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The AquaCrop Version 7.1 Reference Manual, published by the FAO in August 2023, provides comprehensive guidance on the AquaCrop model for simulating crop-water productivity and yield response to water. It includes detailed annexes on crop parameters, indicative values for crop development stages, soil salinity tolerance, and calculation procedures for reference evapotranspiration. The manual emphasizes the importance of calibration and validation for accurate crop modeling and encourages user contributions to improve the model's parameters.

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Annexes

AquaCrop
Version 7.1

Reference manual

August 2023
Annexes

AquaCrop
Version 7.1

Reference manual

August 2023
Dirk RAES, Pasquale STEDUTO, Theodore C. HSIAO, and Elias FERERES with the
contribution of the AquaCrop Network

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome, 2023
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development
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mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these
have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.
The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of
FAO.
© FAO, 2023
FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated,
material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial
products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s
endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way.
All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via
www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request or addressed to copyright@fao.org.
FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through publications-
sales@fao.org.
Chapter 1. AquaCrop – FAO crop-water productivity model to
simulate yield response to water
Chapter 2. Users guide
Chapter 3. Calculation procedures
Chapter 4. Calibration guidance
Chapter 5. Training videos

Annexes
Table of contents
Annex I: Crop parameters ...................................................................................... 1
I.1 Cotton ...................................................................................................................................... 3
I.2 Maize....................................................................................................................................... 7
I.3 Potato .................................................................................................................................... 11
I.4 Quinoa ................................................................................................................................... 15
I.5 Rice ....................................................................................................................................... 19
I.6 Soybean ................................................................................................................................. 23
I.7 Sugar Beet ............................................................................................................................. 27
I.8 Sunflower .............................................................................................................................. 31
I.9 Tomato .................................................................................................................................. 35
I.10 Wheat .................................................................................................................................. 39
I.11 Barley .................................................................................................................................. 43
I.12 Sugar Cane .......................................................................................................................... 47
I.13 Sorghum .............................................................................................................................. 51
I.14 Tef ....................................................................................................................................... 55
I.15 Dry beans ............................................................................................................................ 59
I.16 Casava ................................................................................................................................. 61
I.17 Alfalfa ................................................................................................................................. 64
Annex II: Indicative values for lengths of crop development stages ................. 66
Annex III: Indicative values for soil salinity tolerance for some agriculture
crops ......................................................................................................................... 72
Annex IV: ETo calculation procedures ................................................................ 76
1. Atmospheric parameters ......................................................................................................... 76
2. Air temperature ...................................................................................................................... 77
3. Air humidity ........................................................................................................................... 77
4. Radiation ................................................................................................................................ 80
5. Wind speed ............................................................................................................................. 83
6. Reference evapotranspiration (FAO Penman-Monteith) ....................................................... 84
7. Conversion to standard metric unit ........................................................................................ 85
References .................................................................................................................................. 86

iii
Annex I: Crop parameters

Note
The recommended values provided for the crop parameters in the tables below represent
estimates obtained in calibration/validation exercises of AquaCrop with experimental
data. How good these estimates are, depends on how extensive and thorough were the
calibration and validation, and varies with the crop species listed. The experimental data
used for a crop might have been taken in one to many locations, with or without water
and temperature as limiting factors, and representing a few to many years of experiments.
The notes and symbols before each table provide indications of the thoroughness of the
calibration/validation process with respect to optimal and water stress conditions, as well
as with respect to the coverage of major production areas of that crop around the world.
Note that if a crop is important in many geographical areas, even if testing with data from
four or five diverse locations would not be considered thorough, whereas testing with
data from three locations for a crop limited to one geographical area may be considered
as adequate.

The experiments used for calibration and validation were generally conducted under high
levels of management, with the control treatments aimed at production levels close to the
maximum potential achievable in that location. All the data used were obtained under
conditions of good soil mineral nutrient status. The soil fertility feature of AquaCrop is
just beginning to be tested now with data.

In using the tables the differences in thoroughness of calibration and validation of the
parameters for the different crops should be considered. For the better tested crops, the
values provided should yield reasonable results, although small adjustments in the
parameter values may prove to be desirable. For the less tested crops, the user may want
to consider the values provided as preliminary and starting values subject to revision,
either by user calibration or by revision in future versions of AquaCrop, as more
experimental data are brought to bear. We encourage users to contact AquaCrop Help-
desk aquacrop@fao.org, in order to contribute to the calibration and validation of
AquaCrop either for crops not yet in the list of tables or for those in the tables, for future
revisions of the current version.

In the simulation output crop yield is always reported as dry matter, although the
calibration for grain crops was performed against yield measurements that had water
contents not too far from the water content of commercial grain (10-15 %). For potato
and sugar beet, the simulated dry matter yield can be converted to fresh weight (usual
way commercial yields are reported) best by using the measured water or dry matter
content of the product. If that information is not available, a general conversion factor, in
terms of kg of dry matter per kg fresh weight, of 0.20 to 0.25 may be used.

AquaCrop is a relatively simple model by design, yet suitable for the simulation of most
herbaceous species. The decision was made to keep the model simple and more general.
The model can be modified to account for some unusual characteristic specific for a

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 1

particular crop, but to do that for a number of crops each with its own special
characteristics would make the model too complex. The user should be aware of this
limitation of the model. Examples of such special characteristics are: (1) The cut-out
phenomenon exhibited by cotton under some conditions, when additional flowers
(squares) and young fruits (bolls) no longer form when the fruit load is already large; but
once the existing fruits mature and conditions are favourable, new flowers and fruits are
produced again. Cut-out can be induced by mild to moderate water stress but is simulated
only indirectly in a limited way by the model. (2) Low land (flooded) rice can experience
substantial variations in the water level of the field. This would determine how much of
the canopy is submerged and not transpiring or photosynthesizing, and hence not
producing biomass. The model does not consider submergence and assumes only a very
small part of the canopy is submerged and this has no effect on transpiration or biomass
production.

FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper Nr. 66

Crop yield response to water
In this handbook, a general description, growth and development, water use and
productivity, responses to stresses, irrigation practices and crop yield for the listed crops
are provided.

Steduto, P., Hsiao, T.C., Fereres, E., Raes, D. 2012. Crop yield
response to water. Irrigation and Drainage Paper Nr. 66, FAO,
Rome, Italy. 500 pages.

Download from website:

http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2800e/i2800e00.htm

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 2

I.1 Cotton

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺
• Water stress conditions ☺☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺☺
• Overall ☺☺

◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Note - The cut-out phenomenon exhibited by cotton under some conditions, when
additional flowers (squares) and young fruits (bolls) no longer form when the fruit load is
already large; but once the existing fruits mature and conditions are favourable, new
flowers and fruits are produced again. Cut-out can be induced by mild to moderate water
stress but is simulated only indirectly in a limited way by the model.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 3

I.1 Cotton

1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 12.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 35.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 5.00 - 7.00
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 60,000 – 150,000
Time from sowing to emergence (growing degree day) Management (3) 10 - 80
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.006 - 0.008
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) Almost entirely covered
- Entirely covered
Time from sowing to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1000 - 1800
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.002 - 0.003
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1200 - 2000
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 450 - 700
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 450 - 750
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) No
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 2.50
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.5

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 4

I.1 Cotton continued

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 5

I.1 Cotton continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.20
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.70
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.75
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 2.5
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.75
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 2.5
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.85 (Estimate)
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Moderately tolerant to water
Environment (3) logging
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 15.0 (Estimate)
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 40.0 to 45.0 (Estimate)
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) Not considered
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 7.7
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 26.9
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 6

I.2 Maize

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺☺

• Water stress conditions ☺☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺☺☺
• Overall ☺☺☺

◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Note - Maize parameters have been mostly generated from the calibration reported by
Hsiao et al., 2009. AquaCrop — the FAO crop model to simulate yield response to water:
III. Parameterization and testing for maize. Agron. J. 101 (3): 448-459.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 7

I.2 Maize
1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 8.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 30.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 6.50
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 50,000 – 100,000
Time from sowing to emergence (growing degree day) Management (3) 60 - 100
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.012 - 0.013
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) 65 – 99 %
Time from sowing to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1150 - 1500
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.010
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1450 - 1850
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 600 - 900
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 150 - 200
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) Yes
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 2.80
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.3

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 8

I.2 Maize continued

2. Crop transpiration
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
KcTr,x Crop coefficient when canopy is complete but prior to senescence Conservative (1) 1.05
Decline of crop coefficient (%/day) as a result of ageing, nitrogen deficiency, Conservative (1) 0.30
etc.
Effect of canopy cover on reducing soil evaporation in late season stage Management (3) 50
3. Biomass production and yield formation
3.1 Crop water productivity
WP* Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 (gram/m2) Conservative (1) 33.7
Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 during yield formation (as Conservative (1) 100
percent WP* before yield formation)
3.2 Harvest Index
HIo Reference harvest index (%) Cultivar (4) 48 - 52
Possible increase (%) of HI due to water stress before flowering Conservative (1) None
Excess of potential fruits (%) Conservative (2) Small
Coefficient describing positive impact of restricted vegetative growth during Conservative (1) Small
yield formation on HI
Coefficient describing negative impact of stomatal closure during yield Conservative (1) Strong
formation on HI
Allowable maximum increase (%) of specified HI Conservative (1) 15
(1) Conservative generally applicable
(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Note - Maize yield is considered having water content not far from that of commercial grain (10-15 %).

