Smart Grid- UNIT-2

1. Geographic Information system (GIS)

The Smart Grid (SG) is an electricity network that intelligently integrates actions of connected users.

These interactions are coordinated by the use of advanced digital technology. The SG uses information
systems and digital communications for integration, automation, monitoring, and control.

The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a software tool that provides decision support capability
in the form of digital labeled maps, derived statistics, and reports which can be used to make informed
decisions. It is a powerful tool used to model earth, environment, and features. It can help in
deployment, monitoring, control, and enhancement of the SG.

Utility operators will need GIS to make the best decisions about key issues such as collecting data,
managing smart meter and sensor installation, analyzing customer behavior, and incorporating
renewable energy. When viewed in the context of geography, data is quickly understood and easily
shared.

GIS consists of several layers of information and overlaying them on top of each other based on its
spatial entity makes it more powerful in decision making systems.

There are 2 types of information layers – Raster and Vector. Raster data is generally represented in
the form of imagery and can be used to show land use patterns or elevation data.

There are 3 types of vector data – Points, Lines and Polygons. They are classified based on the
geometry information they can hold and all features in the real world would fall into one of these
categories.

GIS adds spatial dimension to decision-making, so utilities know where customers are adding solar
panels, what areas of network are at high risk and how to prioritize replacement of assets. GIS doesn’t
provide additional power that a region demands, but rather it would help us answer questions like
which county in the state provides largest amount of solar power and we could better solve power
transmission problems based on answers we have obtained.

The GIS benefits for the SG are summarized below:

• Manage data about condition of utility assets.
• Utilities understand relationship of its assets to each other.
• Utilities understand relationship of networks with surroundings.
• Allows utilities to visualize the electric and communication systems.
• Determine optimal locations for smart grid components.
• Spatial context to analytics and me
2.Intelligent electronic devices (IED) and their applications for Monitoring Protection

The name Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) describes a range of devices that perform one or more of
functions of protection, measurement, fault recording and control. An IED consists of a signal
processing unit, a microprocessor with input and output devices, and a communication interface. An
intelligent electronic device (IED) is a device that is added to industrial control systems (ICS) to enable
advanced power automation

IED configuration consist of

➢ Analog/Digital Input from Power Equipment and Sensors

➢ Analog to Digital Convertor (ADC)/Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

➢ Digital Signal Processing Unit (DSP)

➢ Flex-logic unit

➢ Virtual Input/ Output

➢ Internal RAM/ROM

➢ Display

In the electric power industry, an intelligent electronic device (IED) is an integrated microprocessor-
based controller of power system equipment, such as circuit breakers, transformers and capacitor
banks IEDs receive data from sensors and power equipment and can issue control commands, such as
tripping circuit breakers if they sense voltage, current, or frequency anomalies, or raise/lower tap
positions in order to maintain the desired voltage level.

IEDs are used as a more modern alternative to, or a complement of, setup with traditional remote
terminal units (RTUs). Unlike the RTUs, IEDs are integrated with the devices they control and offer a
standardized set of measuring and control points that is easier to configure and require less wiring.

Most IEDs have a communication port and built-in support for standard communication protocols
(DNP3, IEC104 or IEC61850), so they can communicate directly with the SCADA system or a substation
programmable logic controller. Alternatively, they can be connected to a substation RTU that acts as
a gateway towards the SCADA server. Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) are Microprocessor-Based
devices with the capability to exchange data and control signals with another device (IED, Electronic
Meter, Controller, SCADA, etc.) over a communications link. IEDs perform Protection, Monitoring,
Control, and Data Acquisition functions in Generating Stations, Substations, and Along Feeders and
are critical to the operations of the electric network.

IEDs are widely used in substations for different purposes. In some cases, they are separately used to
achieve individual functions, such as Differential Protection, Distance Protection, Over- current
Protection, Metering, and Monitoring. There are also Multifunctional IEDs that can perform several
Protection, Monitoring, Control, and User Interfacing functions on one hardware platform. IEDs
receive measurements and status information from substation equipment and pass it into the Process
Bus of the Local SCADA. The substation systems are connected to the Control Centre where the SCADA
master is located and the information is passed to the EMS Applications.

IEDs are a key component of substation integration and automation technology. Substation
integration involves integrating protection, control, and data acquisition functions into a minimal
number of platforms to reduce capital and operating costs, reduce panel and control room space, and
eliminate redundant equipment and databases. IED technology can help utilities improve reliability,
gain operational efficiencies, and enable asset management programs including predictive
maintenance, life extensions, and improved planning.

Protection, Monitoring, and Control Devices (IED)

Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) are microprocessor-based devices with the capability to exchange
data and control signals with another device (IED, electronic meter, controller, SCADA, etc.) over a
communications link. IEDs perform protection, monitoring, control, and data acquisition functions in
generating stations, substations, and along feeders and are critical to the operations of the electric
network.

