CHM 101

CONTENTS
Chemical equations and stoichiometry.
Chemical bonding and intermolecular forces.
Kinetic theory of matter

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND STOICHIOMETRY

A chemical equation is a short-hand method of depicting a chemical reaction/change with the help of chemical
symbols and formulae and it relates both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of a chemical change. As a
symbol or a formula has a quantitative meaning, in the same fashion, an equation formed with them also gives
quantitative information relating to the ingredients (reacting materials) and the products of the reaction.

A) Writing and balancing of chemical equations

The first step in determining the stoichiometry of a reaction involves writing and balancing a chemical equation.
Let us consider as an example the reaction between one methane molecule (CH4) and two diatomic oxygen
molecules (O2) to produce one carbon dioxide molecule (CO2) and two water molecules (H2O).

Figure 1: A chemical equation showing the reaction between methane and oxygen to yield carbon dioxide in water

Methane and oxygen react to yield carbon dioxide and water in a 1:2:1:2 ratio. This ratio is satisfied if the
numbers of these molecules are, respectively, 1-2-1-2, or 2-4-2-4, or 3-6-3-6, and so on.

Balancing Equations
The chemical equation described above is balanced, meaning that equal numbers of atoms for each element
involved in the reaction are represented on the reactant and product sides. This is a requirement the equation
must satisfy to be consistent with the law of conservation of matter. It may be confirmed by simply summing
the numbers of atoms on either side of the arrow and comparing these sums to ensure they are equal. Note that
the number of atoms for a given element is calculated by multiplying the coefficient of any formula containing
that element by the element’s subscript in the formula. If an element appears in more than one formula on a
given side of the equation, the number of atoms represented in each must be computed and then added together.

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Fundamental aspects of any chemical equation
The fundamental aspects of any chemical equation can be illustrated from above example:
1. The substances undergoing reaction are called reactants, and their formulas are placed on the left side of the
equation.
2. The substances generated by the reaction are called products, and their formulas are placed on the right sight
of the equation.
3. Plus signs (+) separate individual reactant and product formulas, and an arrow (⟶) separates the reactant
and product (left and right) sides of the equation.
4. The relative numbers of reactant and product species are represented by coefficients (numbers placed
immediately to the left of each formula). A coefficient of 1 is typically omitted.

Additional Information in Chemical Equations

The physical states of reactants and products in chemical equations very often are indicated with a parenthetical
abbreviation following the formulas. Common abbreviations include “s” for solids, “l” for liquids, “g” for
gases, and “aq” aqueous solutions (for substances dissolved in water).
These notations are illustrated in the equation below:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) ⟶ 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
This equation represents the reaction that takes place when sodium metal is placed in water. The solid sodium
reacts with liquid water to produce molecular hydrogen gas and the ionic compound sodium hydroxide (a solid
in pure form, but readily dissolved in water).

Special conditions necessary for a reaction are sometimes designated by writing a word or symbol above or
below the equation’s arrow. For example, a reaction carried out by heating may be indicated by the uppercase
Greek letter “delta” (Δ) over the arrow.
CaCO3(s)⟶Δ CaO(s) + CO2(g)

EXERCISES
Balance the following equations:
(a) PCl5(s) + H2O(l) ⟶ POCl3(l) + HCl(aq)
(b) Cu(s) + HNO3(aq) ⟶ Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + NO(g)
(c) H2(g) + I2(s) ⟶ HI(s)
(d) Fe(s) + O2(g) ⟶ Fe2O3(s)
(e) Na(s) + H2O(l) ⟶ NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
(f) (NH4)2 Cr2O7(s) ⟶ Cr2O3(s) + N2(g) + H2O(g)
(g) P4(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ PCl3(l)
(h) PtCl4(s) ⟶ Pt(s) + Cl2(g)

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B) Reaction Stoichiometry
A balanced chemical equation provides a great deal of information in a very succinct format. Chemical
formulas provide the identities of the reactants and products involved in the chemical change, allowing
classification of the reaction. Coefficients provide the relative numbers of these chemical species, allowing a
quantitative assessment of the relationships between the amounts of substances consumed and produced by the
reaction. These quantitative relationships are known as the reaction’s stoichiometry, a term derived from the
Greek words stoicheion (meaning “element”) and metron (meaning “measure”).