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 9

I.2 Maize continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.14
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.72
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 2.9
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.69
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 6.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.69
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 2.7
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.80 (Estimate)
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Moderately tolerant to water
Environment (3) logging
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 10.0 (Estimate)
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 40.0 (Estimate)
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 12.0 (Estimated)
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 1.7
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 10.0
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 10

I.3 Potato

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺
• Water stress conditions ☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺
• Overall ☺
◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 11

I.3 Potato
1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 2.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 26.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 10 - 20
Management (3)
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 30,000 – 60,000
Time from sowing to emergence (growing degree day) Management (3) 150 - 250
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.017 - 0.020
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) Almost entirely covered
Time from sowing to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 850 - 1000
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.002
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 800 - 1800
1.3 Yield formation
Time from sowing to start yield formation (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 350 - 650
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 1.80
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.5

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 12

I.3 Potato continued

2. Crop transpiration
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
KcTr,x Crop coefficient when canopy is complete but prior to senescence Conservative (1) 1.10
Decline of crop coefficient (%/day) as a result of ageing, nitrogen deficiency, Conservative (1) 0.15
etc.
Effect of canopy cover on reducing soil evaporation in late season stage Conservative (1) 60
3. Biomass production and yield formation
3.1 Crop water productivity
WP* Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 (gram/m2) Conservative (1) 18.0 - 20.0
Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 during yield formation (as Conservative (1) 100
percent WP* before yield formation)
3.2 Harvest Index
HIo Reference harvest index (%) Cultivar (4) 70 - 85
Possible increase (%) of HI due to water stress before starting yield formation Conservative (1) Small
Coefficient describing positive impact of restricted vegetative growth during Conservative (1) None
yield formation on HI
Coefficient describing negative impact of stomatal closure during yield Conservative (1) Small
formation on HI
Allowable maximum increase (%) of specified HI Conservative (1) 5
(1) Conservative generally applicable
(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Note - Potato yield is expressed as dry matter. Simulated dry matter yield can be converted to fresh weight best by using the measured
water or dry matter content of the product. A general conversion factor of 20% to 25%, in terms of kg of dry matter per kg fresh weight,
may be used.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 13

I.3 Potato continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.20
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.70
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Moderately tolerant to water
Environment (3) logging
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 5.0 - 9.0 (Estimated)
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 1.7
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 10.0
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 14

I.4 Quinoa

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺
• Water stress conditions ☺☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺☺☺
• Overall ☺☺
◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Note - Quinoa parameters have been generated from the calibration reported by Geerts et
al., 2009. Simulating Yield Response to Water of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)
with FAO-AquaCrop. Agron. J. 101 (3): 499-508.

Note - Calendar days instead of growing degree day mode is herein suggested in order to
keep the calibration more generic for different varieties with unknown growing degree
days sums for different phenological stages.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 15

I.4 Quinoa
1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 0.0 – 3.0 (Estimate)
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) Not calibrated
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 6.50 (Estimate)
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 5,000 – 300,000
Time from sowing to emergence (days) Management (3) 5 – 10 1
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per day) Conservative (1) 0.100
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) 50 - 100
Time from sowing to start senescence (days) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 135 - 170
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per day) Conservative (1) 0.100
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (days) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 165 - 195
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 65 - 110
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 15 - 20
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) No 2
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 1.00
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.5 3

1
In Crop Program settings, Germination reduce the Minimum soil water content required for germination from the default 20% to 10% of TAW.
2
Artificial measure to account for the flexible phenology of quinoa in response to drought stress.
3
In Crop Program settings, Root zone put the effect of water stress on root development as Not considered.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 16

I.4 Quinoa continued

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 17

I.4 Quinoa continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.50
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.80
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 4.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 4.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.98
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 4.0
Sum(ETo) during stress period to be exceeded before senescence is triggered Conservative (1) 200
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.90 (Estimate)
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Sensitive to water logging
Environment (3)
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) Not considered
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) Not considered
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) Not considered
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 5.0 (Estimated)
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 18.0 (Estimated)
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 18

I.5 Rice

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺
• Water stress conditions ◘
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺
• Overall ☺
◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Note – The present AquaCrop calibration applies to Paddy (flooded) rice only. Simulate
puddled soil (e.g. default soil file PADDY.SOL) and soil bunds (e.g. default Field
management file BUNDS.MAN)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 19

I.5 Rice

1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 8.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 30.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% recover (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 3.00 - 8.00
Management (3)
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 300,000 – 1,500,000
Time from transplanting to recover (growing degree day) Management (3) 35 - 100
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.006 - 0.008
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) Almost entirely covered
Time from transplanting to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to recover + 1000 - 1500
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.005
Time from transplanting to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (GD day) Cultivar (4) Time to recover + 1500 - 2000
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to recover + 1000 - 1300
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 300 - 400
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) Yes
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 0.60
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 2.0 - 3.0

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I.5 Rice continued

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Note - Rice yield is considered having water content not far from that of commercial grain (10-15 %).

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 21

I.5 Rice continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.00
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.40
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.50
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.55
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.75 (Estimate)
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Not stressed when water logged
Environment (3)
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 8.0
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 35.0
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 10.0 (Estimated)
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 3.0
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 11.3
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 22

I.6 Soybean

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺
• Water stress conditions ☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺☺☺
• Overall ☺☺
◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 23

I.6 Soybean

1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 5.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 30.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 5.00
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 250,000 – 450,000
Time from sowing to emergence (growing degree day) Management (3) 150 - 300
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.004 - 0.005
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) Almost entirely covered
- Entirely covered
Time from sowing to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1600 - 2400
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.015
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 2000 - 3000
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1000 - 1500
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 400 - 800
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) Yes
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 2.40
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.5

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 24

I.6 Soybean continued

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 25

I.6 Soybean continued
4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.15
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.65
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.70
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.85 (Estimate)
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Moderately tolerant to water
Environment (3) logging
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 8.0 (Estimate)
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 40.0 (Estimate)
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 10.0 (Estimate)
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 5.0
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 10.0
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 26

I.7 Sugar Beet

Goodness of the calibration

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 27

I.7 Sugar Beet
1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 5.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 30.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 1.00
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 80,000 – 120,000
Time from sowing to emergence (growing degree day) Management (3) 20 - 50
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.010 - 0.012
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) Up to Almost entirely covered
Time from sowing to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1700 - 2300
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.003 - 0.004
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 2000 - 2800
1.3 Yield formation
Time from sowing to start yield formation (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 800 - 1000
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 2.40
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.5

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 28

I.7 Sugar Beet continued

2. Crop transpiration
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
KcTr,x Crop coefficient when canopy is complete but prior to senescence Conservative (1) 1.10
Decline of crop coefficient (%/day) as a result of ageing, nitrogen deficiency, Conservative (1) 0.15
etc.
Effect of canopy cover on reducing soil evaporation in late season stage Conservative (1) 60
3. Biomass production and yield formation
3.1 Crop water productivity
WP* Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 (gram/m2) Conservative (1) 17.0
Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 during yield formation (as Conservative (1) 100
percent WP* before yield formation)
3.2 Harvest Index
HIo Reference harvest index (%) Cultivar (4) 65 - 75
Possible increase (%) of HI due to water stress before starting yield formation Conservative (1) None
Coefficient describing positive impact of restricted vegetative growth during Conservative (1) Small
yield formation on HI
Coefficient describing negative impact of stomatal closure during yield Conservative (1) None
formation on HI
Allowable maximum increase (%) of specified HI Conservative (1) 20
(1) Conservative generally applicable
(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Note - Sugarbeet yield is expressed as dry matter. Simulated dry matter yield can be converted to fresh weight best by using the
measured water or dry matter content of the product. A general conversion factor of 25 to 20%, in terms of kg of dry matter per kg fresh
weight, may be used.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 29

I.7 Sugar Beet continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.20
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.65
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.75
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Moderately tolerant to water
Environment (3) logging
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 9.0 (Estimated)
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 7.0
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 24.0
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 30

I.8 Sunflower

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺
• Water stress conditions ☺☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺
• Overall ☺☺
◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Note -There is more variation in season length in sunflower than in many other crops.
Commercial varieties range from very early to very late maturing, differing by more than
50 % in season length. The parameters in the Table are recommended for medium to late
maturing cultivars .

