Unit 1

1. what is asymptotic notation explain its diffrence types.? 8 marks

What is Asymptotic Notation?

Asymptotic notation describes the efficiency of an algorithm in terms of time or space as

the input size (n) grows large. It helps compare algorithms without getting bogged down by
hardware or exact execution times.

1. Big O Notation (O) – Worst Case

• Describes the maximum time or space an algorithm may need.

• It gives an upper bound.
• Used to guarantee performance won’t be worse than this.
• Example: A linear search in the worst case → O(n)

2. Omega Notation (Ω) – Best Case

• Describes the minimum time or space an algorithm will take.

• It gives a lower bound.
• Shows the best possible performance.
• Example: A linear search finds the item at the first position → Ω(1)

3. Theta Notation (Θ) – Exact/Average Case

• Describes a tight bound (both upper and lower).

• Used when the algorithm always performs similarly.
• Shows average or expected behavior.
• Example: A loop that runs n times → Θ(n)

2. state the master theorem in detail with example.? 8marks

📘 Master Theorem (Simple Explanation):

• Used to find time complexity of recursive problems.

• Works for problems that divide into equal parts (like Merge Sort).
• Applies to recurrence relations of this form:

T(n)=a⋅T(n/b)+f(n)T(n) = a \cdot T(n/b) + f(n)T(n)=a⋅T(n/b)+f(n)

Where:

o a ≥ 1 = number of subproblems
o b > 1 = size of each subproblem
o f(n) = work done outside recursion (e.g., merging)

📊 Three Cases:

1. Case 1:
If f(n)=O(nlog⁡ba−ϵ)f(n) = O(n^{\log_b a - \epsilon})f(n)=O(nlogb a−ϵ),
→ Then T(n)=Θ(nlog⁡ba)T(n) = \Theta(n^{\log_b a})T(n)=Θ(nlogb a)
2. Case 2:
If f(n)=Θ(nlog⁡ba)f(n) = \Theta(n^{\log_b a})f(n)=Θ(nlogb a),
→ Then T(n)=Θ(nlog⁡ba⋅log⁡n)T(n) = \Theta(n^{\log_b a} \cdot \log
n)T(n)=Θ(nlogb a⋅logn)
3. Case 3:
If f(n)=Ω(nlog⁡ba+ϵ)f(n) = \Omega(n^{\log_b a + \epsilon})f(n)=Ω(nlogb a+ϵ)
and regularity holds,
→ Then T(n)=Θ(f(n))T(n) = \Theta(f(n))T(n)=Θ(f(n))

🧪 Example:

T(n)=2T(n/2)+nT(n) = 2T(n/2) + nT(n)=2T(n/2)+n

• a = 2, b = 2 ⇒ nlog⁡22=nn^{\log_2 2} = nnlog2 2=n

• f(n) = n ⇒ Case 2
Final Answer: T(n) = Θ(n log n)
3.explain the substitution method with example.? 8marks

Substitution Method – What is it?

• A technique to solve recurrence relations (used to find algorithm time complexity).

• Works by guessing the solution and then proving it by mathematical induction.
• Helps confirm if your guess is correct or needs adjustment.

Steps of the Substitution Method:

1. Guess the form of the solution (based on experience or intuition).

2. Use mathematical induction to prove the guess:
a. Substitute the guess into the original recurrence.
b. Show the guess works for the base case.
c. Show it holds for nnn assuming it holds for smaller values.
3. Adjust the guess if the proof fails.

Example:

Solve:

T(n)=2T(n/2)+nT(n) = 2T(n/2) + nT(n)=2T(n/2)+n

Step 1: Guess
Guess: T(n)=O(nlog⁡n)T(n) = O(n \log n)T(n)=O(nlogn)

Step 2: Prove by induction

• Assume T(k)≤c⋅klog⁡kT(k) \leq c \cdot k \log kT(k)≤c⋅klogk for all k<nk < nk<n.
• Substitute into recurrence:

T(n)≤2⋅c⋅n2log⁡n2+n=cnlog⁡n2+nT(n) \leq 2 \cdot c \cdot \frac{n}{2} \log \frac{n}{2}

+ n = c n \log \frac{n}{2} + nT(n)≤2⋅c⋅2n log2n +n=cnlog2n +n

• Simplify:
=cn(log⁡n−1)+n=cnlog⁡n−cn+n= c n (\log n - 1) + n = c n \log n - c n +
n=cn(logn−1)+n=cnlogn−cn+n

• For large nnn, cnlog⁡nc n \log ncnlogn dominates; so T(n)=O(nlog⁡n)T(n) = O(n

\log n)T(n)=O(nlogn) holds.

3. what do you mean by time complexity of an algorithm.? 8marks

What is Time Complexity of an Algorithm?

• Time complexity measures how the time taken by an algorithm grows as the input
size increases.
• It tells us how efficient or slow an algorithm is.

Key Points:

1. Depends on Input Size (n):

Time complexity shows how the running time changes when input size nnn grows.
2. Measures Growth Rate:
It focuses on the pattern of growth, not exact time in seconds.
3. Worst-Case Focus:
Usually, we analyze the worst-case scenario to be safe.
4. Ignores Constants and Low-Order Terms:
For simplicity, constants and smaller terms are ignored in Big O notation.
5. Expressed Using Big O Notation:
Common notations include:
a. O(1)O(1)O(1): Constant time
b. O(log⁡n)O(\log n)O(logn): Logarithmic time
c. O(n)O(n)O(n): Linear time
d. O(n2)O(n^2)O(n2): Quadratic time
6. Helps Compare Algorithms:
It helps us decide which algorithm is faster or more scalable.
Example:

• A loop running once for each element has time complexity O(n)O(n)O(n).
• Nested loops running through all pairs have O(n2)O(n^2)O(n2).

Understanding time complexity helps write faster and more efficient programs.

4.what do you mean by sorting explain heap short with an algorithm in detail? 8marks

What is Sorting?

• Sorting means arranging data in a specific order, usually ascending or descending.

• It helps in faster searching, easier data analysis, and better organization.
• Examples: arranging numbers from smallest to largest.

What is Heap Sort?

• Heap Sort is a comparison-based sorting algorithm.

• It uses a data structure called a heap (usually a max-heap) to sort elements.
• Efficient with time complexity O(n log n) and uses constant extra space.

Heap Sort Algorithm (Step-wise):

1. Build a Max-Heap from the input array:

a. Arrange elements so the largest is at the root.
2. Extract the maximum element (root) and swap it with the last element of the heap.
3. Reduce the heap size by 1 (ignore the last sorted element).
4. Heapify the root to restore the max-heap property.
5. Repeat steps 2-4 until the heap size is 1.
5. write an algorithm for selection sort and find its asymptotic notation? 8marks

Selection Sort Algorithm:

1. Start with the first element of the array.

2. Find the smallest element in the unsorted part of the array.
3. Swap this smallest element with the first element.
4. Move to the next element and repeat steps 2-3 for the remaining unsorted part.
5. Continue until the whole array is sorted.

Step-by-step Example:

• For array: [5, 3, 8, 4]

o Find smallest in [5, 3, 8, 4] → 3, swap with 5 → [3, 5, 8, 4]
o Find smallest in [5, 8, 4] → 4, swap with 5 → [3, 4, 8, 5]
o Find smallest in [8, 5] → 5, swap with 8 → [3, 4, 5, 8]
o Sorted array: [3, 4, 5, 8]

Time Complexity (Asymptotic Notation):

• The algorithm uses two nested loops.

