The Law of Reciprocal Proportions

The Law of Reciprocal Proportions states that the masses of several

elements, A,B,C, which combine separately with a fixed mass of another
element, D, are the same as, or simple multiples of, the masses in which
A,B,C, themselves combine with one another.

Chemical Equations
A chemical equation is a shorthand expression for a chemical change or
reaction. It shows among other things the arrangement of atoms that are
involved in the reaction.
Or
Chemical equations are brief representations of chemical reactions using
only formulae and symbols.
Symbols Commonly Used In Chemical Equations
Symbol Meaning
Yield/produce (pointed to product)
Reversible reaction, equilibrium between reactants and
products
Gas evolved (written after substance)
(S) Solid (written as a subscript after a substance)
(L) Liquid (written as a subscript after a substance)
(G) Gas (written as subscript after a substance)
Δ Heat

(aq) Aqueous solution (substance dissolved in water)

+ Plus or add to or reacting with

A chemical equation consists of reactants and products with other symbolic

terms.
Reactants: - These are the substance that enters into a chemical change or
reaction.
OR Reactants are substances being reacted
Product: - These are the substances produced by the reaction
OR Products are the substances being produced.

Writing Of Balanced Chemical Equations

In writing an equation, the reactants are written on the left-hand side while
the products of the reaction are written on the right-hand side. The reactants
and products are linked together by an arrow whose head points towards the
products. For example, when hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water,
when hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water, the chemist writes the
equation for the reaction as Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
The equation above can be written as
H2 + O 2 H2O (this equation is not balanced).
A chemical equation is of little value if it is not a balanced equation. When an
equation is balanced, the total number of atoms of any element on the left-
hand side of it must be equal to the total number of atoms of that element
on the right hand side. This is in accordance with the Law of Conservation of
Matter which states that “during a chemical reaction, atoms can neither be
created nor destroyed”.

Balancing Chemical Equations

When balancing an equation, you must remember the following:
1. Know the reacting substances and the products formed.
2. Know the chemical formulae for all the substances.
3. Write, in front of the formulae, coefficients that will balance the
equation.
4. Common gases, such as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine and nitrogen, in
the free state, are diatomic, e.g. O2, H2, Cl2 and N2
5. Other elements in the Free State, such as sodium, potassium, copper
and iron, are represented by their atomic symbols, e.g. Na, K, Cu and
Fe.
Examples
1. H2 + O2 H2O (not balanced)
2H2 + O2 2H2O (balanced)
2. KClO3 KCl + O2 (not balanced)
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2 (balanced)
3. Na(s) + Cl2(g) NaCl(aq) (not balanced)
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2Na Cl(aq) (balanced)

Importance of Chemical Equation

It provides the following information:
1. It tells us the reactants and products involved in the reaction.
2. It tells us the individual elements and radicals involved.
3. It gives us a mental picture of the movement of the elements and
radicals during the reactions.
4. It tells us the stoichiometry of the reaction.
5. It tells us the direction of the reaction and whether the reaction is
reversible.
6. It tells us the state of matter.
It does not provide the following information:
1. The speed of the reaction.
2. The heat changes during the reaction. This, however maybe indicated
where required.
3. The colours of the reactants and products.

Calculations from Equations

From an equation, we can calculate the amounts of reactants reacted and
products formed. These are important in chemical industries that are
engaged in the manufacture of basic chemicals.
Examples
1. The equation for the formation of water is:
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g). Calculate the number of moles of
O2 required to yield 8 moles f water
Solution
2 moles of H2O is produced by 1mole of O2
8 moles of H2O is produced by 8/2 x 1 moles = 4 moles of O2.
2. Sodium combines with oxygen as follows:
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2NaO (s). What is the mass of O 2
needed to burn 4.6g of sodium?
Solution
From the equation: 4 moles of Na reacts with 1mole of O 2.
Mass of 4moles of Na = 4 x 23 = 92g
Mass of 1mole of O2 = 16 x 2 = 32g
92g of Na reacts with 32g of O2
4.6g of Na reacts with 4.6 x 32 / 92g = 1.6g of O 2.

Questions
1. The numerical coefficients in a balanced equation give the (a) mass
ratio of the reactants (b) number of molecules and atoms of products
only (c) number of moles of reactants and products (d) molar mass of
the reactants and products.
2. In any chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is always
equal to that of the reactants. This is a statement of the law of (a)
conservation of matter (b) multiple proportion (d) reciprocal
proportions.
3. Consider the reaction represented by the following equation:
 xKMnO4(aq) + ySO2(g) + zH2O(l) → K2SO4(aq) + 2MnSO4(aq) + 2H2SO4(aq). x,y
and z are resopectively (a) 2, 5 and 2 (b) 2, 2 and 5 (c) 5, 1 and 2
(d) 1, 5 and 2.
4. Consider the neutralization reaction represented by the following
equation:
Na2CO3 + 2HNO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2. The stoichiometric ratio of
acid to base is (a) 2 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 2 (d) 1 : 1
5. Consider the reaction represented by the equation below.
xNH3(g) + yCl2(g) → zHCl(g) + N2(g) The values of x,y and z are
respectively:
(a) 2, 4 and 6 (b) 3, 2 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 6 (d) 3, 2 and 6
6. What are the values of x,y and z respectively in the following equation?
MnO2(s) + xHCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + yH2O(l) + zCl2(g)
(a) 4, 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 1 (c) 2, 1 and 2 (d) 4, 2 and 1
7. All pure samples of the same chemical compound contain the same
chemical compound contain the same elements combined in the same
proportion by mass is a statement of (a) the law of conservation
matter (b) the law of constant composition (c) the law of multiple
proportion (d) Avogadro’s law.
8. A metal M forms two types of chlorides, MCl 2 and MCl3. Which of the
following laws best explains the relationship between the chlorides?
Law of (a) conservation of
mass (b) definite proportion (c) multiple proportion (d) reciprocal
proportion.
9. Pure water contains hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2 : 1 irrespective
of its source. This is best explained by the law of (a) definite
proportion (b) conservation of mass (c) reciprocal proportion (d)
multiple proportion.
10. In an experiment 5.00g of a metal gave 10.59g of its chloride. In
another experiment, 1.50g of the same metal combined with 1.68g of
chlorine. The above data illustrates (a) law of conservation of mass (b)
law of definite proportion (c) law of multiple proportion (d) law of
reciprocal proportion.
 CHEMICAL COMBINATION (BONDING)
When atom interacts with one another to form ions or molecules, there is
tendency for them to acquire stable configuration (i.e. Noble gas structure),
they do so either by transfer or sharing of electron(s).
Example:
1. Na (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1) -e- Na+ (1s2 2s2 2p6)