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 31

I.8 Sunflower
1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 4.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 30.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 5.00
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 50,000 – 70,000
Time from sowing to emergence (growing degree day) Management (3) 150 - 200
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.015
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) Entirely covered
Time from sowing to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1400 - 1800
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.006
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 2200 - 2800
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1000 - 1300
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 300 - 400
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) Yes
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 3.00
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.3

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I.8 Sunflower continued

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 33

I.8 Sunflower continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.15
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.65
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 2.5
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 2.5
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.70
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 2.5
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.85 (Estimate)
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Moderately tolerant to water
Environment (3) logging
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 10
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 40
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 12
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 2.0 (Estimate)
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 12.0 (Estimate)
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 34

I.9 Tomato

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺
• Water stress conditions ◘
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺☺
• Overall ☺
◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Note – The present AquaCrop calibration applies to Processing tomato only.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 35

I.9 Tomato
1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 7.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 28.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 1.0 (direct seeding)
5.0 to 20.0 (transplant)
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 15,000 – 80,000
Time from sowing to emergence / transplant to recovery (growing degree Management (3) 40 - 80
day)
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.0075
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) Fairly to almost entirely covered
Time from sowing / transplant to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Recovery + 1300 - 1600
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.004
Time from sowing / transplant to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing Cultivar (4) Recovery + 1500 - 2000
degree day)
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing / transplant to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Recovery + 250 - 400
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 600 - 900
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) No
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 2.00
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.5

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 36

I.9 Tomato continued

2. Crop transpiration
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
KcTr,x Crop coefficient when canopy is complete but prior to senescence Conservative (1) 1.10
Decline of crop coefficient (%/day) as a result of ageing, nitrogen deficiency, Conservative (1) 0.15
etc.
Effect of canopy cover on reducing soil evaporation in late season stage Conservative (1) 60
3. Biomass production and yield formation
3.1 Crop water productivity
WP* Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 (gram/m2) Conservative (1) 18.0
(1)
Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 during yield formation (as Conservative 100
percent WP* before yield formation)
3.2 Harvest Index
HIo Reference harvest index (%) Cultivar (4) 55 - 65
(1)
Possible increase (%) of HI due to water stress before flowering Conservative None (Estimated)
Excess of potential fruits (%) Conservative (2) Large
(1)
Coefficient describing positive impact of restricted vegetative growth during Conservative None (Estimated)
yield formation on HI
Coefficient describing negative impact of stomatal closure during yield Conservative (1) Strong (Estimated)
formation on HI
Allowable maximum increase (%) of specified HI Conservative (1) 15 (Estimated)
(1) Conservative generally applicable
(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific
Note - Harvest Index refers to the ratio between the dry yield (including red, green, and rotten production) and dry above ground
biomass. To convert dry into fresh yield, 93 to 95% water content should be considered. Red production compared to the total one varies
with management.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 37

I.9 Tomato continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.15 (Estimated)
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.55 (Estimated)
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0 (Estimated)
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.50 (Estimated)
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0 (Estimated)
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.70 (Estimated)
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0 (Estimated)
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.92
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) 5.0
Environment (3)
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 10.0 (Estimated)
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 40.0 (Estimated)
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) Not considered
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 1.7
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 12.8
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 38

I.10 Wheat

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺
• Water stress conditions ☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺☺
• Overall ☺☺
◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Note - The present AquaCrop calibration applies to Wheat grown as spring wheat in
northern latitudes or grown as winter wheat in temperatures latitudes in the absence of a
cold period below 5 GDD.

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 39

I.10 Wheat
1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 0.0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 26.0
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 1.50
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 2,000,000 – 7,000,000
Time from sowing to emergence (growing degree day) Management (3) 100 - 250
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.005 - 0.007
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) 80 – 99 %
Time from sowing to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1000 - 2000
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.004
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1500 - 2900
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) Time to emergence + 1000 - 1300
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 150 - 280
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) Yes
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 2.40
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.5

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 40

I.10 Wheat continued

2. Crop transpiration
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
KcTr,x Crop coefficient when canopy is complete but prior to senescence Conservative (1) 1.10
Decline of crop coefficient (%/day) as a result of ageing, nitrogen deficiency, Conservative (1) 0.15
etc.
Effect of canopy cover on reducing soil evaporation in late season stage Conservative (1) 50
3. Biomass production and yield formation
3.1 Crop water productivity
WP* Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 (gram/m2) Conservative (1) 15.0
Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 during yield formation (as Conservative (1) 100
percent WP* before yield formation)
3.2 Harvest Index
HIo Reference harvest index (%) Cultivar (4) 45 - 50
Possible increase (%) of HI due to water stress before flowering Conservative (1) Small
Excess of potential fruits (%) Conservative (2) Medium
Coefficient describing positive impact of restricted vegetative growth during Conservative (1) Small
yield formation on HI
Coefficient describing negative impact of stomatal closure during yield Conservative (1) Moderate
formation on HI
Allowable maximum increase (%) of specified HI Conservative (1) 15
(1) Conservative generally applicable
(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Note - Wheat yield is considered having water content not far from that of commercial grain (10-15 %).

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 41

I.10 Wheat continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.20
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.65
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 5.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.65
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 2.5
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.70
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 2.5
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.85 (Estimate)
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) Moderately tolerant to water
Environment (3) logging
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 5.0 (Estimate)
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 35.0 (Estimate)
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 13.0 - 15.0 (Estimated)
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 6.0
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 20.1
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 42

I.11 Barley

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺
• Water stress conditions ☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺
• Overall ☺

◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 43

I.11 Barley

1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 0
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 15
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 1.50
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 1,500,000 – 3,000,000
Time from sowing to emergence (growing degree day) Management (3) 90 – 200
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.008
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) 50 – 99
Time from sowing to start senescence (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 900 – 2,000
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.006
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 1296
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 700 – 1,300
Length of the flowering stage (growing degree day) Cultivar (4) 150 – 250
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) Yes
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) up to 2.50 m
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 15

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I.11 Barley continued

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 45

I.11 Barley continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.20
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.65
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.55
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.85
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) 15
Environment (3)
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 5
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 35
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 14
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 6.0
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 20.1
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 46

I.12 Sugar Cane

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions
• Water stress conditions
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas)
• Overall

◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 47

I.12 Sugar cane

1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 9
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 32
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 6.50
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 140,000
Time from transplanting to emergence (day) Management (3) 7
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per day) Conservative (1) 0.12548
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) 95
Time from transplanting to start senescence (day) Cultivar (4) 330
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per day) Conservative (1) 0.07615
Time from transplanting to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (day) Cultivar (4) 365
1.3 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 1.80
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.3

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I.12 Sugar Cane continued

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 49

I.12 Sugar Cane continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.25
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.55
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.50
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) 5
Environment (3)
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 12.0
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 1.7
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 18.6
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

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I.13 Sorghum

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions
• Water stress conditions
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas)
• Overall

◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 51

I.13 Sorghum

1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 8
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 30
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 3
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 200,000
Time from sowing to emergence (day) Management (3) 7 - 13
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per day) Conservative (1) 0.16
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) 60 – 98
Time from sowing to start senescence (day) Cultivar (4) 91
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per growing degree day) Conservative (1) 0.01
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (day) Cultivar (4) 102
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (day) Cultivar (4) 65
Length of the flowering stage (day) Cultivar (4) 20
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) YES
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) Up to 2.8 m
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.3

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I.13 Sorghum continued

2. Crop transpiration
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
KcTr,x Crop coefficient when canopy is complete but prior to senescence Conservative (1) 1.07
Decline of crop coefficient (%/day) as a result of ageing, nitrogen deficiency, Conservative (1) 0.3
etc.
Effect of canopy cover on reducing soil evaporation in late season stage Conservative (1) 50
3. Biomass production and yield formation
3.1 Crop water productivity
WP* Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 (gram/m2) Conservative (1) 33.7
Water productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 during yield formation (as Conservative (1) 100
percent WP* before yield formation)
3.2 Harvest Index
HIo Reference harvest index (%) Cultivar (4) 45
Possible increase (%) of HI due to water stress before flowering Conservative (1) Small
Excess of potential fruits (%) Conservative (2) Medium - Large
Coefficient describing positive impact of restricted vegetative growth during Conservative (1) Very strong
yield formation on HI
Coefficient describing negative impact of stomatal closure during yield Conservative (1) Moderate
formation on HI
Allowable maximum increase (%) of specified HI Conservative (1) 25

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 53

I.13 Sorghum continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.15
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.70
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.75
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.70
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.80
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) 5
Environment (3)
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 10
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 40
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 12.0
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 6.8
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 13.1
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 54

I.14 Tef

Goodness of the calibration

• Non-limiting conditions ☺☺
• Water stress conditions ☺☺
• Geographical coverage (with respect to the world cropped areas) ☺
• Overall ☺

◘ No calibration
☺ Minimum degree of calibration
☺☺ Medium degree of calibration
☺☺☺ Good degree of calibration
☺☺☺☺ Optimum degree of calibration