• For every element, it searches the smallest element in the remaining array.
• Number of comparisons = n(n−1)2\frac{n(n-1)}{2}2n(n−1) ≈ O(n²).
• No matter the input (best, average, worst cases), time complexity remains O(n²).
• Space complexity is O(1) because it sorts in place without extra space.

Selection Sort is simple but inefficient for large data due to its quadratic time.
5. what is recursion tree using recursion tree find the asymptotic bound for the
equation? 8 marks

What is a Recursion Tree?

• A recursion tree is a way to visualize recursive function calls.

• It breaks down the recurrence into a tree structure.
• Each node represents the cost of a recursive call.
• Helps sum up total work done at all levels.

How to Use Recursion Tree to Find Asymptotic Bound:

1. Write the recurrence, e.g.:

T(n)=2T(n/2)+nT(n) = 2T(n/2) + nT(n)=2T(n/2)+n

2. Draw the tree:

a. Root node = work done at the top level = nnn
b. Next level has 2 calls each costing T(n/2)T(n/2)T(n/2), each doing
n/2n/2n/2 work → total 2×(n/2)=n2 \times (n/2) = n2×(n/2)=n
c. Next level has 4 calls costing T(n/4)T(n/4)T(n/4), total work = 4×(n/4)=n4
\times (n/4) = n4×(n/4)=n
3. Sum the work at all levels:
a. Level 0: nnn
b. Level 1: nnn
c. Level 2: nnn
d. …
e. Total levels = log⁡2n\log_2 nlog2 n
4. Total work = n×log⁡nn \times \log nn×logn
5. Result:

T(n)=O(nlog⁡n)T(n) = O(n \log n)T(n)=O(nlogn)

Summary:

• Recursion tree shows cost per level.

 • Summing costs gives total time.
• Useful to solve divide-and-conquer recurrences easily.

6. what do you mean by an algorithm write the charecterstics of the algorithm in brief?
4marks

An algorithm is a step-by-step set of instructions to solve a problem or perform a task. It

takes input, processes it, and gives the correct output.

✨ Characteristics of a Good Algorithm:

1. Input: Takes one or more inputs.

2. Output: Produces at least one output.
3. Clear Steps: Each step is clear and unambiguous.
4. Finiteness: It ends after a limited number of steps.
5. Effectiveness: All steps are simple and doable.
6. Generality: Works for all valid inputs of a problem.

Unit 2

1. write diffrence between kruskal & prims algorithm? 4 marks

🔍 Kruskal's Algorithm vs Prim's Algorithm

1. Type:
a. Kruskal: Greedy algorithm based on edges.
b. Prim: Greedy algorithm based on vertices.
2. Starting Point:
a. Kruskal: Starts with sorted edges, no starting vertex.
b. Prim: Starts from a specific vertex.
 3. Approach:
a. Kruskal: Adds the smallest edge that doesn't form a cycle.
b. Prim: Adds the nearest vertex to the growing tree.
4. Cycle Detection:
a. Kruskal: Uses disjoint sets (Union-Find).
b. Prim: No special cycle detection needed.
5. Best For:
a. Kruskal: Sparse graphs.
b. Prim: Dense graphs.

2. what is detailed diffrence between quick sort and merge sort? 8 marks

🔄 Quick Sort vs Merge Sort

1. Basic Idea
a. Quick Sort: Uses a pivot to divide the array into parts (smaller and larger).
b. Merge Sort: Divides the array into halves, then merges sorted halves.
2. Approach
a. Quick Sort: Divide-and-conquer, works in-place.
b. Merge Sort: Divide-and-conquer, uses extra space for merging.
3. Time Complexity
a. Quick Sort:
i. Best/Average: O(n log n)
ii. Worst: O(n²) (bad pivot choice)
b. Merge Sort:
i. Always: O(n log n)
4. Space Complexity
a. Quick Sort: O(log n) (for recursion)
b. Merge Sort: O(n) (needs extra array)
5. Stability
a. Quick Sort: Not stable by default
b. Merge Sort: Stable
6. Use Cases
a. Quick Sort: Faster in practice for large datasets.
b. Merge Sort: Better when stable sort or linked lists are needed.
3. what is minimum spanning tree in 2000 words point wise? 8 marks

What is a Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)?

1. Definition:
A Minimum Spanning Tree is a subgraph of a connected, undirected, weighted
graph that connects all vertices with the minimum possible total edge weight and
no cycles.
2. Spanning Tree:
A spanning tree includes all the vertices and has exactly V - 1 edges (V = number of
vertices).
3. Minimum:
Among all possible spanning trees, MST has the least total weight.
4. Cycle-Free:
MST never contains cycles (loops).
5. Unique MST:
If all edge weights are different, the MST is unique.

📘 Example Use Cases:

6. Network Design:
Used in designing least-cost networks (e.g., internet, roads, electrical grids).
7. Clustering in AI:
Helps in grouping data points in machine learning.

🔧 Algorithms to Find MST:

8. Kruskal’s Algorithm:
Sorts edges by weight and picks the smallest non-cycling edges.
9. Prim’s Algorithm:
Starts from a node and grows the tree by adding the smallest connecting edge.
4. what is divide and conquer strategy ?4marks

Divide and Conquer is a powerful problem-solving strategy used in computer science. It

works by dividing a problem into smaller subproblems, solving each subproblem
independently, and then combining their solutions to solve the original problem.

🔁 Three Main Steps:

1. Divide – Break the problem into smaller parts (usually of the same type).
2. Conquer – Solve each subproblem recursively.
3. Combine – Merge the results of subproblems to get the final answer.

✅ Examples:

• Merge Sort
• Quick Sort
• Binary Search
• Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication

5. explain knapsack problemwith example ? 8marks

🎒 Knapsack Problem – Explained Simply (Under 200 Words)

The Knapsack Problem is a famous problem in computer science and mathematics. It

helps in making the best choice of items to carry in a bag with limited capacity, aiming to
get the maximum total value.
🧠 Problem Statement:

You are given:

• A knapsack with a weight limit (e.g., 10 kg).

• A list of items, each with:
o A weight
o A value

Your goal is to select items so the total weight is within the limit, and the total value is as
high as possible.

✅ Example:

Knapsack capacity = 10 kg
Items:

• Item A: 6 kg, ₹60

• Item B: 3 kg, ₹50
• Item C: 4 kg, ₹70

Best combination: Item B + Item C

• Total weight = 7 kg
• Total value = ₹120

📚 Types:

• 0/1 Knapsack: Take the whole item or leave it. (Solved with Dynamic
Programming)
• Fractional Knapsack: Take part of an item. (Solved with Greedy Algorithm)

The Knapsack Problem is used in budgeting, resource allocation, and load balancing.
6. find the optimal solution for the fractional knapsack problem by making ues of the
greedy approach? 8marks

🎯 Fractional Knapsack Problem – Optimal Solution Using Greedy

Approach (In 200 Words)

The Fractional Knapsack Problem allows taking fractions of items to maximize value
within a weight limit. The Greedy approach is ideal here and guarantees an optimal
solution.

✅ Steps (Greedy Strategy):

1. Calculate value/weight ratio for each item.

2. Sort items in descending order of this ratio.
3. Pick items greedily:
a. Take the full item if it fits.
b. If not, take the fraction that fits.