Sodium atom Sodium ion

2. Cl (1s2 2s2 3s2 3p5) +e- Cl- (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6)

Chlorine atom Chloride ion

In example 1 above, sodium atom lost one electron from the outermost shell
to have sodium ion (Na+) i.e. Neon configuration. In example 2, chlorine gain
one electron to form chloride ion (Cl–) i.e. Argon configuration (stable octect).

Types of Chemical Combination/Chemical Bonding

There are two main types of chemical combination
1. Electrovalent (or ionic) combination
2. Covalent combination, which is classed into:-
(a) Ordinary covalent combination
(b) Coordinate covalent combination
Other types of bonds are:-
1. Hydrogen bonds
2. Metallic bonds
3. Van der Waals forces

Electrovalent (Or Ionic) Combination

Electrovalent combination is the complete transfer of electron(s) from one
atom (usually metallic) to another (usually non-metallic). Thus, we have
atoms which act as donors of electrons and those which act as acceptors of
electrons.
Examples of electrovalent combinations
1. Formation of sodium chloride (na+ cl– )
Before combination:
Sodium atom (Na) = 2, 8, 1
Chlorine atom (Cl) = 2, 8, 7
After combination:
Sodium ion (Na+) = 2, 8
Chloride ion (Cl ) =
–
2, 8, 8
The process is summarised below:

Before combination After combination

+
–

. =
.
2. Formation of Magnesium oxide (mg2+ O2–)
Before combination
Magnesium atom (Mg) = 2, 8, 2
Oxygen atom (O) = 2, 6
After combination
Magnesium ions (Mg2+)= 2, 8,
Oxygen ions (O ) =
2-
2, 8
The process is summarised below:
Before combination After combination
Properties Of Electrovalent Compounds
1. They are usually solids at room temperature.
2. They have high melting and boiling points because of the strong
electrovalent bonds between the ions
3. They can conduct electricity when molten or when dissolved in water.
4. They are mainly dissolved in water.

Ordinary Covalent Combination/Bonding

This is the sharing of pair of electrons between the two reacting atoms so
that both can attain the stable octet structure. This pair of electrons is known
as the shared pair. Each reacting atom contributes one member of a shared
pair. Thus, molecules and not ions are formed in covalent combinations.

Examples of ordinary covalent cobmbination.

1. Formation of Hydrogen Molecule, H2
Before combination After combination

H H H x H
x
Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen molecule (H2)
Atom (H) Atom (H)
Other examples are seen in the;
2. Formation of Chlorine Molecule, Cl2
3. Formation of Methane Molecule, CH4 (natural gas)
4. Formation of ammonia molecular, NH3
5. Formation of water molecule, H2O
6. Formation of oxygen molecule, O2
7. Formation of carbon (iv) oxide, CO2
Coordinate Covalent Combination
This is the sharing of electron(s) contributed by only one of the participants.
Such a pair of electrons is called the lone pair. Thus, one of the reactants in a
coordinate covalent combination must have a lone pair.

Examples of coordinate covalent combination

1. Formation of ammonia ion, NH4+
2. Formation of Oxonium ion, H3O+

Properties of Covalent Compounds

1. They exist mostly as liquids or gases at room temperature.
2. They do not conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water
because they do not contain ions.
3. They have low melting and boiling points, hence, they are volatile
(easily vapourized).
4. They are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvent e.g.
benzene.

Other Binding Forces (Intermolecular Forces)

Besides the ionic and covalent bonds, other attractive forces or
intermolecular forces also bind atoms and molecules together.
Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction acting between molecules
which help to influence their properties. The most important of these are:-
1. the metallic bond.
2. the Van der Waals forces, and
3. the hydrogen bond

Metallic Bond
This is a bond that holds metal atoms together in crystal lattice e.g. sodium
atoms. Metallic bond s are stronger in metals with higher number of valence
electrons. e.g. sodium metal can be cut with a knife but aluminium cannot
because sodium forms it metallic bond with one valence electron while
aluminium uses three valence electrons.

Van Der Waals Forces

These are weak attractive forces that exist between molecules. They were
first described by Dutchman called J.D. Van der Waals, and are known as Van
der Waals forces. They are very weak when compared with ionic and
covalent bonds, but they are important in the liquefaction of gases and in the
formation of molecular lattices as in iodine and naphthalene crystals.

Hydrogen Bond
This is an intermolecular force which results when hydrogen is covalently
bonded to elements like nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine e.g. HF, H 2O, Ethanol,
Ethanoic acid etc.
Note:
Ionic bonds Covalent bonds Hydrogen bonds Van der Waal forces
OR

Vander Waals forces Hydrogen bonds Covalent bonds Ionic

bonds