IEDs are widely used in substations for different purposes. In some cases, they are separately used to
achieve individual functions, such as differential protection, distance protection, over current
protection, metering, and monitoring.

There are also multifunctional IEDs that can perform several protection, monitoring, control, and user
interfacing functions on one hardware platform.

The main advantages of multifunctional IEDs are that they are fully IEC 61850 compatible and compact
in size and that they combine various functions in one design, allowing for a reduction in size of the
overall systems and an increase in efficiency and improvement in robustness and providing extensible
solutions based on mainstream communications technology.

IED technology can help utilities improve reliability, gain operational efficiencies, and enable asset
management programs including predictive maintenance, life extensions, and improved planning.

3. Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)

A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device used to estimate the magnitude and phase angle of an
electrical phasor quantity (such as voltage or current) in the electric grid using a common time source
for synchronization.

Time synchronization is usually provided by GPS and allows synchronized real time measurements of
multiple remote points on the grid. PMUs are capable of capturing samples from a waveform in quick
succession and reconstructing the phasor quantity, made up of an angle measurement and a
magnitude measurement.

The resulting measurement is known as a synchrophasor. These time synchronized measurements are
important because if the grid’s supply and demand are not perfectly matched, frequency imbalances
can cause stress on the grid, which is a potential cause for power outages.

PMUs can also be used to measure the frequency in the power grid.

A typical commercial PMU can report measurements with very high temporal resolution in the order
of 30-60 measurements per second.

This helps engineers in analyzing dynamic events in the grid which is not possible with traditional
SCADA measurements that generate one measurement every 2 or 4 seconds.
 Fig. Block Diagram for Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)

Main Components of PMU

i. Analog Inputs

ii. GPS receiver

iii. Phase locked oscillator

iv. A/D converter

v. Anti-aliasing filters

vi. Phasor micro-processor

vii. Modem

i. Analog Inputs

Current and potential transformers are employed at substation for measurement of voltage and
current. The analog inputs to the PMU are the voltages and currents obtained from the secondary
winding of potential and current transformers.

ii. Anti-aliasing filters

Anti-aliasing filter is an analog low pass filter which is used to filter out those components from the
actual signal whose frequencies are greater than or equal to half of nyquist rate to get the sampled
waveform. Nyquist rate is equal to twice the highest frequency component of input analog signal. If
anti-aliasing filters are not used, error will be introduced in the estimated phasor

Iii.Phase locked oscillator:

iv. A/D Converter

It converts analog signal into digital signal. Quantization of the input involves in ADC that introduces
a small amount of error. The output of ADC is a sequence of digital values that convert a continuous
time and amplitude analog signal to a discrete time and discrete amplitude signal. It is therefore
required to define the rate at which new digital values are sampled from the analog signal. The rate
of new values at which digital values are sampled is called the sampling rate of the converter.

v. Global Positioning System

The synchronized time is given by GPS uses the high accuracy clock from satellite technology. Without
GPS providing the synchronized time, it is hard to monitor whole grid at the same time. The GPS
satellites provide a very accurate time synchronization signal, available, via an antenna input,
throughout the power system. This means that that voltage and current recordings from different
substations can be directly displayed on the same time axis and in the same phasor diagram.

vi. Processor

The microprocessor calculates positive- sequence estimates of all the current and voltage signals
using the DFT techniques. Certain other estimates of interest are frequency and rate of change of
frequency measured locally, and these also are included in the output of the PMU.

The timestamp is created from two of the signals derived from the GPS receiver. The time-stamp
identifies the identity of the “universal time coordinated (UTC) second and the instant defining the
boundary of one of the power frequency periods.
vii. Modem

Applications of PMU
Comparison of SCADA and PMU:

4. Wide area monitoring system (WAMS)

WAMS: Stands for Wide-Area Monitoring System. WAMS is an early-warning
technology that helps in preventing system overloads and instabilities and cascade
tripping that can lead to power blackouts.

Fig. Block diagram of WAMS

The main components are:
i.PMUs,
Ii.Phasor Data Concentrators (PDCs),
Iii.Communication net- works,
Iv.Data storage and
V.Application software.

I.Phasor measurement unit (PMU)

PMUs installed at substations measure voltage, current and frequency. These
measurements are sent directly to the central PDC or to a substation PDC.
ii. Phasor data concentrator:

iii. Communication net- works:

The communication links between PMUs, substation PDC and central PDC. The IEEE
standard C37.118 is used for synchrophasor data transfer. Based on this standard,
synchrophasor data can be carried over any communication system that has sufficient
bandwidth.