🧮 Example:

Knapsack capacity = 50 kg
Items:

Value/Weigh
Item Weight Value
t
A 10 60 6.0
B 20 100 5.0
C 30 120 4.0

Step 1: Sort by value/weight → A, B, C

Step 2:

• Take all of A (10 kg, ₹60)

• Take all of B (20 kg, ₹100)
 • Only 20 kg left → take 2/3 of C → ₹80

🏁 Final Answer:

• Total weight used = 50 kg

• Total value = ₹60 + ₹100 + ₹80 = ₹240

7. what is greedy approuch describe in brief? 8 marks

🟢 Greedy Approach – Brief Description (200 Words, Point-wise)

1. Definition:
The Greedy Approach is a problem-solving technique that makes the best choice
at each step to find an overall optimal solution.
2. Key Idea:
It builds a solution piece by piece, always picking the locally optimal choice
without worrying about future consequences.
3. How It Works:
a. Start with an empty solution.
b. At each step, choose the option that looks best right now.
c. Repeat until the problem is solved or no more choices remain.
4. When to Use:
Works well for problems where local optimum choices lead to global optimum,
like in:
a. Fractional Knapsack
b. Activity Selection
c. Huffman Coding
d. Prim’s and Kruskal’s MST algorithms
5. Advantages:
a. Simple and intuitive
b. Usually fast and efficient
c. Easy to implement
6. Disadvantages:
 a. Doesn’t always guarantee the optimal solution (not suitable for every
problem)
b. Can get stuck in local optima without reaching the best global solution
7. Example:
In the Fractional Knapsack problem, the greedy method picks items with the
highest value-to-weight ratio first to maximize total value.

Unit 3

1. explain boyer moore algorithm with an example ? 8marks

🔍 Boyer-Moore Algorithm: Key Points

1. Purpose:
Finds the position of a pattern P in a text T. Very efficient for large texts and long
patterns.
2. Main Idea:
Compares pattern characters from right to left. On a mismatch, uses two
heuristics to skip ahead intelligently.
3. Heuristics Used:
a. Bad Character Heuristic: On mismatch, shifts pattern so that mismatched
character in text aligns with its last occurrence in the pattern (or skips
entirely if not found).
b. Good Suffix Heuristic: If suffix matched before a mismatch, aligns next
occurrence of the suffix in pattern or skips if none.
4. Preprocessing Time:
O(m + σ) where m is pattern length, σ is alphabet size.
5. Search Time:
Best case O(n/m), worst case O(n + m), where n is text length.
📌 Example

Text = "HERE IS A SIMPLE EXAMPLE"

Pattern = "EXAMPLE"

• Start matching from end of "EXAMPLE" with text.

• On mismatch, use bad character rule to skip more than one character.
• Result: Finds "EXAMPLE" at position 17 efficiently.

Advantage: Skips sections of text, reducing comparisons compared to brute-force.

2. explain boyer moore algorithm in detail ? 8 marks

The Boyer-Moore algorithm is an efficient string-searching method that finds a pattern

within a larger text. It works best with long patterns and large alphabets, often
outperforming other algorithms by skipping large parts of the text.

The algorithm compares the pattern to the text from right to left. On a mismatch, it uses
two preprocessed rules to decide how far to shift the pattern:

1. Bad Character Rule: If a mismatch occurs, the pattern is shifted so that the
mismatched text character aligns with its last occurrence in the pattern. If the
character doesn't exist in the pattern, the pattern is shifted past it entirely.
2. Good Suffix Rule: If part of the pattern matches the text before a mismatch, the
pattern shifts to align the matched suffix with its next occurrence in the pattern. If
the suffix doesn't appear elsewhere, it shifts to align a prefix that matches the suffix.

The preprocessing step builds tables for both rules in O(m + σ) time (m = pattern length, σ
= alphabet size). The search itself takes O(n) time in the worst case but is often faster in
practice.

Boyer-Moore is widely used in tools like text editors and search functions for its speed and
efficiency.
3.Classify the steps used for development of dynamic programming ? 8 marks

🔄 Steps for Developing a Dynamic Programming Solution

1. Characterize the Structure of the Optimal Solution

a. Understand the problem’s recursive nature.
b. Identify how a solution can be built from subproblem solutions.
2. Define the Subproblems
a. Break the problem into smaller overlapping subproblems.
b. Clearly state what each subproblem represents (e.g., dp[i] = min cost
to reach step i).
3. Write the Recurrence Relation
a. Express the solution to a problem in terms of its subproblems.
b. Example: dp[i] = min(dp[i-1], dp[i-2]) + cost[i].
4. Choose a Top-Down (Memoization) or Bottom-Up (Tabulation) Approach
a. Top-Down: Use recursion + caching.
b. Bottom-Up: Fill a table iteratively from smallest subproblems.
5. Initialize Base Cases
a. Set known solutions to smallest subproblems (e.g., dp[0] = 0).
6. Compute the Final Solution
a. Use the recurrence and base cases to build up to the full solution.
7. (Optional) Reconstruct the Solution
a. Trace back through the table to recover the actual path/choices made.

4.what do you mean by dynamic programming explain in brief? 8 marks

Dynamic Programming (DP): Explained Briefly

1. Definition:
Dynamic Programming is a technique for solving problems by breaking them down
into simpler subproblems and storing their solutions to avoid redundant work.
2. Key Features:
a. Overlapping Subproblems: The problem can be broken into subproblems
which repeat.
 b. Optimal Substructure: The optimal solution of the main problem depends
on optimal solutions of its subproblems.
3. Approaches:
a. Top-Down (Memoization): Use recursion and cache results of subproblems.
b. Bottom-Up (Tabulation): Build a table iteratively from smallest
subproblems.
4. Steps to Develop a DP Solution:
a. Identify subproblems.
b. Define a recurrence relation.
c. Initialize base cases.
d. Fill the DP table using the relation.
5. Advantages:
a. Avoids redundant calculations.
b. Reduces time complexity from exponential to polynomial in many cases.
6. Common Applications:
a. Fibonacci sequence, Knapsack problem, Longest Common Subsequence,
Matrix Chain Multiplication.

DP is widely used for problems in optimization, resource allocation, and sequence

analysis where brute-force solutions are inefficient.

5. write the steps of dynamic programming ? 8 marks

✅ Steps to Solve a Problem Using Dynamic Programming

1. Identify if DP is Applicable
Check for optimal substructure (solution to the problem can be built from
solutions to subproblems) and overlapping subproblems (same subproblems are
solved multiple times).
2. Define the Subproblem
Break the problem into smaller, manageable subproblems. Clearly state what each
subproblem represents in the context of the overall problem.
3. Formulate the Recurrence Relation
Establish a formula or rule (recurrence) that expresses the solution of a larger
subproblem using solutions to smaller ones.
 4. Choose a DP Approach
a. Top-down (Memoization): Solve recursively and store the results of
subproblems to avoid recomputation.
b. Bottom-up (Tabulation): Solve subproblems iteratively and build up the final
solution using a table.
5. Initialize Base Cases
Provide starting values for the smallest subproblems. These serve as the
foundation for solving larger subproblems.
6. Compute and Store Results
Use the recurrence relation and base cases to fill the DP table or cache. Solve each
subproblem only once.
7. Reconstruct the Solution (if needed)
Backtrack through the DP table to find the choices or path that led to the optimal
solution.

6. short note
1) longest commen subsequence problome
2) matrix chain multiplucation

📌 Shortest Note on Longest Common Subsequence (LCS) – 150 Words

The Longest Common Subsequence (LCS) problem is a classic dynamic programming

problem. It aims to find the longest sequence of characters that appears in the same
order (not necessarily contiguously) in both given strings.

🔍 Example:

For strings "ABCBDAB" and "BDCAB", the LCS is "BCAB" (length 4).