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 55

I.14 Tef

1. Crop Phenology
Symbol Description Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
1.1 Threshold air temperatures
Tbase Base temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 10
Tupper Upper temperature (°C) Conservative (1) 30
1.2 Development of green canopy cover
cc0 Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90% emergence (cm2/plant) Conservative (2) 0.25
Number of plants per hectare Management (3) 10,000,000
Time from sowing to emergence (day) Management (3) 14
CGC Canopy growth coefficient (fraction per day) Conservative (1) 0.146
CCx Maximum canopy cover (%) Management (3) 80 - 90
Time from sowing to start senescence (day) Cultivar (4) 75
CDC Canopy decline coefficient (fraction per day) Conservative (1) 0.116
Time from sowing to maturity, i.e. length of crop cycle (day) Cultivar (4) 99
1.3 Flowering
Time from sowing to flowering (day) Cultivar (4) 55
Length of the flowering stage (day) Cultivar (4) 11
Crop determinacy linked with flowering Conservative (1) YES
1.4 Development of root zone
Zn Minimum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.30
Zx Maximum effective rooting depth (m) Management (3) 0.60
Shape factor describing root zone expansion Conservative (1) 1.5

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I.14 Tef continued

(1) Conservative generally applicable

(2) Conservative for a given specie but can or may be cultivar specific
(3) Dependent on environment and/or management
(4) Cultivar specific

Reference Manual, Annex I – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 57

I.14 Tef continued

4. Stresses
Symbol Type (1), (2), (3), (4) Values / ranges
4.1 Soil water stresses
pexp,lower Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.32
pexp,upper Soil water depletion threshold for canopy expansion - Lower threshold Conservative (1) 0.66
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy expansion Conservative (1) 3.0
psto Soil water depletion threshold for stomatal control - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.60
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for stomatal control Conservative (1) 3.0
psen Soil water depletion threshold for canopy senescence - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.58
Shape factor for Water stress coefficient for canopy senescence Conservative (1) 3.0
ppol Soil water depletion threshold for failure of pollination - Upper threshold Conservative (1) 0.92
Vol% at anaerobiotic point (with reference to saturation) Cultivar (4) 6
Environment (3)
4.2 Air temperature stress
Minimum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail (cold stress) Conservative (1) 8
(°C)
Maximum air temperature above which pollination starts to fail (heat stress) Conservative (1) 40
(°C)
Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass production (°C - day) Conservative (1) 11.1
4.3 Salinity stress
ECen Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 2 (estimated)
lower threshold (at which soil salinity stress starts to occur)
ECex Electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste extract: Conservative (1) 12 (estimated)
upper threshold (at which soil salinity stress has reached its maximum effect)

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I.15 Dry beans
Table 15. – Calibration values for selected parameters of the Crop Data file
Description Value Unit

 Temperature

Base temperature (Tbase) 9 ºC

Cut-off temperature (Tupper) 30 ºC

 Canopy development

Canopy cover per seedling at 90% emergence (cco) 10 cm2/plant

Canopy growth coefficient (CGC) 11.8 %/day

Maximum canopy cover (CCx) 99 %

Crop coefficient for transpiration (KcTr,x) 1.05

Canopy decline coefficient (CDC) 0.881 %/GDD

Time from DAP [1] to emergence 59 GDD

Time from DAP to maximum Canopy 752 GDD

Time from DAP to senescence 903 GDD

Time from DAP to maturity 1298 GDD

 Flowering

Duration of flowering 233 GDD

Time from DAP to flowering 556 GDD

Length building up Harvest Index 668 GDD

 Root development

Maximum rooting depth (Zrx) 1.7 m

Time from DAP to maximum rooting depth 888 GDD

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 59

 Water stress response

Canopy expansion p(upper) 0.15 %TAW

Canopy expansion p(lower) 0.65 %TAW

Canopy expansion shape factor 2.5

Stomatal closure p(upper) 0.6 %TAW

Stomatal closure shape factor 3.0

Early canopy senescence p(upper) 0.7 %TAW

Early canopy senescence shape factor 2.5

Maximum positive effect on HI 10%

Before flowering (+) small

During flowering (-) moderate

During yield formation (+) none

During yield formation (-) very strong

 Production

Reference harvest index (HI) 40 %

Normalized water productivity (WP*) 15 g/m2

Adjustment for yield formation 90 %

[1]
DAP: day after planting

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 60

I.16 Casava
Reference:
Wellens, J., Raes, D., Fereres, E., Diels, J., Coppye, C., Adiele, J.G., Ezui, K.S.G.,
Becerra, L.A., Gomez Selvaraj, M., Dercon, G., Heng, L.K. 2022. Calibration and
validation of the FAO AquaCrop water productivity model for cassava (Manihot
esculenta Crantz). Agricultural Water Management (263), 107491.

Method (1) of
Crop parameter Value
Determination

A. Conservative and/or crop specific parameters

Base temperature (°C) 10.0 L
Upper temperature (°C) 30.0 L
Soil water depletion factor for canopy expansion
0.25 C
(p-exp) - Upper threshold
Soil water depletion factor for canopy expansion
0.60 C
(p-exp) - Lower threshold
Shape factor for water stress coefficient for canopy
3.0 D
expansion
Soil water depletion fraction for stomatal control
0.50 C
(p-sto) - Upper threshold
Shape factor for water stress coefficient for
3.0 D
stomatal control
Soil water depletion factor for canopy senescence
0.50 C
(p-sen) - Upper threshold
Shape factor for water stress coefficient for canopy
3.0 D
senescence
vol% for Anaerobiotic point (* (SAT - [vol%]) at
5 D
which deficient aeration occurs *)
Canopy growth coefficient (CGC): Increase in
0.10425 C
canopy cover (fraction soil cover per day)
Canopy decline coefficient (CDC): Decrease in
0.04100 C
canopy cover (in fraction per day)
Crop coefficient when canopy is complete but prior
0.85 C
to senescence (Kc,Tr,x)
Decline of crop coefficient (%/day) as a result of
0.050 C
ageing, nitrogen deficiency, etc.
Water Productivity normalized for ETo and 17.0 C

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 61

Method (1) of
Crop parameter Value
Determination
CO2 (WP*) (gram/m²)
Possible increase (%) of HI due to water stress
4 C
before start of yield formation
Coefficient of positive impact on HI of restricted
4.0 C
vegetative growth during yield formation
Coefficient of negative impact on HI of stomatal
10.0 C
closure during yield formation
Allowable maximum increase (%) of specified HI 15 C

B. Non-tested crop specific parameters

Minimum growing degrees required for full crop
11.1 C
transpiration (°C - day)
Minimum and maximum air temperature below
– NA
which pollination starts to fail
Response to soil fertility – NA
Soil salinity stress – NA

C. Non-conservatives and/or cultivar specific parameters

Calendar Days from transplanting to recovered
10 E
transplant
Calendar Days from transplanting to maximum
70 E
rooting depth
Calendar Days from transplanting to start
300 E
senescence
Calendar Days from transplanting to maturity 360 E
Calendar Days from transplanting to start of yield
80 E
formation
Minimum effective rooting depth (m) 0.30 D
Maximum effective rooting depth (m) 1.00 L
Shape factor describing root zone expansion 1.50 D
Maximum root water extraction (m³ water/m³
0.048 D
soil.day) in top quarter of root zone
Maximum root water extraction (m³ water/m³
0.013 D
soil.day) in bottom quarter of root zone
Effect of canopy cover in reducing soil evaporation
60 E
in late season stage
Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 10.00 M

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 62

Method (1) of
Crop parameter Value
Determination
90% emergence (cm²)
10,000–
Number of plants per hectare M
15,625
Maximum canopy cover (CCx) in fraction soil cover 0.77–0.99 M
Building up of Harvest Index starting at root/tuber
250 C
enlargement (days)
Reference Harvest Index (HIo) (%) 60 C

(1) Code: C: calibration; D: AquaCrop default; E: estimation; L: literature; M: measured;

NA: not applicable.

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 63

I.17 Alfalfa
Reference: Raes, D., Fereres, E., García Vila, M., Curnel, Y., Knoden, D., Kale Çelik,
S., Ucar, Y., Türk, M., Wellens, J. 2023. Simulation of alfalfa yield with AquaCrop.
Agricultural Water Management (284), 108341.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108341.