Different types of energy storage systems:

I. Battery energy storage:
Batteries store energy in chemical form during charging and discharge electrical energy when
connected to a load. In its simplest form a battery consists of two electrodes, a positive and a negative
placed in an electrolyte. The electrodes exchange ions with the electrolyte and electrons with the
external circuit. Lead acid and Sodium Sulfur (NaS) batteries are used at present for large utility
applications in comparable numbers. Lithium Ion (Li-ion), Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) and Nickel metal
hydrides (NiMH) are also thought to be promising future options. Lead acid batteries have been used
for many years in utility applications, providing excitation for synchronous machines and acting as
back-up auxiliary power supplies. They are cheap but need significant maintenance. Their lifetime is
comparatively short particularly if discharged deeply. NaS batteries operate at 300–400 ◦C and have a
large energy capacity per unit volume and weight.

Figure 1 is a simplified drawing of a NaS battery. The positive electrode is molten sulfur and the
negative electrode is molten sodium. The electrolyte, which is a sodium beta-alumina ceramic (four
layers of oxygen atoms and aluminium in the same atomic arrangement), allows ion exchange to take
place. Li-ion is gaining its place as a distributed energy storage system, in particular with the
developing use of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles. These have a graphite negative electrode and
lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate or lithium manganese oxide positive electrode. The
electrolytes generally use lithium salt in an organic solvent.

Fig1. A NaS battery

ii. Superconducting magnetic energy storage systems

In a SMES system, a magnetic field is created by direct current passing through a superconducting
coil. In a superconducting coil, resistive losses are negligible and so the energy stored in the
magnetic field (equal to LI2/ 2 where L is the inductance of the coil and I is the current passing
through the coil) does not reduce with time. However, in order to maintain the superconductivity
of the SMES coil, a cryostat which can keep the temperature of the coil below the superconductor
temperature limit is required. The optimum operating temperature of high temperature
superconductors, that are favoured for energy storage applications, is around 50–70 K. Further,
as the magnetic field produced by a SMES is large, a strong supporting structure is needed to
contain the electromagnetic forces. The stored energy in the SMES is retrieved when required by
a power conditioning system that is connected to the AC network as shown in Figure2.
 Fig 2. Component of a superconducting energy storage

Advantages:

1.The time delay during charge and discharge is quite short.

2. Power is available almost instantaneously
3.Very high-power output can be provided for a brief period of time.
4. The loss of power is less than other storage methods
Disadvantages:
1.SMES systems have very high upfront costs compared to other energy storage solutions.
2. Superconducting materials are expensive to manufacture.
Applications of SMESS:

1.power supply systems

2control systems and emergency/contingency systems.

3. FACTS (flexible AC transmission system) devices are static devices that can be installed in electricity
grids.

iii. Pumped storage hydropower (PSH)

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric energy storage. It is a
configuration of two water reservoirs at different elevations that can generate power as water
moves down from one to the other (discharge), passing through a turbine. The system also
requires power as it pumps water back into the upper reservoir (recharge). PSH acts similarly
to a giant battery, because it can store power and then release it when needed.
Advantages:

➢ Low operating cost and long service life

➢ Renewable and Sustainable
➢ Minimal Environmental Repercussions
➢ Controllability
➢ Recreational Opportunities
➢ Water Supply and Flood Control
Disadvantages:
➢ High-cost relative to other technology
➢ Energy Losses
➢ Possibility of Affecting Aquatic Life
➢ Impact on Water Quality in the Vicinity
➢ A threat to Habitats and Sites Entailing Sentiment
Applications:
➢ Pumped storage plants, like other hydroelectric plants, can respond to load changes
within seconds.
➢ The most important use for pumped storage has traditionally been to balance baseload
powerplants, but they may also be used to abate the fluctuating output of intermittent
energy sources.

iv. Compressed air energy storage system

A CAES system uses excess electrical energy to compress air using an electrically driven
pump, which is stored either in an underground cave or above ground in high-pressure
containers. When excess or low-cost electricity is available from the grid, it is used to run an
electric compressor, which compresses air and stores it under high pressure. When electrical
energy is required, the compressed air is directed towards a modified gas turbine, which
converts the stored energy to electricity.

Advantages:
1. High storage capacity and can store energy for long time
2. It is clean technology
3. Located close to the Power plant
4. Reducing transmission line loss
5. Increasing Efficiency.
Disadvantages:
1. Lower energy efficiency
2. Limited Locations whare the system can be installed
3. It requires specific geological conditions.
Applications:
➢ CAES system can be built to have small to large scale of capacities
➢ CAES technology can provide the moderate speed of responses and good partial-load
performance.
➢ The practical uses of large-scale CAES plants involve grid applications for load shifting,
peak shaving, and frequency and voltage control.

Prepared by Dr.P. Balachennaiah, Associate professor, EEE department, AITS, Rajampet.