✅ Key Characteristics:

• Substructure: If last characters match, LCS includes it; else, exclude one
character and take max LCS of resulting pairs.
• Overlapping Subproblems: Same subproblems (substrings) are solved multiple
times.
📐 DP Formula:

Let dp[i][j] be the LCS length of first i characters of X and first j of Y.

• If X[i-1] == Y[j-1]:
dp[i][j] = 1 + dp[i-1][j-1]
• Else:
dp[i][j] = max(dp[i-1][j], dp[i][j-1])

⏱ Time Complexity:

O(m × n) where m and n are string lengths.

LCS is widely used in diff tools, DNA sequence analysis, and version control systems.

📌 Matrix Chain Multiplication – Short Notes

• Problem:
Given a sequence of matrices A1,A2,...,AnA_1, A_2, ..., A_n A1 ,A2 ,...,An , find the
most efficient way to multiply them by fully parenthesizing the product to minimize
the total number of scalar multiplications.
• Key Point:
Matrix multiplication is associative, but the order of multiplication affects
computation cost.
• Goal:
Determine the optimal parenthesization to minimize computation, not to perform
the multiplication itself.
• Dynamic Programming Approach:
o Define dp[i][j] as the minimum number of multiplications needed to
multiply matrices from AiA_iAi to AjA_jAj .
o Recurrence:

dp[i][j]=min⁡i≤k<j{dp[i][k]+dp[k+1][j]+pi−1×pk×pj}dp[i][j] = \min_{i \leq k < j}

\{ dp[i][k] + dp[k+1][j] + p_{i-1} \times p_k \times p_j \}dp[i][j]=i≤k<jmin
{dp[i][k]+dp[k+1][j]+pi−1 ×pk ×pj }

where ppp is the array of matrix dimensions.

 • Algorithm Steps:
o Initialize dp[i][i]=0dp[i][i] = 0dp[i][i]=0 for all iii.
o Solve for chains of length 2 to nnn.
o Compute minimum cost for each subchain using the recurrence.
• Time Complexity:
O(n3)O(n^3)O(n3)
• Use Cases:
Optimizing computations in graphics, scientific computing, and database query
optimization.

7. discuses the basic divide & conquer for matrix multiplucation? 8marks

🔷 Divide and Conquer for Matrix Multiplication

1. Problem: Multiply two square matrices A and B, each of size n × n.

2. Basic Idea:
Instead of the straightforward O(n^3) multiplication, use divide and conquer to
split matrices into smaller blocks and recursively multiply them.
3. Step 1 – Divide:
Partition matrices A and B into four n/2 × n/2 submatrices:

makefile
CopyEdit
A = | A11 A12 | , B = | B11 B12 |
| A21 A22 | | B21 B22 |

4. Step 2 – Conquer:
Compute the sub-blocks of the result matrix C recursively using these formulas:

ini
CopyEdit
C11 = A11×B11 + A12×B21
C12 = A11×B12 + A12×B22
C21 = A21×B11 + A22×B21
C22 = A21×B12 + A22×B22

5. Step 3 – Combine:
Combine the four submatrices C11, C12, C21, C22 to get the full result matrix C.
6. Time Complexity:
Recurrence: T(n) = 8T(n/2) + O(n^2)
Solving gives T(n) = O(n^3), same as naive multiplication.
7. Significance:
Forms the foundation for faster algorithms like Strassen’s Algorithm, which
reduces the number of recursive multiplications.

Knuth-Morris-Pratt (KMP) Algorithm

Purpose:
KMP efficiently finds occurrences of a pattern P in a text T by avoiding unnecessary re-
comparisons after a mismatch.

Key Idea:

• Preprocess the pattern to create a Longest Prefix Suffix (LPS) array.

• LPS array stores the length of the longest proper prefix of the pattern which is also a
suffix for every prefix.
• This helps determine where to resume matching after a mismatch without re-
examining matched characters.

Steps:

1. Build LPS Array for pattern P.

2. Search:
Compare P and T characters from left to right.
 3. On mismatch, use LPS to shift the pattern intelligently, skipping characters already
matched.

Example:

• Text: "ABABDABACDABABCABAB"
• Pattern: "ABABCABAB"

LPS array for pattern: [0, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

When mismatch occurs after matching part of the pattern, the algorithm uses the LPS
array to slide the pattern over without rechecking characters.

Complexity:

• Preprocessing LPS: O(m)

• Searching: O(n)

KMP runs in linear time, making it efficient for large texts.

In detail

Knuth-Morris-Pratt (KMP) Algorithm

Objective:
Efficiently find occurrences of a pattern P in a text T by minimizing redundant
comparisons.
How KMP Works

1. Preprocessing – LPS Array (Longest Prefix Suffix):

a. For each prefix of the pattern, compute the length of the longest prefix that is
also a suffix (excluding the whole prefix).
b. This array helps to know how many characters can be skipped when a
mismatch happens.
2. Searching Process:
a. Start comparing P and T from the left.
b. When characters match, move forward in both P and T.
c. On mismatch, instead of restarting comparison from the beginning of P, use
the LPS array to slide the pattern to the right, skipping already matched
characters.

Example

• Text T: "ABABDABACDABABCABAB"
• Pattern P: "ABABCABAB"

LPS array for pattern:

Index: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pattern: A B A B C A B A B
LPS: 0 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 4

During search, after some matches, if a mismatch occurs at P[4] vs T[...], use LPS to
shift pattern by 2 instead of 4, reducing comparisons.

Time Complexity

• LPS preprocessing: O(m)

• Searching: O(n)
Overall: O(n + m), linear time.
Significance

KMP avoids backtracking in the text, making it faster than naive search for large inputs.

Unit 4

1. What is the meaning of backtracking in the field of algorithm ?4 MARKS

🔙 Backtracking in Algorithms

1. Definition:
Backtracking is a systematic method for solving problems by trying out partial
solutions and abandoning them if they fail to satisfy the problem constraints.
2. Key Idea:
Build solutions incrementally, one piece at a time, and backtrack (undo) steps
when the current path leads to no solution.
3. Approach:
a. Explore all possible options (search space).
b. When a choice violates the constraints, backtrack to the previous step and
try a different option.
4. Problem Types:
Suitable for problems involving combinatorial search, such as puzzles,
permutations, combinations, graph coloring, and constraint satisfaction problems.
5. Algorithmic Structure:
a. Recursive function that tries options.
b. If an option is invalid, undo (backtrack) and try the next one.
6. Advantages:
a. Simple to implement.
b. Finds all solutions if they exist.
c. Prunes the search space by eliminating invalid paths early.
7. Limitations:
a. Can be slow (exponential time) if the search space is large.
 b. Often improved with heuristics or pruning techniques (like branch and
bound).

Backtracking is a fundamental technique for solving constraint-based problems by

exploring possible candidates and abandoning those that fail early.

2. solve the 8 queen problem using backtracking method? 8 marks

8-Queens Problem Using Backtracking

The 8-Queens problem involves placing 8 queens on an 8×8 chessboard so that no two
queens threaten each other — meaning no two queens share the same row, column, or
diagonal.

Backtracking is a systematic approach that tries to build a solution incrementally and

abandons a path as soon as it detects a conflict.

Step-by-step process:

1. Place queens column-wise: Start from the leftmost column and place a queen in
the first safe row.
2. Check safety: For each attempted position (row, col), ensure:
a. No other queen is in the same row.
b. No other queen is on the upper-left diagonal.
c. No other queen is on the lower-left diagonal.
3. Recursive placement: If a safe position is found, place the queen and recursively
try to place the next queen in the next column.
4. Backtrack: If no safe position is found in the current column, backtrack to the
previous column and move the queen to the next possible safe row.
5. Continue this process until all 8 queens are placed safely.
6. Result: Once all queens are placed, record or print the solution.