Crop parameter Value Source

A. Conservative and/or crop specific parameters

▪ Air temperature stress
Tbase: Base temperature (°C) 5 Lit
Tupper: Upper temperature (°C) 30 Est
Minimum growing degrees required for full crop transpiration (GDD.day-1) 8 Est
▪ Soil water stress
Soil water depletion for canopy expansion - Upper threshold (fraction of TAW) 0.15 Est
Soil water depletion for canopy expansion - Lower threshold (fraction of TAW) 0.55 Est
Shape factor for water stress coefficient for canopy expansion 3.0 Default
Soil water depletion for stomatal control - Upper threshold (fraction of TAW) 0.60 Est
Shape factor for water stress coefficient for stomatal control 3.0 Default
Soil water depletion for canopy senescence - Upper threshold (fraction of TAW) 0.70 Est
Shape factor for water stress coefficient for canopy senescence 3.0 Default
Soil water stress at which deficient aeration occurs (vol% below saturation) 5 Default
▪ Soil salinity stress
Electrical Conductivity of soil saturation extract at which crop starts to be 2 FAO29
affected by soil salinity (dS/m)
Electrical Conductivity of soil saturation extract at which crop can no longer 16 FAO29
grow (dS/m)
▪ Development of Crop Canopy Cover
Canopy growth coefficient (CGC) (increase of the fraction soil cover per 0.012 Est
growing degree)
Canopy decline coefficient (CDC) (decrease of the fraction soil cover per 0.006 Est
growing degree)
Soil surface covered by an individual seedling at 90 % emergence (cm²) 2.0 Est
▪ Crop transpiration and biomass production
KcTrx: Crop coefficient when canopy is complete but prior to senescence 1.15 Est
fage: Decline of crop coefficient as a result of ageing, nitrogen deficiency, etc. 0.050 Est
(%/day)
Water Productivity normalized for ETo and CO2 (gram/m²) 15.0 Cal

B. Non-conservatives and/or cultivar specific parameters

Minimum effective rooting depth (m) 0.30 Default
Maximum effective rooting depth (m) 3.00 Lit
Shape factor describing root zone expansion 15 Default
Maximum root water extraction in top quarter of root zone (m³ water/m³ 0.020 Default
soil.day)
Maximum root water extraction in bottom quarter of root zone (m³ water/m³ 0.010 Default
soil.day)
Effect of canopy cover in reducing soil evaporation in late season stage 60 Default

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 64

Number of plants per hectare 2,500,000
Maximum canopy cover (CCx) in fraction soil cover 0.95 Est
Lit: literature; Est: estimation based on authors’ experience with AquaCrop; FAO56: FAO
Irrigation and Drainage paper N° 56 (Allen et al., 1998); FAO29: FAO Irrigation and Drainage
Paper N° 29 (Ayers and Westcot, 1985); Default: AquaCrop default values.

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 65

Annex II: Indicative values for lengths of crop
development stages

Reference
Allen, R., L.S. Pereira, D. Raes, and M. Smith. 1998. Crop evapotranspiration –
Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper
N° 56. Rome, Italy. 300 p.

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 66

Table II.1 Indicative values for lengths of crop development stages for various
planting periods and climatic regions
Crop Init. Dev. Mid Late Total Plant Date Region
(Lini) (Ldev) (Lmid) (Llate)

a. Small Vegetables
Broccoli 35 45 40 15 135 Sept Calif. Desert, USA
Cabbage 40 60 50 15 165 Sept Calif. Desert, USA
Carrots 20 30 50/30 20 100 Oct/Jan Arid climate
30 40 60 20 150 Feb/Mar Mediterranean
30 50 90 30 200 Oct Calif. Desert, USA
Cauliflower 35 50 40 15 140 Sept Calif. Desert, USA
Celery 25 40 95 20 180 Oct (Semi)Arid
25 40 45 15 125 April Mediterranean
30 55 105 20 210 Jan (Semi)Arid
Crucifers1 20 30 20 10 80 April Mediterranean
25 35 25 10 95 February Mediterranean
30 35 90 40 195 Oct/Nov Mediterranean
Lettuce 20 30 15 10 75 April Mediterranean
30 40 25 10 105 Nov/Jan Mediterranean
25 35 30 10 100 Oct/Nov Arid Region
35 50 45 10 140 Feb Mediterranean
Onion (dry) 15 25 70 40 150 April Mediterranean
20 35 110 45 210 Oct; Jan. Arid Region; Calif.
Onion (green) 25 30 10 5 70 April/May Mediterranean
20 45 20 10 95 October Arid Region
30 55 55 40 180 March Calif., USA
Onion (seed) 20 45 165 45 275 Sept Calif. Desert, USA
Spinach 20 20 15/25 5 60/70 Apr; Sep/Oct Mediterranean
20 30 40 10 100 November Arid Region
Radish 5 10 15 5 35 Mar/Apr Medit.; Europe
10 10 15 5 40 Winter Arid Region
b. Vegetables – Solanum Family (Solanaceae)
Egg plant 30 40 40 20 130\14 October Arid Region
30 45 40 25 0 May/June Mediterranean
Sweet 25/30 35 40 20 125 April/June Europe and Medit.
peppers (bell) 30 40 110 30 210 October Arid Region
Tomato 30 40 40 25 135 January Arid Region
35 40 50 30 155 Apr/May Calif., USA
25 40 60 30 155 Jan Calif. Desert, USA
35 45 70 30 180 Oct/Nov Arid Region
30 40 45 30 145 April/May Mediterranean
c. Vegetables - Cucumber Family (Cucurbitaceae)
Cantaloupe 30 45 35 10 120 Jan Calif., USA
10 60 25 25 120 Aug Calif., USA
Cucumber 20 30 40 15 105 June/Aug Arid Region
25 35 50 20 130 Nov; Feb Arid Region
Pumpkin, 20 30 30 20 100 Mar, Aug Mediterranean
Winter 25 35 35 25 120 June Europe
squash
Squash, 25 35 25 15 100 Apr; Dec. Medit.; Arid Reg.
Zucchini 20 30 25 15 90 May/June Medit.; Europe
* Lengths of crop development stages provided in this table are indicative of general conditions, but may vary substantially from region to region,
with climate and cropping conditions, and with crop variety. The user is strongly encouraged to obtain appropriate local information.
1
Crucifers include cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, and Brussel sprouts. The wide range in lengths of seasons is due to varietal and species
differences.

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 67

Table II.1 continued
Crop Init. Dev. Mid Late Total Plant Region
(Lini) (Ldev) Date
(Lmid) (Llate)
Sweet melons 25 35 40 20 120 May Mediterranean
30 30 50 30 140 March Calif., USA
15 40 65 15 135 Aug Calif. Desert, USA
30 45 65 20 160 Dec/Jan Arid Region
Water melons 20 30 30 30 110 April Italy
10 20 20 30 80 Mat/Aug Near East (desert)
d. Roots and Tubers
Beets, table 15 25 20 10 70 Apr/May Mediterranean
25 30 25 10 90 Feb/Mar Mediterranean & Arid
Cassava: year 1 20 40 90 60 210 Rainy Tropical regions
year 2 150 40 110 60 360 season
Potato 25 30 30/45 30 115/130 Jan/Nov (Semi)Arid Climate
25 30 45 30 130 May Continental Climate
30 35 50 30 145 April Europe
45 30 70 20 165 Apr/May Idaho, USA
30 35 50 25 140 Dec Calif. Desert, USA
Sweet potato 20 30 60 40 150 April Mediterranean
15 30 50 30 125 Rainy Tropical regions
seas.
Sugarbeet 30 45 90 15 180 March Calif., USA
25 30 90 10 155 June Calif., USA
25 65 100 65 255 Sept Calif. Desert, USA
50 40 50 40 180 April Idaho, USA
25 35 50 50 160 May Mediterranean
45 75 80 30 230 Novembe Mediterranean
35 60 70 40 205 r Arid Regions
Novembe
r
e. Legumes (Leguminosae)
Beans (green) 20 30 30 10 90 Feb/Mar Calif., Mediterranean
15 25 25 10 75 Aug/Sep Calif., Egypt, Lebanon
Beans (dry) 20 30 40 20 110 May/June Continental Climates
15 25 35 20 95 June Pakistan, Calif.
25 25 30 20 100 June Idaho, USA
Faba bean, 15 25 35 15 90 May Europe
broad bean 20 30 35 15 100 Mar/Apr Mediterranean
- dry 90 45 40 60 235 Nov Europe
- green 90 45 40 0 175 Nov Europe
Green gram, 20 30 30 20 110 March Mediterranean
cowpeas
Groundnut 25 35 45 25 130 Dry West Africa
35 35 35 35 140 season High Latitudes
35 45 35 25 140 May Mediterranean
May/June
Lentil 20 30 60 40 150 April Europe
25 35 70 40 170 Oct/Nov Arid Region
Peas 15 25 35 15 90 May Europe
20 30 35 15 100 Mar/Apr Mediterranean
35 25 30 20 110 April Idaho, USA
Soybeans 15 15 40 15 85 Dec Tropics
20 30/35 60 25 140 May Central USA
20 25 75 30 150 June Japan
continued…