The stoichiometry of a reaction

We can find the stoichiometry of a reaction if we know the amounts of each reactant that exactly react together
and the amounts of each product formed.
Balanced chemical equations are used to determine the amount of one reactant required to react with a given
amount of another reactant, or to yield a given amount of product, and so forth. The coefficients in the balanced
equation are used to derive stoichiometric factors that permit computation of the desired quantity.
To illustrate this idea, consider the production of ammonia by reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⟶ 2NH3(g)
This equation shows ammonia molecules are produced from hydrogen molecules in a 2:3 ratio.

Calculations based on chemical equations are known as stoichiometric calculations, they are of three types:
(i) Calculations involving mass-mass relationship.
(ii) Calculations involving mass-volume relationship.
(iii) Calculations involving volume-volume relationship.

(i) Calculations involving mass-mass relationship

In general, the following steps are adopted in making necessary calculations:
(a) Write down balanced molecular equation of the chemical change.
(b) Write down the number of moles below the formula of each of the reactants and products.
(c) Write down the relative masses of the reactants and products with the help of formula below the respective
formula. These shall be theoretical amounts of reactants and products.
(d) By the application of unitary method or the rule of three, the unknown factor is determined.

Example 1. How many grams of oxygen are required to bum completely 570 g of octane?
Solution:
Balanced equation of the chemical reaction is:
2C8H18 + 25O2 16C02 + 18H20
2 moles 25 moles
2 x 114 25 x 32
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For burning of 2 x 114 g of octane, oxygen required = 25 x 32 g
For burning 1 g of octane, oxygen required is;
1g = 25 x 32g/2 x 114 g
Thus, for burning 570 g of octane, oxygen required
= 25x32/2x114 x 570
= 2000g

Example 2. Calculate the number of grams of magnesium chloride that could be obtained from 17.0 g of HCI,
when HCI is reacted with excess of magnesium oxide.

Solution:
Balanced equation of the chemical change is:
MgO + 2HCI MgCl2 + H20
1 mole 2 mole 1 mole 1 mole
2 x 36.5 g (24 + 71) g
73 g 95 g

73 g of HCI produce 95 g MgCl2

1 g of HCl produce 95/73 g MgCI2
17 g of HCl will produce 95/73 g x 17 g MgCl2
= 22.12g

(ii) Calculations involving mass-volume relationship

These calculations are based on the fact that 1 mole or 1 g molecule of the substance occupies 22.4 litres or
22400 mL at N.T.P. Volume (V) of a gas at any temperature (T) and pressure (P) can be converted into mass or
vice-versa with the help of equation,
PV = wRT/M (where w is the mass of the gas, M is the molecular mass and R is molar gas constant).

Example 3. Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at N.T.P. evolved by strong heating of 20 g calcium
carbonate.
Solution:
The balanced equation is:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
1 mole 1 mole = 22.4 litres at N.T.P
100 g of CaCO3 evolve 22.4 litres of carbon dioxide
20 g CaCO3 will evolve 22.4/100 x 20 carbon dioxide
= 4.48 litres

(iii) Calculations involving volume-volume relationship

These calculations are based on two laws:
(a) Avogadro's law (b) Gay-Lussac's law.
For example,
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2NO + O2 = 2NO2 (Avogadro's law)
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
2 × 22.4 litres 22.4 litres 2 × 22.4 litres
(under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, equal moles of gases occupy equal volumes).
or
2NO + O2 = 2NO2 (Gay-Lussac's law)
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
(Under similar conditions, gases react in simple ratio of their volumes).

CHEMICAL BONDING AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Matter consists of one or more type of elements and among the known elements on the periodic table, only the
rare/noble/inert gases (Helium He, Neon Ne, Argon Ar, Krypton Kr, Xenon Xe, and Radon Rn) exist as an
independent atom in nature under normal conditions. Thus, they are chemically unreactive and stable due to
their complete/stable electronic configuration; all inert gases except Helium have 8 electrons in their outer most
shell (also known as valence shell). This stable electronic configuration is called OCTET, while it is referred to
as DUPLET for Helium. Atoms of other elements achieve stable octet configuration or inert gas configuration
through chemical bonding or combination. A chemical bond is defined as the attractive force that holds two or
more atoms together in a molecule or an ion.