Backtracking efficiently explores all possible configurations, pruning invalid placements

early, to find all solutions to the 8-Queens problem.
3. discuss the 8 queen problem with a suitable exmple?8marks

8-Queens Problem

The 8-Queens problem is a classic puzzle in computer science and combinatorial

optimization. The goal is to place 8 queens on an 8×8 chessboard so that no two queens
attack each other. This means no two queens can share the same row, column, or
diagonal.

Problem Explanation:

• Each queen can attack any piece in the same row, column, or diagonal.
• The challenge is to place all 8 queens so none threaten each other.

Approach:

One common method to solve this problem is backtracking:

• Start by placing a queen in the first column, at row 1.

• Move to the next column and try to place a queen in a safe row (no conflicts with
placed queens).
• If no safe row exists, backtrack to the previous column and move the queen to the
next possible row.
• Repeat this process until all queens are placed.

Example:

Suppose a queen is placed at (row 1, column 1). The algorithm tries to place the
second queen in column 2. Rows 1 and diagonals are attacked, so it places the queen at
(row 3, column 2). Continuing this way, the algorithm places queens at (row 5,
column 3), (row 7, column 4), and so forth, backtracking when no valid placement is
found.

Result:

The algorithm eventually finds solutions like:

css
CopyEdit
. Q . . . . . .
. . . Q . . . .
Q . . . . . . .
. . . . . Q . .
. . Q . . . . .
. . . . . . . Q
. . . . Q . . .
. . . . . . Q .

This ensures all queens are safe and demonstrates the power of backtracking in solving
complex problems.

4. write the rules of 8 queen problem find the one solution of 8 queen peoblem by
using backtracking.? 8marks

Rules of the 8-Queens Problem

1. Place 8 queens on an 8×8 chessboard.

2. No two queens can share the same row.
3. No two queens can share the same column.
4. No two queens can share the same diagonal (both major and minor diagonals).
5. The goal is to place all queens so that none attack each other.
Solution Using Backtracking (Example)

• Start by placing a queen in the first column at row 1.

• Move to the second column, try to place a queen in a safe row:
o Skip rows attacked by the first queen.
o Place at the first safe row found.
• Continue this for columns 3 through 8.
• If no safe row is available in a column, backtrack to the previous column and move
the queen to the next safe row.
• Repeat until all 8 queens are placed.

One Valid Solution (Row positions by column):

• Column 1 → Row 1
• Column 2 → Row 5
• Column 3 → Row 8
• Column 4 → Row 6
• Column 5 → Row 3
• Column 6 → Row 7
• Column 7 → Row 2
• Column 8 → Row 4

Board Representation:

css
CopyEdit
Q . . . . . . .
. . . . Q . . .
. . . . . . . Q
. . . . . Q . .
. Q . . . . . .
. . . Q . . . .
. . Q . . . . .
. . . . . . Q .

This configuration satisfies all rules — no queens threaten each other.

5. explain backtracking and recursive backtracking in brief ?8marks

Backtracking

Backtracking is a problem-solving technique used to find solutions by trying out possible

options incrementally and abandoning them if they do not satisfy the problem’s
constraints. It systematically explores all potential candidates for a solution and discards
a candidate (“backtracks”) as soon as it determines that this candidate cannot possibly
lead to a valid solution. This approach is often used in combinatorial problems such as
puzzles, permutations, and constraint satisfaction problems.

Recursive Backtracking

Recursive backtracking implements the backtracking approach using recursion. The

algorithm tries to build a solution step-by-step, calling itself recursively to extend the
partial solution. At each recursive call, it:

1. Checks if the current state is a solution or violates any constraints.

2. If valid and complete, the solution is recorded.
3. Otherwise, it explores all valid options for the next step by recursive calls.
4. If none lead to a solution, it backtracks by returning to the previous state.

Summary

• Backtracking is a trial-and-error approach combined with pruning invalid paths

early.
• Recursive backtracking uses function calls to explore all possible configurations
systematically.
 • It is efficient in pruning the search space but can be costly if the solution space is
large.

Examples include the N-Queens problem, Sudoku solver, and graph coloring problems.

6. design the backtracking algorithm for the hamiltonion cycle? 8marks

Backtracking is an effective approach because it explores possible vertex sequences and

abandons invalid ones early.

Algorithm Steps:

1. Start at vertex 0, add it to the path array.

2. For each subsequent position in the path, try all vertices from 1 to n−1n-1n−1:
a. Check if the vertex is adjacent to the previously added vertex.
b. Ensure the vertex is not already in the path (to avoid repetition).
3. If the vertex is safe, add it to the path and recursively proceed to the next position.
4. If no vertex fits in the current position, backtrack to the previous position and try a
different vertex.
5. When the path contains all vertices and the last vertex connects to the first, a
Hamiltonian cycle exists.

Key Points:

• Uses a path array to track the current cycle.

• Checks adjacency and visited status before adding a vertex.
• Backtracking prunes invalid paths, reducing unnecessary searches.
• The algorithm runs in exponential time but works well for small graphs.

This method systematically explores all possible vertex permutations to find a Hamiltonian
cycle if one exists.

7. explain the Hamiltonian cycle in detail wiwith sutable example? 8 marks

Hamiltonian Cycle Explanation

A Hamiltonian Cycle in a graph is a cycle that visits every vertex exactly once and returns
to the starting vertex. Unlike the Eulerian path that visits every edge, the Hamiltonian Cycle
focuses on visiting every vertex without repetition.

Key Points:

• The graph can be directed or undirected.

• The cycle must start and end at the same vertex.
• Each vertex is visited only once except for the starting vertex, which is visited twice
(start and end).

Example:

Consider a graph with 4 vertices {0,1,2,3}\{0, 1, 2, 3\}{0,1,2,3} and edges:

• 0—1
• 0—3
• 1—2
• 1—3
• 2—3

One possible Hamiltonian Cycle is:

0→1→2→3→00 \rightarrow 1 \rightarrow 2 \rightarrow 3 \rightarrow 00→1→2→3→0.

This path visits every vertex once and returns to 0, forming a cycle.
Application & Complexity:

Finding a Hamiltonian Cycle is an NP-complete problem, meaning no known efficient

algorithm solves it for all graphs. It has practical applications in routing, scheduling, and
circuit design.

Summary:

The Hamiltonian Cycle checks if a path exists covering all vertices exactly once in a cycle.
It is fundamental in graph theory with important real-world uses but is computationally
challenging for large graphs.

If you want, I can also provide a brief explanation of algorithms used to find such cycles!.

8. what is chrometic cycle number give the state space tree for 4 colouring problem
explain graph colouring problem? 8marks

Graph Colouring Problem

Definition:
Graph colouring is the process of assigning colours to the vertices of a graph such that no
two adjacent vertices share the same colour.

Chromatic Number (χ)

The chromatic number of a graph, denoted by χ(G)\chi(G)χ(G), is the minimum number

of colours required to colour the graph such that no two adjacent vertices have the same
colour.

• Example:
For a triangle graph (3-cycle), the chromatic number is 3 because all three vertices
are connected to each other.
Graph Colouring Problem Statement

Given:
A graph G=(V,E)G = (V, E)G=(V,E) and an integer mmm (number of colours).

Objective:
Determine whether it is possible to colour the vertices using at most m colours so that no
two adjacent vertices share the same colour.

This is a classic constraint satisfaction problem and can be solved using backtracking.