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 68

Table II.1 continued.
Crop Init. Dev. Mid Late Total Plant Date Region
(Lini) (Ldev)
(Lmid) (Llate)

f. Perennial Vegetables (with winter dormancy and initially bare or mulched soil)
Artichoke 40 40 250 30 360 Apr (1st yr) California
20 25 250 30 325 May (2nd yr) (cut in May)
Asparagus 50 30 100 50 230 Feb Warm Winter
90 30 200 45 365 Feb Mediterranean
g. Fibre Crops
Cotton 30 50 60 55 195 Mar-May Egypt; Pakistan; Calif.
45 90 45 45 225 Mar Calif. Desert, USA
30 50 60 55 195 Sept Yemen
30 50 55 45 180 April Texas
Flax 25 35 50 40 150 April Europe
30 40 100 50 220 October Arizona
h. Oil Crops
Castor beans 25 40 65 50 180 March (Semi)Arid Climates
20 40 50 25 135 Nov. Indonesia
Safflower 20 35 45 25 125 April California, USA
25 35 55 30 145 Mar High Latitudes
35 55 60 40 190 Oct/Nov Arid Region
Sesame 20 30 40 20 100 June China
Sunflower 25 35 45 25 130 April/May Medit.; California
i. Cereals
Barley/Oats/ 15 25 50 30 120 Novembe Central India
Wheat 20 25 60 30 135 r 35-45 oL
15 30 65 40 150 March/Ap East Africa
40 30 40 20 130 r
40 60 60 40 200 July
20 50 60 30 160 Apr Calif. Desert, USA
Nov
Dec
Winter Wheat 202 602 70 30 180 December Calif., USA
30 140 40 30 240 Novembe Mediterranean
160 75 75 25 335 r Idaho, USA
October
Grains (small) 20 30 60 40 150 April Mediterranean
25 35 65 40 165 Oct/Nov Pakistan; Arid Reg.
Maize (grain) 30 50 60 40 180 April East Africa (alt.)
25 40 45 30 140 Dec/Jan Arid Climate
20 35 40 30 125 June Nigeria (humid)
20 35 40 30 125 October India (dry, cool)
30 40 50 30 150 April Spain (spr, sum.); Calif.
30 40 50 50 170 April Idaho, USA
Maize (sweet) 20 20 30 10 80 March Philippines
20 25 25 10 80 May/June Mediterranean
20 30 50/30 10 90 Oct/Dec Arid Climate
30 30 30 103 110 April Idaho, USA
20 40 70 10 140 Jan Calif. Desert, USA
Millet 15 25 40 25 105 June Pakistan
20 30 55 35 140 April Central USA
continued…
2 These periods for winter wheat will lengthen in frozen climates according to days having zero growth potential and wheat
dormancy . Under general conditions and in the absence of local data, fall planting of winter wheat can be presumed to occur
in northern temperate climates when the 10-day running average of mean daily air temperature decreases to 17o C or
December 1, whichever comes first. Planting of spring wheat can be presumed to occur when the 10-day running average of
mean daily air temperature increases to 5o C. Spring planting of maize-grain can be presumed to occur when the 10-day
running average of mean daily air temperature increases to 13 o C.
3
The late season for sweet maize will be about 35 days if the grain is allowed to mature and dry.

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 69

Table II.1 continued
Crop Init. Dev. Mid Late Total Plant Date Region
(Lini) (Ldev) (Lmid) (Llate)
Sorghum 20 35 40 30 130 May/June USA, Pakis., Med.
20 35 45 30 140 Mar/April Arid Region
Rice 30 30 60 30 150 Dec; May Tropics; Mediterranean
30 30 80 40 180 May Tropics
j. Forages
Alfalfa, total 10 30 var. var. var. last -4oC in spring until
season4 first -4oC in fall
Alfalfa4 10 20 20 10 60 Jan Calif., USA.
1st cutting cycle 10 30 25 10 75 Apr Idaho, USA.
(last -4o C)
Alfalfa4, other 5 10 10 5 30 Mar Calif., USA.
cutting cycles 5 20 10 10 45 Jun Idaho, USA.
Bermuda for 10 25 35 35 105 March Calif. Desert, USA
seed
Bermuda for hay 10 15 75 35 135 --- Calif. Desert, USA
(several
cuttings)
Grass Pasture4 10 20 -- -- -- 7 days before last -4oC in
spring until 7 days after
first -4oC in fall
Sudan, 25 25 15 10 75 Apr Calif. Desert, USA
1st cutting cycle
Sudan, other 3 15 12 7 37 June Calif. Desert, USA
cutting cycles
k. Sugar Cane
Sugarcane, 35 60 190 120 405 Low Latitudes
virgin 50 70 220 140 480 Tropics
75 105 330 210 720 Hawaii, USA
Sugarcane, 25 70 135 50 280 Low Latitudes
ratoon 30 50 180 60 320 Tropics
35 105 210 70 420 Hawaii, USA
l. Tropical Fruits and Trees
Banana, 1st yr 120 90 120 60 390 Mar Mediterranean
Banana, 2nd yr 120 60 180 5 365 Feb Mediterranean
Pineapple 60 120 600 10 790 Hawaii, USA
m. Grapes and Berries
Grapes 20 40 120 60 240 April Low Latitudes
20 50 75 60 205 Mar Calif., USA
20 50 90 20 180 May High Latitudes
30 60 40 80 210 April Mid Latitudes (wine)
Hops 25 40 80 10 155 April Idaho, USA
n. Fruit Trees
Citrus 60 90 120 95 365 Jan Mediterranean
Deciduous 20 70 90 30 210 March High Latitudes
Orchard 20 70 120 60 270 March Low Latitudes
30 50 130 30 240 March Calif., USA
continued…
4 In climates having killing frosts, growing seasons can be estimated for alfalfa and grass as:
alfalfa: last -4oC in spring until first -4oC in fall (Everson, D.O., M. Faubion and D.E. Amos 1978. "Freezing
temperatures and growing seasons in Idaho." Univ. Idaho Agric. Exp. station bulletin 494. 18 p.)
grass: 7 days before last -4oC in spring and 7 days after last -4oC in fall (Kruse E.G. and Haise, H.R. 1974.
"Water use by native grasses in high altitude Colorado meadows." USDA Agric. Res. Service, Western Region
report ARS-W-6-1974. 60 pages)

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 70

Table II.1 continued
Crop Init. Dev. Mid Late Total Plant Date Region
(Lini) (Ldev) (Lmid) (Llate)
Olives 30 90 60 90 2705 March Mediterranean
Pistachios 20 60 30 40 150 Feb Mediterranean
Walnuts 20 10 130 30 190 April Utah, USA
o. Wetlands - Temperate Climate
Wetlands 10 30 80 20 140 May Utah, USA; killing frost
(Cattails, 180 60 90 35 365 November Florida, USA
Bulrush)
Wetlands 180 60 90 35 365 November frost-free climate
(short veg.)

5
Olive trees gain new leaves in March. See footnote 24 of Table 12 for additional information,
where the Kc continues outside of the “growing period”.

Primary source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24 (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977), Table 22.

Reference Manual, Annex II – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 71

Annex III: Indicative values for soil salinity
tolerance for some agriculture crops

References
Ayers, R.S. and D.W. Westcot. 1985. Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper N° 29. Rome, Italy. 174 p.

Allen, R., L.S. Pereira, D. Raes, and M. Smith. 1998. Crop evapotranspiration –
Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper
N° 56. Rome, Italy. 300 p.

Reference Manual, Annex III – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 72

Table III-1. Salt tolerance4 of common agriculture crops with indication of the lower
(ECen) and upper (ECex) thresholds5 for salinity stress, and the slope of reduction in
crop yield with increasing salinity beyond ECen

Agriculture crop ECen ECex Yield decline

dS/m dS/m %/(dS/m)
Extremely sensitive crops
Apricot 1.6 5.8 24.0
Blackberry 1.5 6.0 22.0
Boysenberry 1.5 6.0 22.0
Peaches 1.7 6.5 21.0
Beans 1.0 6.3 19.0
Almonds 1.5 6.8 19.0
Sensitive crops
Plum, prune 1.5 7.1 18.0
Strawberries 1.3 7.3 17.0
Onions 1.2 7.5 16.0
Citrus (Grapefruit) 1.8 8.1 16.0
Citrus (Orange) 1.7 8.0 16.0
Carrots 1.0 8.1 14.0
Peas 1.5 8.6 14.0
Rice 3.0 11.3 12.0
Moderately sensitive crops
Groundnut (Peanut) 3.2 6.6 29.0
Trefoil, big 2.3 7.6 19.0
Squash (scallop) 3.2 9.5 16.0
Peppers 1.6 9.3 13.0
Pumpkin, winter squash 1.2 8.9 13.0
Lettuce 1.5 9.8 12.0
Potato 1.7 10.0 12.0
Flax 1.7 10.0 12.0
Maize 1.7 10.0 12.0
Maize, sweet corn 1.7 10.0 12.0

4
The ranking is based on the ECe of the upper and lower threshold (Gullentops, C. 2010 – Introducing soil
salinity in AquaCrop. Master research, Interuniversity programme in water Resources Engineering
(IUPWARE), Belgium).
5
ECe means average root zone salinity as measured by electrical conductivity of the saturation extract of
the soil. ECen is the lower thresholds at which crop growth starts to be affected and ECe x is the upper
threshold at which crop growth ceases.