One traditional approach to understanding chemical bonding is to divide bonds into two main categories:
1) Intramolecular bonds (examples are ionic/electrovalent bond, covalent bond, and metallic bond)
2) Intermolecular bonds (examples are hydrogen bond and van der Waals forces).
An understanding of these different types of chemical bonding and intermolecular forces helps us to explain the
structure and physical properties of elements and compounds.

1) INTRAMOLECULAR BONDS
(i) Electrovalent or Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions in an ionic crystal lattice.
Generally, ionic bonding describes chemical reactions involving the transfer of one or more electrons from the
valence-shell of an atom (usually a metal) to the valence-shell of another (usually a non-metal).
One way of forming ions is for atoms to gain or lose one or more electrons.
■■ Positive ions are formed when an atom loses one or more electrons. Metal atoms usually lose electrons and
form positive ions.
■■ Negative ions are formed when an atom gains one or more electrons. Non-metal atoms usually gain
electrons and form negative ions.
The charge on the ion depends on the number of electrons lost or gained.
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When metals combine with non-metals, the electrons in the outer shell of the metal atoms are transferred to
the non-metal atoms. Each non-metal atom usually gains enough electrons to fill its outer shell. As a result of
this, the metal and non-metal atoms usually end up with outer electron shells that are complete – they have an
electronic configuration of a noble gas.
Illustration of the formation of ionic bond.
The formation of an ionic bond between two atoms can be explained by considering a general case in which an
atom A having one electron in its valence-shell forms an ionic bond with atom B having 7 valence electrons.
Thus, A has one excess electron while B has one electron lesser than the stable octet. Therefore, A transfers an
electron to B and in the process both the atoms acquire a stable configuration of the nearest inert gas (i.e. ns2p6
configuration). The resulting positive ion (cation), A+ and negative ion (anion), B- are held together by
electrostatic force of attraction which is called ionic or electrovalent bond; it is a weak bond because the
electrostatic force can easily be broken. It is also a polar bond (A+-B-). The element of groups IA, IIA and IIIA
satisfy this condition for atom A and those of groups VA, VIA and VIIA satisfy this condition for atom B.
The compounds which contain electrovalent bonds are called electrovalent or ionic compounds, few of these
compounds are NaC1, MgO, CaF2, Al203.
a) Ionic bonding in NaCl molecule.
Here Na (2, 8, 1) transfers its excess one electron to Cl atom (2, 8, 7) and thus Na atom acquires the
configuration of Neon (2, 8) and Cl acquires the configuration of Argon (2, 8, 8). The electron lost by Na atom
is accepted by Cl atom and consequently Na atom is converted into a positively charged ion (cation) and Cl
atom is converted into a negatively charged ion (anion). The two ions thus formed attract each other by
electrostatic force of attraction which leads to the formation of an ionic or electrovalent bond between Na and
Cl-ions.

Figure 2: The formation of a sodium ion and chloride ion by electron transfer.

b) Ionic bonding in MgO molecule.

In the formation of this molecule Mg atom loses its two electrons from its outer-most shell (Mg = 2, 8, 2) which
are taken up by oxygen atom (O = 2, 6). This converts Mg atom into Mg2+ ion and O atom into O2- ion. The
ions thus formed attract each other and form MgO molecule.
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Properties of Ionic Compounds
1. Physical state: Ionic compounds consist of three-dimensional solid aggregates of cations and anions which
are arranged in a well-defined geometrical pattern. Thus, ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
2. Electrical conductivity: Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when they are in the solid state.
However, ionic solids conduct electricity when they are in water solution or in the fused (molten) state.
3. They are quite hard, have low volatility, high melting and boiling points.
4. Solubility in polar and non-polar solvents: Ionic solids are freely soluble in polar solvents like H20, liquid
NH3 etc., because the electrostatic force of attraction holding the cations and anions together in the ionic solids
is reduced by the high value of dielectric constant of the polar solvent. On the other hand, ionic solids are
insoluble or slightly soluble in non-polar solvents (organic solvents) such as C6H6, CCI4 etc. Such solvents, due
to their low value of dielectric constant, do not allow the ions to move freely and interact with them to form the
solvated ions.

