded. The least

element is ∅ and the greatest element is S itself. The
lattice of divisors of an integer n, Dn, under divisibility is
bounded, with 1 as the least element and n as the greatest
element.

Distributive Lattice

A lattice (L, ∨, ∧) is distributive if for all a, b, c ∈ L, the following

distributive laws hold:

1. a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)
2. a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)

It can be shown that one law implies the other in a lattice.

Example: Any chain (totally ordered set) is a distributive

lattice. The power set lattice (P(S), ⊆) is distributive,
where ∨ is union and ∧ is intersection.
The lattice D30 = {1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30} under divisibility is
distributive. For instance, let a=2, b=3, c=5.
2 ∧ (3 ∨ 5) = 2 ∧ LUB(3,5) = 2 ∧ 15 = GLB(2,15) = 1.

(2 ∧ 3) ∨ (2 ∧ 5) = GLB(2,3) ∨ GLB(2,5) = 1 ∨ 1 = 1.

So, 2 ∧ (3 ∨ 5) = (2 ∧ 3) ∨ (2 ∧ 5). This needs to hold for all

combinations.
A lattice with 5 elements forming a pentagon shape (often
called N5) is a classic example of a non-distributive lattice.
Another non-distributive lattice is the "diamond" lattice
(often M3).

Complemented Lattice

A complemented lattice is a bounded lattice (L, ∨, ∧, 0, 1) in

which every element a∈L has at least one complement a'. An
element a' is a complement of a if:

a ∨ a' = 1 (the greatest element)

a ∧ a' = 0 (the least element)

Example: The power set lattice (P(S), ⊆) is complemented.

For any subset A ⊆ S, its complement is S∖A (the set
difference).
∅' = S, S' = ∅.

Consider D30. Let 0=1, 1=30.

 For element 2: we need 2' such that 2 ∨ 2' = 30 and 2 ∧ 2' = 1.

2 ∨ 15 = LUB(2,15) = 30.

2 ∧ 15 = GLB(2,15) = 1. So, 2' = 15.

Similarly, 3' = 10, 5' = 6.

The lattice D30 is complemented.

Important things to remember (Types of Lattices)

Every complemented lattice must be bounded (by

definition).

A distributive lattice is one where the join and meet

operations distribute over each other.

The existence of complements does not guarantee

distributivity. If a distributive lattice is complemented, then
every element has a unique complement (making it a
Boolean algebra).

Practice Questions

1. Partially Ordered Sets & Hasse Diagrams

1. Define a partially ordered set, ensuring you list all

three defining properties.

2. Consider the set and the relation R = {(a,a), (b,b),

(c,c), (d,d), (a,b), (a,c), (b,d), (c,d)}. Is (X, R) a poset? If so, draw its
X = {a, b, c, d}

Hasse diagram.

3. In the Hasse diagram from part (b), identify all minimal,

maximal, greatest, and least elements, if they exist.
2. Lattices

1. What additional property must a poset satisfy to be

classified as a lattice? Explain this in terms of LUB and
GLB.

2. Consider the poset ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, |) (divisibility). Is this a

lattice? Justify your answer by checking a pair of elements
that might not have a LUB or GLB (e.g., {4, 6} or {3, 5}).

3. Draw the Hasse diagram for the power set of S = {x,

y}, P(S), under the subset relation ⊆. Explain why it is a

lattice by identifying the join and meet for any two

elements.

3. Properties and Types of Lattices

1. State the Absorption Laws for lattices. Prove one of

them (e.g., a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a).

2. Define a bounded lattice and provide an example

different from the power set lattice.

3. Consider the lattice of divisors of 12, D12 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6,

12} under divisibility.

1. Is D12 bounded? If so, what are its bounds?

2. Is D12 distributive? Briefly justify. (Hint: Check a

triplet like a=2, b=3, c=4).

3. Is D12 complemented? Find the complement of each

element, if it exists.

4. Advanced Concepts
1. Can a poset have three maximal elements and two
minimal elements? Can such a poset have a greatest
element? Explain.

2. Give an example of a poset that is not a lattice. Draw its

Hasse diagram and explain which pair(s) of elements lack a
LUB or GLB.

3. Consider the set of integers with the usual less than

or equal to relation ≤.
ℤ

1. Is (ℤ, ≤) a poset?

2. Is it a lattice? If so, what are the join and meet

operations?

3. Is it bounded?