Reference Manual, Annex III – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 73

Clover (alsike, ladino, red) 1.5 9.8 12.0
Cabbage 1.4 10.1 11.9
Spinach 2.6 12.2 11.9
Cowpea (forage) 2.5 11.6 11.0
Vetch, common 3.0 12.1 11.0
Radishes 1.6 12.0 10.3
Cucumber 1.8 12.8 10.0
Sweet potato 2.0 12.0 10.0
Brussels sprouts 1.8 12.1 9.7
Celery 2.2 14.1 9.6
Broadbean (fababean) 1.6 12.0 9.6
Foxtail 1.5 11.9 9.6
Grapes 1.5 12.0 9.6
Broccoli 2.8 13.7 9.2
Tomato 1.7 12.8 9.0
Turnip 0.9 12.0 9.0
Lovegrass 2.0 13.9 8.4
Maize (forage) 1.8 15.3 7.4
Alfalfa 2.0 15.7 7.3
Sesbania 2.3 16.6 7.0
Sphaerophysa 2.2 16.5 7.0
Cauliflower 1.8 17.9 6.2
Orchardgrass 1.5 17.6 6.2
Sugar cane 1.7 18.6 5.9
Clover, Berseem 1.5 19.0 5.7
Moderately tolerant crops
Soybeans 5.0 10.0 20.0
Sorghum 6.8 13.1 16.0
Cowpea 4.9 13.2 12.0
Squash, Zucchini 4.7 14.7 10.0
Trefoil, narrowleaf birdsfoot 5.0 15.0 10.0
Beets, red 4.0 15.1 9.0
Hardinggrass 4.6 17.8 7.6
Rye-grass (perennial) 5.6 18.8 7.6
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) 6.0 20.1 7.1
Barley (forage) 6.0 20.1 7.1
Wildrye, beardless 2.7 19.4 6.0
Fescue 3.9 21.4 5.8

Reference Manual, Annex III – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 74

Sudangrass 2.8 26.1 4.3
Wheatgrass, standard crested 3.5 28.5 4.0
Tolerant crops
Wheatgrass, fairway crested 7.5 22.0 6.9
Bermuda 6.9 22.5 6.4
Sugar beet 7.0 24.0 5.9
Cotton 7.7 26.9 5.2
Barley 8.0 28.0 5.0
Extremely tolerant crops
Wheat, durum (Triticum turgidum) 5.8 28.0 4.7
Wheatgrass, tall 7.5 31.3 4.2
Date Palms 4.0 31.8 3.6
Wheat, semidwarf (T. aestivum) 8.6 41.9 3.0
Asparagus 4.1 54.1 2.0

Reference Manual, Annex III – AquaCrop, Version 7.1 August 2023 75

Annex IV: ETo calculation procedures
Calculation methods listed in this annex are outlined in the FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper n°
56 (Allen et al., 1998).

1. Atmospheric parameters
• Atmospheric pressure (P)
The atmospheric pressure, P, is the pressure exerted by the weight of the earth's atmosphere:

5.26
 293 − 0.0065 z 
P = 101.3   (Eq. 1)
 293 

where P atmospheric pressure [kPa],

z elevation above sea level [m].

• Psychrometric contant (γ)

The psychrometric constant, , is given by:

cp P
 = = 0.664742 x 10 −3 P (Eq. 2)
 

where  psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1],

P atmospheric pressure [kPa],
 latent heat of vaporization, 2.45 [MJ kg-1],
cp specific heat at constant pressure, 1.013 10-3 [MJ kg-1 °C-1],
 ratio molecular weight of water vapour/dry air = 0.622.

The value of the latent heat varies as a function of temperature. As  varies only slightly over
normal temperature ranges a single value of 2.45 MJ kg-1 is considered in the program. This
corresponds with the calculation procedure for the FAO Penman-Monteith equation. The fixed
value for  is the latent heat for an air temperature of about 20°C.

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 76

2. Air temperature
• Mean air temperature (Tmean)
The mean air temperature is given by:

T + Tmin
Tmean = max (Eq. 3)
2

where Tmean mean air temperature [°C],

Tmin minimum air temperature [°C],
Tmax maximum air temperature [°C].

• Calculation rules
- if Tmax and Tmin are available, the mean air temperature (Tmean) is calculated by Eq. 3 and the
specified mean air temperature is disregarded,
- if Tmean and only Tmax or Tmin are available, the missing minimum or maximum air
temperature is estimated by rearranging Eq. 3,
- if Tmax or Tmin is missing and cannot be derived, ETo cannot be calculated,
- if no temperature data is available, ETo can not be calculated.

3. Air humidity
• Saturation vapour pressure as a function of air temperature (e°(T))

 17.27 T 
e o (T) = 0.6108 exp   (Eq. 4)
 T + 237.3 
where e°(T) saturation vapour pressure at the air temperature T [kPa],
T air temperature [°C],
exp[..] 2.7183 (base of natural logarithm) raised to the power [..].

• Mean saturation vapour pressure for a day, 10-day, or month (es)

Due to the non-linearity of Eq. 4, the mean saturation vapour pressure for a day, 10-day or month
is computed as the mean between the saturation vapour pressure at the mean daily maximum and
minimum air temperatures for that period:

e o (Tmax ) + e o (Tmin )
es = (Eq. 5)
2
where es saturation vapour pressure [kPa],
e°(Tmax) saturation vapour pressure at the mean daily maximum air
temperature [kPa],
e°(Tmin) saturation vapour pressure at the mean daily minimum air
temperature [kPa].

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 77

• Slope of saturation vapour pressure curve ( )
For the calculation of the reference evapotranspiration, the slope of the relationship between
saturation vapour pressure and temperature, , is required. The slope of the curve at a given
temperature is given by:

  17.27 T 
4098 0.6108 exp  
  T + 237.3 
= (Eq. 6)
(T + 237.3)2

where  slope of saturation vapour pressure curve at air temperature T [kPa °C-1],
T air temperature [°C],
exp[..] 2.7183 (base of natural logarithm) raised to the power [..].

• Actual vapour pressure (ea) derived from dewpoint temperature

 17.27 Tdew 
e a = e o (Tdew ) = 0.6108 exp   (Eq. 7)
 Tdew + 237.3 

where ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],

Tdew dew point temperature [°C].

• Actual vapour pressure (ea) derived from psychrometric data

(
e a = e o (Twet ) −  psy Tdry − Twet ) (Eq. 8)

where ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],

e°(Twet) saturation vapour pressure at wet bulb temperature [kPa],
psy psychrometric constant of the instrument [kPa °C-1],
Tdry-Twet wet bulb depression, with Tdry the dry bulb and Twet the wet bulb
temperature [°C].

The psychrometric constant of the instrument is given by:

 psy = a psy P (Eq. 9)

where apsy is a coefficient depending on the type of ventilation of the wet bulb [°C-1], and P is the
atmospheric pressure [kPa].

• Actual vapour pressure (ea) derived from relative humidity data

The actual vapour pressure can also be calculated from the relative humidity. Depending on the
availability of the humidity data, different equations are used:

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 78

For RHmax and RHmin:
RH max RH min
e o (Tmin ) + e o (Tmax )
ea = 100 100 (Eq. 10)
2
where ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],
e°(Tmin) saturation vapour pressure at daily minimum temperature [kPa],
e°(Tmax) saturation vapour pressure at daily maximum temperature [kPa],
RHmax maximum relative humidity [%],
RHmin minimum relative humidity [%].

For RHmax:
RH max
e a = e o (Tmin ) (Eq. 11)
100

For RHmean (Smith, 1992):

RH mean
ea = e o (Tmean ) (Eq. 12)
100

Eq. 12 differs from the one presented in the FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper N° 56. Analysis
with several climatic data sets proved that more accurate estimates of ea can be obtained with Eq.
12 than with the equation reported in the FAO paper if only mean relative humidity is available
(G. Van Halsema and G. Muñoz, Personal communication).

• Vapour pressure deficit (es - ea)

The vapour pressure deficit is the difference between the saturation (es) and actual vapour
pressure (ea) for a given time period.

• Calculation rules
If air humidity data are missing or if several climatic parameters are available with which the air
humidity can be estimated, the following calculation rules exist:
- If the mean actual vapour pressure (ea) is missing and air humidity is specified by means of
another climatic parameter, ea is estimated from (in descending order):
o the specified mean dew point temperature Tdew (Eq. 7),
o the specified mean dry (Tdry) and wet bulb (Twet) temperature (Eq. 8),
o the specified maximum (RHmax) and minimum (RHmin) relative humidity, and the
specified maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) air temperature (Eq. 10). In case
RHmean and only RHmax or RHmin are available, the program estimates the missing
minimum or maximum relative humidity by rearranging Eq. 13:

RH max + RH min
RH mean = (Eq. 13)
2

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 79

o the specified maximum (RHmax) and minimum (Tmin) air temperature (Eq. 11),
o the specified mean (RHmean) and mean (Tmean) air temperature (Eq. 12).
- If no air humidity data are available, ea is estimated by assuming that the minimum air
temperature (Tmin) is a good estimate for the mean dew point temperature (Tdew). Before using
Tmin in Eq. 7, the number of degrees specified in the Data and ETo menu (Missing air
humidity in the Input data description sheet) will be subtracted from Tmin.

4. Radiation
• Extraterrestrial radiation (Ra)
The extraterrestrial radiation, Ra, for each day of the year and for different latitudes is estimated
from the solar constant, the solar declination and the time of the year by:

G sc d r s sin() sin() + cos() cos() sin(s )

24 (60)
Ra = (Eq. 14)


where Ra extraterrestrial radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

Gsc solar constant = 0.0820 MJ m-2 min-1,
dr inverse relative distance Earth-Sun (Eq. 16),
s sunset hour angle (Eq. 18) [rad],
 latitude [rad] (Eq. 15),
 solar declination (Eq. 17) [rad].