(iia) Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds are formed when the outer electrons of two atoms are shared. When two non-metal atoms
combine, they share one, or more pairs of electrons e.g. Cl-Cl.
Covalent bonding was explained by American chemist G.N. Lewis in 1916 as the sharing of one, two or three
electron pairs of the valence-shell of two reacting atoms so that both can attain the stable octet structure. The
shared electron pairs may be contributed equally by both the atoms (formation of covalent bond) or may be
contributed by only one of the combining atoms (formation of co-ordinate bond). During the formation of
covalent bond, each of the two bonded atoms contributes equal electron to make the shared electron pair and
has equal claim on the shared electron pair. Covalent bond is formed by sharing electron pairs between non-
metals atoms having 1, 4, 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons. It is a strong bond since the paired bond cannot be
separated easily, it is a non-polar bond (A-B). Only molecules are formed in covalent bond.
Illustration of the formation of covalent bond.
How a covalent bond is formed between two atoms can be understood by considering a general case in which
an atom A has one valence electron and another atom B has seven valence electrons. As these atoms approach
nearer to each other, each atom contributes one electron and the resulting electron pair fills the outer shell of

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both the atoms. Thus, atoms A and B acquires 2 electrons and 8 electrons in their respective outer shells and the
shared electron pair constitutes a covalent bond between A and B.
Examples of covalent compounds
(a) Formation of H2 molecule
H2 molecule is composed of two H atoms, each having one valence electron. Each contributes an electron to the
shared pair and both atoms acquire stable helium configuration. Thus, stable H2 molecule results.

(b) Formation of F2 molecule,

Each F atom (2, 7) has seven valence electrons. The two F atoms achieve a stable electron octet by sharing a
pair of electrons.

(c) Formation of HF molecule

H atom (1) attains a doublet while F atom (2, 7) achieves an octet of electrons.

Properties of Covalent Compounds

1. Physical state. Covalent compounds usually consist of discrete molecules and the force of attraction between
adjacent covalent molecules is weak. It is due to these weak forces that most of the covalent compounds exist as
gases or liquids of low boiling points under the normal conditions of temperature and pressure. However, they
may exist as soft solids only when their molecular weights are high.

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2. Melting and boiling points. With the exception of covalent solids consisting of giant molecules (e.g.
diamond, SiC, AIN etc), other covalent solids have relatively lower melting and boiling points than the ionic
solids, e.g. boiling points of SiCl4 (covalent compound) and NaCl (ionic compound) are 58°C and 1440°C
respectively. Low boiling points are due to the fact that the attractive forces between covalent molecules are
weak van der Waal's forces.
3. Electrical conductivity. Covalent solids consisting of giant molecules are bad conductors of electricity, since
they do not contain charged particles (i.e. ions) or electrons to carry the current. However, the covalent solids
having the layer lattices (e.g. graphite) are good conductors of electricity, since in such solids electrons can pass
from one layer to the other and thus current can be carried. Certain covalent substances like HC1 ionize in
solution and their solutions conduct electricity.
4. Solubility in polar and non-polar solvents. With the exception of covalent solids consisting of giant
molecules, all other covalent solids are insoluble in polar solvents like H20 but are readily soluble in non-polar
solvents like C6H6, CCl4 etc.
5. Neither hard nor brittle. While ionic compounds are hard and brittle, covalent compounds are neither hard
nor brittle. Rather they are soft and waxy, since they usually consist of separate molecules.