State Space Tree for 4-Colouring Problem

The state space tree is used in backtracking to represent partial colourings of vertices.
Each level of the tree corresponds to one vertex, and each branch represents a possible
colour assignment.

Example (4 vertices, 4 colours):

Let vertices be V={v1,v2,v3,v4}V = \{v_1, v_2, v_3, v_4\}V={v1 ,v2 ,v3 ,v4 } and colours = {1,
2, 3, 4}.

At each level:

• Level 1: Colour v1v_1v1 with 1, 2, 3, or 4.

• Level 2: Colour v2v_2v2 with remaining safe colours.
• ...
• At each level, check if the current colouring is valid (no two adjacent vertices have
the same colour).
• If no safe colour exists, backtrack.

The root of the tree is an empty assignment. Each child adds a colour for the next vertex.
Conclusion

• The chromatic number gives the smallest number of colours needed for proper
colouring.
• The graph colouring problem can be solved using backtracking with state space
trees.
• It has practical applications in register allocation, map colouring, and scheduling
problems.

Let me know if you'd like a diagram of the state space tree!

9. what is graph colouring method explain with a example in detail? 8marks

🌈 What is Graph Colouring? – Detailed Explanation with Example

Graph colouring is a method of assigning labels, commonly called colours, to the vertices
of a graph such that no two adjacent (connected) vertices share the same colour.

✅ Purpose:

The goal is to colour a graph using the minimum number of colours while ensuring that
adjacent vertices have different colours. This minimum number is called the chromatic
number of the graph.

🎯 Applications:

• Scheduling: Assigning time slots to classes so that no two conflicting classes occur
at the same time.
• Map colouring: Ensuring adjacent countries or regions are shaded differently.
• Register allocation: Assigning variables to registers in compilers.
📘 Example:

Let’s take a simple graph G with 4 vertices:

css
CopyEdit
A
/ \
B---C
\ /
D

Edges:

• A–B
• A–C
• B–C
• B–D
• C–D

🔵 Step-by-Step Colouring:

We want to colour this graph so that no two connected vertices share the same colour.

1. Colour A with Colour 1.

2. B is adjacent to A → Colour B with Colour 2.
3. C is adjacent to A and B → Colour C with Colour 3.
4. D is adjacent to B and C → Colour D with Colour 1 (safe since D is not adjacent to A).

Resulting Colour Assignment:

• A → Colour 1
• B → Colour 2
• C → Colour 3
• D → Colour 1
🧠 Key Points:

• The graph was coloured using 3 colours → So, the chromatic number χ(G) = 3.
• The graph colouring method prevents conflicts and optimizes resource usage in
practical problems.

Let me know if you’d like the pseudocode or diagram for this!

10. expalin knapsack peoblem in detail? 8marks

🎒 Knapsack Problem – Detailed Explanation

🧩 Definition:

The Knapsack Problem is a classic optimization problem in computer science and

mathematics. The goal is to maximize the total value of items placed in a knapsack
without exceeding its weight capacity.

There are two main types:

1. 0/1 Knapsack Problem (most common)

2. Fractional Knapsack Problem

📘 Problem Statement (0/1 Knapsack)

You are given:

• A knapsack with a maximum weight capacity WWW

• nnn items, each with:
o Weight wiw_iwi
o Value viv_ivi

Objective:
Select a subset of items such that:
 • Total weight ≤ WWW
• Total value is maximized
• You cannot split items (either take it or leave it)

🔧 Example:

Item Value (v) Weight (w)

1 60 10
2 100 20
3 120 30

Knapsack capacity W=50W = 50W=50

Optimal solution: Take items 2 and 3 → total value = 220, total weight = 50

💡 Solution Methods:

1. Brute Force: Try all combinations – Exponential time

2. Greedy (for Fractional Knapsack): Sort by value/weight ratio – works for fractional
only
3. Dynamic Programming (DP):
a. Use a 2D table dp[i][w]:
i. i = number of items considered
ii. w = current capacity
b. Formula:

dp[i][w]=max⁡(dp[i−1][w], dp[i−1][w−wi]+vi)dp[i][w] = \max(dp[i-1][w],\ dp[i-1][w-

w_i] + v_i)dp[i][w]=max(dp[i−1][w], dp[i−1][w−wi ]+vi )

🧠 Applications:

• Resource allocation
• Budget optimization
• Cargo loading
✅ Conclusion:

The 0/1 Knapsack Problem is a fundamental problem demonstrating decision-making

under constraints. It is widely used to teach dynamic programming and appears in real-
world optimization tasks.

Let me know if you want the DP table or C++/Python code for this!

Unit 5

1.explain the cooks theoram in detail ? 8marks

📘 Cook’s Theorem – Detailed Explanation

🔷 1. What is Cook’s Theorem?

Cook’s Theorem (1971), proved by Stephen Cook, is a foundational result in theoretical

computer science. It was the first theorem to show that a specific problem (SAT) is NP-
complete.

🔷 2. Statement of the Theorem:

“The Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) is NP-complete.”

This means:

• SAT belongs to the class NP.

• Every problem in NP can be reduced to SAT in polynomial time.
🔷 3. Key Terms:

• SAT (Satisfiability Problem):

Given a Boolean formula, is there an assignment of true/false to variables such that
the formula evaluates to true?
• NP (Nondeterministic Polynomial time):
Class of problems whose solutions can be verified in polynomial time.
• NP-Complete:
A problem is NP-complete if it is in NP, and every other NP problem can be
reduced to it in polynomial time.

🔷 4. Significance of Cook’s Theorem:

• It introduced the concept of NP-completeness.

• It provides a standard method to prove other problems are NP-complete (by
reduction from SAT).
• It forms the foundation of the famous P vs NP question.

🔷 5. Implication:

If any NP-complete problem (like SAT) can be solved in polynomial time, then all
problems in NP can be solved in polynomial time, i.e., P = NP.

But if SAT is not in P, then P ≠ NP.

🔷 6. Conclusion:

Cook’s Theorem is a cornerstone of complexity theory. It laid the groundwork for

understanding computational hardness and how problems relate to one another through
polynomial-time reductions.
Let me know if you’d like a simple example of SAT or a visual explanation!

2.state cooks theoram in brief ? 4marks

✅ Cook’s Theorem – Brief Statement:

Cook’s Theorem states:

"The Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) is NP-complete, meaning every problem in the
class NP can be reduced to SAT in polynomial time."

🔑 In Other Words:

• SAT is in NP.
• Every other problem in NP can be transformed into an instance of SAT using a
polynomial-time algorithm.

🧠 Importance:

• It was the first NP-complete problem.

• Forms the foundation for proving other problems are NP-complete.
• Central to the famous P vs NP question.

Let me know if you want an example or application!

state and prove the cooks theoram ??8marks

✅ Cook’s Theorem – Statement and Proof (within 200 words)

Statement:

Cook’s Theorem (1971):

The Boolean Satisfiability Problem (SAT) is NP-complete.

This means:

• SAT ∈ NP
• Every problem in NP can be polynomial-time reduced to SAT

Proof Sketch (Outline):

1. SAT is in NP:
Given a Boolean formula and a truth assignment, we can evaluate the formula in
polynomial time to check satisfiability.
2. Any NP problem reduces to SAT:
Let LLL be any language in NP. By definition, there exists a nondeterministic
Turing Machine (NTM) MMM that accepts LLL in polynomial time.
3. Construction:
For an input xxx, construct a Boolean formula ϕ\phiϕ that simulates the
computation of MMM on xxx within polynomial time.
a. Encode machine’s tape, state transitions, and head movements as
variables.
b. The formula ϕ\phiϕ is satisfiable iff MMM accepts xxx.
4. Conclusion:
If x∈Lx ∈ Lx∈L, then ϕ\phiϕ is satisfiable.
Thus, any NP problem can be reduced to SAT in polynomial time.