The latitude, , expressed in radians is positive for the northern hemisphere and negative for the
southern hemisphere. The conversion from decimal degrees to radians is given by:


Radians = decimal degrees (Eq. 15)
180

The inverse relative distance Earth-Sun, dr, and the solar declination, , are given by:

2  
d r = 1 + 0.033 cos  J (Eq. 16)
 365 

2  
 = 0.409 sin J − 1.39  (Eq. 17)
 365 

where J is the number of the day in the year between 1 (1 January) and 365 or 366 (31
December).

The sunset hour angle, s, is given by:

s = arccos  − tan () tan () (Eq. 18)

• Daylight hours (N)
Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 80
The daylight hours, N, are given by:

 n 
R s =  a s + bs  Ra (Eq. 19)
 N 

24
N= s (Eq. 20)


where s sunset hour angle in radians given by Eq. 18.

• Solar radiation (Rs)

If the solar radiation, Rs, is not measured, it can be calculated with the Angstrom formula, which
relates solar radiation to extraterrestrial radiation and relative sunshine duration:

where Rs solar or shortwave radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

n actual duration of sunshine [hour],
N maximum possible duration of sunshine or daylight hours [hour],
n/N relative sunshine duration [-],
Ra extraterrestrial radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],
as regression constant, expressing the fraction of extraterrestrial radiation
reaching the earth on overcast days (n = 0),
as+bs fraction of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the earth on clear days (n =
N).

The default values for as and bs are 0.25 and 0.50. If the user has site specific information,
calibrated values for as and bs can be specified in the Data and ETo menu (Calculation method
and coefficients).

• Clear-sky solar radiation (Rso)

The calculation of the clear-sky radiation, Rso, when n = N, is required for computing net
longwave radiation. Depending on the option selected in the Data and ETo menu (Calculation
method and coefficients) Eq. 21 or 22 is used

When adjustment for station elevation is requested:

(
R so = 0.75 + 2 10 −5 z R a) (Eq. 21)

where Rso clear-sky solar radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

z station elevation above sea level [m],
Ra extraterrestrial radiation [MJ m-2 day-1].

When no adjustment for station elevation is requested (calibrated values for as and bs are
available):

R so = (a s + b s ) R a (Eq. 22)
Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 81
where as+bs fraction of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the earth on clear-sky days (n
= N).

• Net solar or net shortwave radiation (Rns)

The net shortwave radiation resulting from the balance between incoming and reflected solar
radiation is given by:

R ns = (1 − ) R s (Eq. 23)

where Rns net solar or shortwave radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

 albedo or canopy reflection coefficient for the reference crop [dimensionless],

Rs the incoming solar radiation [MJ m-2 day-1].

If net solar radiation needs to be calculated when computing ETo, the fixed value of 0.23 is used
for the albedo in Eq. 23.

• Net longwave radiation (Rnl)

T 4 4
max,K + Tmin ,K
R nl =  
 
(
 0.34 − 0.14 e a ) 1.35 RR s 
− 0.35  (Eq. 24)

2
  so 

where Rnl net outgoing longwave radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

 Stefan-Boltzmann constant [ 4.903 10-9 MJ K-4 m-2 day-1],
Tmax,K maximum absolute temperature during the 24-hour period [K = °C +
273.16],
Tmin,K minimum absolute temperature during the 24-hour period [K = °C +
273.16],
ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],
Rs/Rso relative shortwave radiation (limited to  1.0),
Rs measured or calculated (Eq. 20) solar radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],
Rso calculated (Eq. 21, or Eq. 22) clear-sky radiation [MJ m-2 day-1].

 Tmax,
4
K + Tmin, K
4

When maximum and minimum air temperature are missing,   in Eq. 24 is
 2 
4
replaced by Tmean ,K .
• Net radiation (Rn)
The net radiation (Rn) is the difference between the incoming net shortwave radiation (Rns) and
the outgoing net longwave radiation (Rnl):

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 82

R n = R ns − R nl (Eq. 25)

• Calculation rules
If sunshine or radiation data are missing or if several climatic parameters are available with
which radiation can be estimated, the following calculation rules exist:
- If net radiation (Rn) is missing, Rn is cacultated by Eq. 25,
- If Rn and solar radiation (Rs) are missing, Rs is derived from (in descending order):
o the specified hours of bright sunshine n (Eq. 20),
o the specified relative sunshine hours n/N (Eq. 20),
o the maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) air temperature by means of the adjusted
Hargreaves’ radiation formula:

R =k (T −T ) R (Eq. 26)
s Rs max min a
where Ra extraterrestrial radiation [MJ m-2 d-1],
Tmax maximum air temperature [°C],
Tmin minimum air temperature [°C],
kRs adjustment coefficient [°C-0.5].

The value for the adjustment coefficient kRs is specified in the Data and ETo
menu (Missing radiation data in the Input data description sheet). Indicative
default values are 0.16 for interior locations and 0.19 for coastal locations.

5. Wind speed
• Adjustment of wind speed to standard height
To adjust wind speed data obtained from instruments placed at elevations other than the standard
height of 2 m:

4.87
u2 = uz (Eq. 27)
ln( 67.8 z − 5.42)
where u2 wind speed at 2 m above ground surface [m s-1],
uz measured wind speed at z m above ground surface [m s-1],
z height of measurement above ground surface [m].

• Missing wind speed data

If wind speed data is missing, the default value for u2 specified in the Data and ETo menu
(Missing wind speed in the Input data description sheet) is used.

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 83

6. Reference evapotranspiration (FAO Penman-Monteith)
The relatively accurate and consistent performance of the Penman-Monteith approach in both
arid and humid climates has been indicated in both the ASCE and European studies. The FAO
Penman-Monteith equation (Allen et al., 1998) is given by:

900
0.408  ( R n − G ) +  u 2 (e s − e a )
T + 273
ETo = (Eq. 28)
 +  (1 + 0.34 u 2 )

where ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm day-1],

Rn net radiation at the crop surface [MJ m-2 day-1],
G soil heat flux density [MJ m-2 day-1],
T mean daily air temperature at 2 m height [°C],
u2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s-1],
es saturation vapour pressure [kPa],
ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],
es-ea saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa],
 slope vapour pressure curve [kPa °C-1],
 psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1].

In Eq. 28, the value 0.408 converts the net radiation Rn expressed in MJ/m2.day to equivalent
evaporation expressed in mm/day. Because soil heat flux is small compared to Rn, particularly
when the surface is covered by vegetation and calculation time steps are 24 hours or longer, the
estimation of G is ignored in the ETo calculator and assumed to be zero. This corresponds with
the assumptions reported in the FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper n° 56 for daily and 10-daily
time periods. Allen et al. (1989) state that the soil heat flux beneath the grass reference surface is
relatively small for that time period.

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 84

7. Conversion to standard metric unit
To convert a value (A) expressed in a non-standard unit to a value (Y) expressed in the standard
metric unit, the following equations are used in the software:

• Temperature: standard unit is degree Celsius

Temperature unit Equation to convert to standard unit (°C)
degree Fahrenheit (°F) Y °C = (A °F - 32) 5/9

• Vapour pressure: standard unit is kilo Pascal

Vapour pressure unit Equation to convert to standard unit (kPa)
millibar Y kPa = 0.1 A mbar
pound per square inch (psi) Y kPa = 6.89476 A psi
atmospheres (atm) Y kPa = 101.325 A atm
millimetre of mercury (mmHg) Y kPa = 0.133322 A mmHg

• Wind speed: standard unit is meter per second (m/s)

Wind speed unit Equation to convert to standard unit (m/s)
kilometre per day (km/day) Y m/s = (A /86.40) km/day

nautical mile/hour (knot) Y m/s = 0.5144 A knot

foot per second (ft/s) Y m/s = 0.3048 A ft/sec

• Radiation: standard unit is megajoules per square meter per day

(MJ/m2.day)
Radiation unit Equation to convert to standard unit
(MJ/m2.day)
watt per m2 (W/m2) Y MJ/m2.day = 0.0864 A W/m2
joule per cm2 per day (J/cm2.day) Y MJ/m2.day = 0.01 A J/cm2.day
equivalent evaporation (mm/day) Y MJ/m2.day = 2.45 A mm/day
calorie per cm2 per day (cal/cm2.day) Y MJ/m2.day = 4.1868 10-2 A cal/cm2.day

• Evapotranspiration: standard unit is millimeter per day (mm/day)

Evaporation unit Equation to convert to standard unit (mm/day)
equivalent radiation in megajoules per Ymm/day = 0.408 A MJ/m2.day
square metre per day (MJ/m2.day)

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 85

References
Allen, R., L.S. Pereira, D. Raes, and M. Smith. 1998. Crop evapotranspiration – Guidelines for
computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper N° 56. Rome, Italy.

Hargreaves, G.H. 1994. Defining and using reference evapotranspiration. Journal of Irrigation
and Drainage Engineering. Vol 120 (6): 1132 - 1139.

Smith, M. 1992. CROPWAT - a computer program for irrigation planning and management.
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper N°46. Rome, Italy.

Reference Manual, Annex IV – AquaCrop, Version 7.1, August 2023 86

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