(iib) Coordinate/Dative Bonding

A co-ordinate bond is formed when one atom provides both the electrons needed for a covalent bond.
Coordinate bond is a covalent bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of two electrons both of which are
supplied entirely by one of the linked atoms. Coordinate bond is also sometimes referred to as co-ordinate
covalent bond or dative bond. The pair of shared electrons is called lone pair. The atom which furnishes the
electron pair is called donor or ligand while the other atom which accepts the electron pair is called acceptor. A
coordinate bond is represented by an arrow which points away from the donor to the acceptor.
It is a strong bond since the paired electrons cannot be separated easily and it is a semi-polar bond (A+ B-).
Illustration of the Formation of a Coordinate Bond
The formation of a co-ordinate bond between two atoms, say A and B, can be illustrated as;
The donor atom A has a spare lone pair of electrons on it while the acceptor atom B is short of two electrons
than the octet in its valence-shell. Atom A donates its lone pair to B which accepts it. Thus, the two electrons of
the lone pair which originally belonged to atom A are now shared by both the atoms and this mutual sharing of
electron pair results in the formation of a co-ordinate bond between A and B (A B). Although the arrow head
indicates the origin of electrons, once a coordinate bond has been established, it becomes quite identical with a
normal covalent bond. Both are established by a shared electron pair and have similar properties.
The compounds which contain coordinate bonds are called coordinate compounds, some of them are:
H202, CO and O3 molecules, SO2 and S03 molecules, Aluminum chloride, Al2C13 etc.
1) Formation of ammonium ion: Ammonium ion, NH4+, is formed when ammonia combines with a hydrogen
ion, H+. The hydrogen ion is electron deficient; it has space for two electrons in its shell. The nitrogen atom in

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the ammonia molecule has a lone pair of electrons. The lone pair on the nitrogen atom provides both electrons
for the bond.

Conditions for the Formation of a Coordinate Bond

The conditions which are necessary for the formation of a coordinate bond are
(i) The atom acting as a donor should have a lone pair of electrons.
(ii) The atom acting as an acceptor should have a vacant orbital to accept the electron pair donated by the donor.
Properties of Coordinate Compounds.
The main characteristics are given below
1. Melting/boiling points and viscosity. We have seen that a coordinate bond is, in a way, a combination of an
ionic bond and a covalent bond. It is for this reason that coordinate compounds have viscosities, melting and
boiling points which are higher than those of purely covalent compounds but lower than those of purely ionic
compounds.
2. Semi-polar character. These compounds are semi-polar in character i.e. they are more polar than covalent
compounds and less polar than the ionic compounds.
3. Physical state. These compounds are gases, liquids or solids.
4. Solubility. These are usually insoluble in polar solvents like water but are soluble in non-polar (i.e. organic)
solvents.
5. Conductivity. Like covalent compounds, coordinate compounds are also non-ionic, i.e. they do not conduct
electric current through their aqueous solutions or fused mass.
6. Molecular reactions. Coordinate compounds are molecular and hence undergo molecular reactions which are
slow.
7. Stability. Coordinate compounds are as stable as the covalent compounds. But when they are made up of two
different stable molecules (molecular compounds), they are not very stable.

(iii) Metallic Bonding

In a metal, the atoms are packed closely together in a regular arrangement called a lattice. Metal atoms in a
lattice tend to lose their outer shell electrons and become positive ions. The outer shell electrons occupy new
energy levels and are free to move throughout the metal lattice. We call these electrons delocalized electrons
(free/mobile electrons). Delocalized electrons are electrons that are not associated with any one particular atom

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or bond. Metallic bonding is strong. This is because the ions are held together by the strong electrostatic
attraction between their positive charges and the negative charges of the delocalized electrons (Figure 3).
This electrostatic attraction acts in all directions. The strength of metallic bonding increases with:
■■ increasing positive charge on the ions in the metal lattice
■■ decreasing size of metal ions in the lattice
■■ increasing number of mobile electrons per atom.

Figure 3: There are strong attractive forces between the positively charged ions and the delocalized electrons.