✅ Final Result:

SAT is NP-complete, and Cook’s Theorem proves the first NP-complete problem,
forming the basis of NP-completeness theory.
2.define fifo and lc lest cost search ? 4 marks

FIFO (First-In, First-Out) Search:

FIFO search, also known as Breadth-First Search (BFS), explores all nodes at the current
depth before moving to the next level. It uses a queue data structure, where the first node
added is the first to be expanded. It guarantees the shortest path in terms of the number of
steps if all edge costs are equal.

LC (Least-Cost) Search:

LC search, also known as Uniform Cost Search, expands the node with the lowest total
cost from the start node, regardless of depth. It uses a priority queue where nodes are
ordered by their path cost. It is optimal when all costs are non-negative and finds the least-
cost path to the goal.

Let me know if you'd like examples!

3.explain fifo branch and bound? 8 marks

FIFO Branch and Bound is a search strategy used to solve optimization problems,
combining the branch and bound method with a First-In, First-Out (FIFO) queue for node
exploration.

How it works:

• Branch and Bound systematically explores the solution space by dividing it

(branching) into smaller subproblems and uses bounds to eliminate suboptimal
branches early, improving efficiency.
• In FIFO Branch and Bound, nodes representing partial solutions are stored in a
queue.
• Nodes are expanded in the order they are generated, i.e., the oldest node in the
queue is explored first.
 • When expanding a node, the algorithm calculates a lower bound on the best
possible solution in that subtree.
• If this bound is worse than the current best solution, the node and its descendants
are pruned (discarded).
• Otherwise, the node is branched further, and its children are added to the end of the
queue.

Advantages:

• Simpler to implement than best-first search.

• Explores shallower nodes first, which can find feasible solutions quickly, helping
prune later nodes.

Limitations:

• Can be inefficient if poor lower bounds cause unnecessary expansions.

• Unlike best-first branch and bound, it doesn’t always expand the most promising
node first, potentially increasing search time.

In summary, FIFO Branch and Bound uses a queue to explore nodes level by level while
pruning unpromising paths, balancing simplicity and pruning efficiency.

4. explain fifo branch and bound and lc branch and bound with example? 8marks

1. FIFO Branch and Bound

Explanation:

• Uses a queue (First-In, First-Out) to store and expand nodes.

• Nodes are explored in the order they are generated (oldest first).
 • At each node, calculate a lower bound on the solution cost.
• If the lower bound is worse than the best known solution, prune that node.
• Otherwise, branch further by generating child nodes and add them to the end of the
queue.

Example:

Consider a shortest path problem in a graph where you want to find the minimum cost
from a start node to goal.

• Start at node A; put A in queue.

• Expand A: generate children B (cost 5), C (cost 7); enqueue B and C.
• Expand B (dequeued first): generate children D (cost 9), E (cost 6); enqueue D and E.
• Prune nodes whose lower bound is greater than current best.
• Continue until goal found with minimal cost.

2. LC (Least-Cost) Branch and Bound

Explanation:

• Uses a priority queue ordered by the lowest cost bound.

• Always expands the most promising node with the smallest lower bound first.
• Guarantees optimality if costs are non-negative.
• More efficient as it explores promising paths earlier, pruning others sooner.

Example:

Using the same shortest path problem:

• Start at A with cost 0; add to priority queue.

• Expand A: generate B (cost 5), C (cost 7); add to queue ordered by cost.
• Expand B (lowest cost): generate D (cost 9), E (cost 6); queue now contains E(6),
C(7), D(9).
• Expand E (cost 6), etc., always choosing the node with the smallest cost first.
• This often leads to faster discovery of the optimal path.
Summary:

Feature FIFO Branch and Bound LC Branch and Bound

Data structure Queue (FIFO) Priority Queue (cost-based)
Node expansion
Order of generation Lowest cost bound first
order
Simple but may expand many More efficient, explores promising
Efficiency
nodes nodes first
Finds optimal but may be
Guarantee Finds optimal solution faster
slower

5. define branch and bound method with different types of nodes uesd? 8marks

Branch and Bound Method – Definition and Types of Nodes

Definition:

The Branch and Bound method is an algorithmic technique used to solve optimization
problems (like combinatorial problems) by systematically exploring candidate solutions.

• It branches by dividing the problem into smaller subproblems.

• It calculates bounds (upper or lower) on the best possible solution within a
subproblem.
• Subproblems that cannot improve on the current best solution are pruned
(discarded), reducing the search space.

This approach ensures that the optimal solution is found efficiently without exploring all
possible solutions.
Types of Nodes Used in Branch and Bound:

1. Live Node:
a. A node that is generated but not yet expanded.
b. It represents a subproblem that may contain the optimal solution.
c. Stored in a data structure (queue, stack, or priority queue) for future
expansion.
2. Dead Node:
a. A node that is pruned or fully explored.
b. Pruned because its bound shows it cannot lead to a better solution than the
current best.
c. Or fully expanded, so it no longer needs exploration.
3. Active Node:
a. Sometimes used to refer to nodes currently under consideration for
expansion.
b. Can be synonymous with live nodes depending on context.

Summary:

• The method navigates through live nodes, expanding them and pruning those that
are dead nodes based on bounds.
• It ensures efficient search by discarding non-promising paths early.
• Data structures and bounding functions define how nodes are selected and pruned.

Let me know if you want a diagram or examp

write short notes

1) p class
2) np class
3) np hard
4) np complete
5)np completeness
6) np hard classes
7) fifo branch and bound
Short Notes on Computational Complexity Classes
1. P Class
• Definition: Decision problems solvable in polynomial time by a deterministic
Turing machine (O(nᵏ) for some constant *k*).
• Example: Sorting, Shortest Path (Dijkstra’s in non-negative graphs).
• Key Idea: Efficiently solvable.
2. NP Class
• Definition: Decision problems solvable in polynomial time by a non-deterministic
Turing machine (solutions can be verified in polynomial time).
• Example: Boolean Satisfiability (SAT), Hamiltonian Path.
• Key Idea: "Easy to verify, hard to solve?" (P vs. NP question).
3. NP-Hard
• Definition: Problems at least as hard as the hardest NP problems (not
necessarily in NP).
• Example: Halting Problem, Traveling Salesman (optimization).
• Key Idea: No known polynomial-time solution; NP-Hard ⊇ NP-Complete.
4. NP-Complete
• Definition: Problems that are:
o In NP,
o NP-Hard (all NP problems reduce to them in poly-time).
• Example: 3-SAT, Knapsack (decision version).
• Key Idea: "If one NP-Complete problem is in P, then P = NP."
5. NP-Completeness
• Concept: A proof technique showing a problem is NP-Complete:
o Prove it’s in NP,
o Reduce a known NP-Complete problem to it.
• Example: Reducing 3-SAT to Clique Problem.
6. NP-Hard Classes
• Includes: Problems outside NP (e.g., undecidable problems like Halting Problem).
• Example: Integer Factorization (not proven NP-Complete).

Algorithmic Techniques
7. FIFO Branch and Bound
• Purpose: Solve optimization problems (e.g., TSP, Knapsack) by exploring state-
space trees.
• Mechanism:
 o Uses a queue (FIFO) for node exploration.
o Bounds prune non-promising branches (e.g., cost > current best).
• Example: 0/1 Knapsack with profit-based bounding.