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Metallic bonding and the properties of metals
We can use our model of metallic bonding to explain many of the properties of metals;
Most metals have high melting points and high boiling points
It takes a lot of energy to weaken the strong attractive forces between the metal ions and the delocalised
electrons. These attractive forces can only be overcome at high temperatures. However, mercury is a liquid at
room temperature. This is because some of the electrons in a mercury atom are bound more tightly than usual to
the nucleus, weakening the metallic bonds between atoms.
Metals conduct electricity
When a voltage is applied to a piece of metal, an electric current flow in it because the delocalised electrons
(mobile electrons) are free to move. Metallic bonding is the only type of bonding that allows us to predict
reliably that a solid will conduct electricity. Covalent solids cannot conduct electricity because none of their
electrons are free to move, although graphite is an exception to this. Ionic solids cannot conduct because neither
their electrons nor their ions are free to move.
Metals conduct heat
The conduction of heat is partly due to the movement of the delocalised electrons and partly due to the
vibrations passed on from one metal ion to the next.

2) INTERMOLECULAR BONDS/FORCES
The forces within molecules due to covalent bonding are strong. However, the forces between molecules are
much weaker, we call these forces intermolecular forces.
There are three types of intermolecular force:
■■ hydrogen bonding
■■ van der Waals’ forces (which are also called dispersion forces and temporary dipole–induced dipole forces)
■■ permanent dipole–dipole forces

(i) Hydrogen Bonding

This bond involves the bonding of a hydrogen atom with two strongly electronegative atoms (e.g. N, O and F)
simultaneously. Under appropriate conditions, a hydrogen atom may be linked to two similar or different
electronegative atoms. It is bonded to one of the two atoms by a covalent bond while to the other atom it is
attached by a special type of bond which is much weaker than the covalent bond and is called hydrogen bond.

Types of Hydrogen Bond

Hydrogen bond is of two types;
1.Inter-molecular hydrogen bond (Association). This type of H-bond occurs between two or more molecules of
the same or different compound. Thus NH3, H20 and HF molecules are associated by inter-molecular H-bond.

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2.Intra-molecular hydrogen bond (Chelation). This type of H-bond is formed between a H-atom and an
electronegative atom present in the same molecule.
In intramolecular H-bonding, the H-atom is bonded to two atoms of the same molecule. This type of H-bonding
may lead to the linking of two groups to form a ring structure and such an effect is one kind of chelation. The
occurrence of this type of H-bond does not disturb the normal bond angles. Examples of molecules showing
intra-molecular hydrogen bonding are provided by o-nitrophenol, o-hydroxy benzaldehyde, o-chlorophenol, o-
hydroxy benzoic acid (salicylic acid), o-nitro benzoic acid, maleic acid etc.

Properties of Hydrogen Bond

(i) A hydrogen bond (H-bond) is a bond of hydrogen between two electronegative atoms only. It never involves
more than two atoms (excluding H-atom).
(ii) Bond energy of H-bond is in the range of 3-10 kcal/mole while that of a normal covalent bond is in the
range of 50-100 kcal/mole. Thus H-bond is much weaker and longer than a covalent bond, and hence it can be
readily ruptured.

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(iii) The formation of H-bond does not involve any sharing of electron pairs. It is, therefore, quite different from
a covalent bond.
(iv) Only O, N and F which have high electronegativity and small atomic size, are capable of forming H-bonds.
(v) Hydrogen bonding results in the formation of long chains or clusters of a large number of associated
molecules like as many tiny magnets.
(vi) Like a covalent bond, H-bond has a preferred bonding direction.

Importance of Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen-bonding is useful in explaining physiological and geological processes occurring around us, for
example
1. Physical state of water: Without H-bonding, H20 would have existed as a gas like H2S. In that case no life
would have been possible without liquid H20.
2. Explanation of polymerization: H-bonding gives a satisfactory explanation for the mechanism of
polymerization and hence for the formation of bigger aggregates of organic and inorganic molecules.
3. Applications in biological investigations: H-bonding also exists in molecules of living systems like various
tissues, organs, blood, skin and bones in animals.
4. Applications in geology: Many geological products such as organic compounds contained in petroleum, coal
products and complex hydrates of minerals are formed and established by means of H-bonding.
5. In paints and dyes: The adhesive action (i.e. stickiness) of glue, honey, dyes and paints is also due to the
presence of H-bonding in them.
6. In clothing: H-bond is of vital importance for our clothing. For example, the rigidity and tensile strength of
cotton, silk or synthetic fibers is due to the H-bonding in them.
7. Food materials. Molecules of most of our food materials like sugars, carbohydrates etc. also consist of H-
bonding.
8. Wood fibers. H-bonding also plays a significant role in making wood fibers more rigid so that they may be
used to meet the requirements of housing, furnitures etc.