Summary Table

Solvable in Verifiable in
Class Example
P? P?

P Yes Yes Mergesort

NP ? Yes SAT

NP-Complete ? (P=NP?) Yes 3-SAT

Halting
NP-Hard No Maybe not
Problem

Key Takeaway:
• P ⊆ NP ⊆ NP-Complete ⊆ NP-Hard.
• NP-Hard problems may not even be decidable!
Would you like a deeper dive into any of these?

ere's a clear distinction between NP-Hard and NP-Completeness in a concise tabular

format:

Feature NP-Hard NP-Complete

Definiti Problems at least as hard as Problems that are both NP and NP-
on the hardest in NP. Hard.

Membe May not belong to NP (e.g.,

Must be in NP (solutions are verifiable
rship in optimization problems, Halting
in polynomial time).
NP Problem).

Traveling Salesman
Exampl 3-SAT, Knapsack (decision version),
(optimization), Halting
es Hamiltonian Path.
Problem.

All NP problems reduce to NP-

Reducti All NP problems reduce to NP-
Complete problems (via polynomial-
on Hard problems.
time reductions).

NP-Complete problems are the

Solving any NP-Hard problem
P vs NP "hardest" in NP; if any is in P, then P =
in P would imply P = NP.
NP.

Practic
al
Implica
tion
Includes unsolvable problems
Represents probl
(e.g., undecidable).
7. what do you mean by np hard problome explain atleast one np hard problem in
detail ? 8 marks

✅ What is an NP-Hard Problem?

1. Definition:
An NP-Hard problem is at least as hard as the hardest problems in NP
(Nondeterministic Polynomial time).
2. No Efficient Solution Known:
There is no known polynomial-time algorithm to solve all NP-Hard problems.
3. Not Necessarily in NP:
NP-Hard problems may not even be verifiable in polynomial time (unlike NP
problems).
4. Key Property:
If you could solve an NP-Hard problem in polynomial time, you could solve all NP
problems in polynomial time.

🧭 Example: Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)

1. Problem Statement:
Given a list of cities and distances, find the shortest possible route that visits
each city once and returns to the start.
2. Input:
A set of nnn cities and a distance matrix between each pair of cities.
3. Output:
A tour (cycle) that visits every city once and returns to the start, with the minimum
total distance.
4. Combinatorial Explosion:
Number of possible tours = (n−1)!/2(n - 1)! / 2(n−1)!/2.
For n=20n = 20n=20, that's over 60 trillion routes!
5. Why NP-Hard?
a. The decision version ("Is there a tour shorter than kkk?") is NP-Complete.
b. The optimization version (find the shortest route) is NP-Hard.
6. Real-World Applications:
 a. Logistics and delivery routing
b. Circuit board layout
c. DNA sequencing
d. Path planning in robotics
7. Approach in Practice:
a. Exact algorithms: Only practical for small nnn.
b. Heuristics: Nearest Neighbor, Christofides Algorithm.
c. Metaheuristics: Genetic Algorithms, Simulated Annealing.

🧠 Key Takeaways

• NP-Hard problems are computationally very difficult.

• Solving one efficiently would revolutionize computer science.
• In practice, we use approximations and heuristics for large instances.
• Studying NP-Hard problems teaches us about the limits of algorithmic efficiency.

8. analysis np hard and np complitness with a example.? 8marks

🔍 NP vs NP-Complete vs NP-Hard

✅ 1. NP (Nondeterministic Polynomial time)

• Problems whose solutions can be verified in polynomial time.

• Example: Sudoku puzzle – easy to check a solution, hard to find one.

✅ 2. NP-Complete Problems

• The hardest problems in NP.

• A problem is NP-Complete if:
o It is in NP, and
o Every NP problem can be reduced to it in polynomial time.
 • Solving one NP-Complete problem efficiently means all NP problems can be solved
efficiently.

✅ 3. NP-Hard Problems

• At least as hard as NP-Complete problems.

• Not required to be in NP (may not have efficiently checkable solutions).
• Can be decision or optimization problems.

🌟 Example: Satisfiability (SAT)

• Problem: Is there an assignment of variables that satisfies a boolean formula?

• Type: NP-Complete.
• Why:
o In NP (easy to verify a satisfying assignment).
o All NP problems can be reduced to SAT (Cook-Levin Theorem).

🧠 Conclusion

• NP-Complete ⊆ NP-Hard.
• All NP-Complete problems are NP-Hard, but not all NP-Hard problems are NP-
Complete.
• NP-Hard problems may be even more difficult than NP problems.

9. what is the least cost search? 4 marks

🔍 Least-Cost Search (Uniform Cost Search)

Least-cost search is a search strategy that expands the node with the lowest total path
cost from the start node, not just the depth or number of steps. It is often implemented
using a priority queue, where nodes are ordered by their cumulative cost.
This method guarantees finding the optimal solution (i.e., the lowest-cost path), assuming
all step costs are non-negative.

It is also called Uniform Cost Search (UCS) and is a variant of Dijkstra’s algorithm when
used in graphs.

✅ Key Points:

• Expands nodes by lowest total cost, not depth.

• Uses a priority queue.
• Optimal and complete if all costs ≥ 0.
• Slower than greedy approaches but more accurate.

10. what is the least cost seach with example.? 8 marks

🔍 Least-Cost Search (Uniform Cost Search) – Explained with Example

Least-cost search, also known as Uniform Cost Search (UCS), is a search algorithm that
always expands the least costly path from the starting node. It uses a priority queue to
keep track of nodes, ordered by their cumulative path cost (not depth or heuristic).

✅ How It Works:

1. Start from the initial node.

2. Add it to a priority queue with cost = 0.
3. Repeatedly:
a. Remove the node with the lowest cost.
b. If it’s the goal, return the path.
c. Otherwise, add its neighbors to the queue with updated total costs.
4. Repeat until the goal is found.
🌟 Example:

Suppose we have this graph:

rust
CopyEdit
A --2--> B --2--> D
\ |
\--1--> C --5--> D

• Goal: Find the least-cost path from A to D.

• Paths:
o A → B → D: cost = 2 + 2 = 4
o A → C → D: cost = 1 + 5 = 6

UCS will:

• Expand A → C (cost 1) and A → B (cost 2).

• Then expand B → D (total cost 4), which is cheaper than going through C.

Output: Path A → B → D with cost = 4.

🧠 Conclusion:

Least-cost search is complete, optimal, and ideal when step costs vary.

11.define the traveling selesman problem.? 8marks

🧭 Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) – Definition in 200 Words

The Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) is a classic optimization problem in computer

science and operations research. It asks the following:

Given a list of cities and the distances between each pair of them, what is the shortest
possible route that visits each city exactly once and returns to the starting city?
TSP is formally defined on a complete weighted graph, where:

• Nodes represent cities.

• Edges represent paths with associated costs (usually distance or time).

The goal is to find a Hamiltonian cycle (a path visiting every node once) with the minimum
total weight.

TSP is known to be NP-Hard, meaning no efficient algorithm is known to solve all instances
quickly. The number of possible tours is (n−1)!/2 for n cities, making brute-force
approaches infeasible for large inputs.

Despite its computational difficulty, TSP has many real-world applications:

• Logistics and route planning (e.g., delivery trucks, couriers)

• Circuit board manufacturing
• Genome sequencing
• Robotics and pathfinding

Due to its complexity, solutions often rely on:

• Exact algorithms (for small n)

• Heuristics and approximations (for large n)

TSP plays a central role in understanding computational limits and optimization

techniques.