(ii) van der Waals forces/interaction

A Dutch scientist, J van der Waals in 1873 pointed out that particles (atoms, molecules or ions) of substances
(similar or different) exert attractive forces on each other when they are brought near to each other. These are
physical forces (electrostatic in character) and much weaker than chemical forces (i.e. ionic and covalent
bonds). They are named as van der Waals forces in honor of its inventor (J. van der Waals) who for the first
time, used the concept of these forces to explain the deviation of behavior of gases at low temperature from that
of the ideal gases. He proposed that particles of substances interact even if outer-shells of the atoms have
acquired the noble gas configurations.

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Van der Waals forces can be defined as a very short-lived inter-molecular attractive forces which are believed
to exist between all kinds of atoms, molecules and ions when they are sufficiently close to each other. van der
Waals forces have nothing to do with valence electrons of the elements. They exist in neutral molecules, ions
and atoms of inert gases or solid elements alike. van der Waals forces are much weaker than both ionic and
covalent bonds.

Types of van der Waals Forces

There are four types of van der Waals forces, namely;
1. Dipole-dipole interactions.
2. Ion-dipole interactions.
3 Dipole-induced dipole interactions.
4. Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole interactions.

Applications of van der Waals Forces

Although van der Waals forces are weak, yet they have been used to explain many important phenomena.
For example;
(i) It is the van der Waals forces between the molecules that cause substances like inert gases, halogens etc. to
condense to liquids and to freeze into solids, when the temperature is considerably lowered. Thus, these forces

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are responsible for bringing about condensation and crystallization (at low temperatures) in the noble gases and
halogens.
(ii) These forces account for varied hardness of certain solids. If the atoms or molecules in any crystal are
united only by van der Waals forces, the crystals can be broken down easily. Such crystals will be soft and
possess low melting points.
(iii) These forces, though extremely weak, can explain the deviation of the behavior of gases at low temperature
from that of the ideal gases.

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

The kinetic theory of matter postulated that all matter is made up of tiny particles and these particles of matter
are always in constant random motion and so, possess kinetic energy.
The kinetic theory postulates can be summarized as thus:
1. All particles move in continuous and random motion in straight lines.
2. The particles of gas have a negligible size and are so far apart that the volume occupied by a particle can be
ignored.
3. The intermolecular forces in gases are negligible.
4. The collision between particles is elastic. That is no energy is lost during collisions.
5. The average kinetic energy of all particles is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. That is, the
higher the temperature, the faster the particles move.

Matter can change from one state to another, and can exist in three physical states;
Gases
Liquid
Solids
Gases have no fixed shape or volume, the gas particles:
■■ are far apart, therefore gases can be compressed
■■ are randomly arranged
■■ can move freely from place to place in all directions.

Liquids take the shape of the container they occupy, thus liquid particles:
■■ are close together, so liquids have a fixed volume and can only be compressed slightly
■■ are arranged fairly randomly
■■ have limited movement from place to place, in all directions.

Solids have a fixed shape and volume, solid particles:

■■ are touching each other, so solids cannot be compressed
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■■ are usually in a regular arrangement
■■ cannot change positions with each other – they can only vibrate.

The kinetic theory of gases

The idea that molecules in gases are in constant movement is called the kinetic theory of gases. This theory
makes certain assumptions:
■■ the gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
■■ the distance between the gas molecules is much greater than the diameter of the molecules so the volume of
the molecules is negligible
■■ there are no forces of attraction or repulsion between the molecules
■■ all collisions between particles are elastic – this means no kinetic energy is lost in collisions (kinetic energy
is the energy associated with moving particles).
The application of kinetic theory
The kinetic theory is useful in several aspects, which includes;
1. It provides reasonable explanations for the behaviour of gas.
2. It accounts for the gas laws
3. It explains important phenomenon such as diffusion (Diffusion describes the movement of solute particles
through a medium from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration).
4. It provides a fundamental equation for gases [PV = nRT]

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