Analog & Digital Communication

1. Modulation

A message signal cannot travel a long distance because of its low signal strength. In addition to this,
physical surroundings, the addition of external noise and travel distance will further reduce the signal
strength of a message signal. So in order to send the message signal to a long distance, we need to
increase the signal strength of a message signal. This can be achieved by using a high frequency or
high energy signal called carrier signal. A high energy signal can travel to a larger distance without
getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of such high energy signal to transmit
the message signal. This high energy or high frequency signal is known as carrier signal.

The low energy message signal is mixed with the high energy or high frequency carrier signal to
produce a new high energy signal which carries information to a larger distance. The question arises
how the message signal should be added to the carrier signal. The solution lies in changing some
characteristics (amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude
of the message signal. This process is called modulation. Modulation means to “change”.

The Message signal contains information whereas the carrier signal contains no information. Carrier
signal is used just to transmit the information to a long distance. At the destination, the message
signal is consumed whereas the carrier signal is wasted. In modulation process, the characteristics of
the carrier signal are changed but the message signal characteristics will not be changed. The carrier
signal does not contain any information so even if we change the characteristics of the carrier signal,
the information contained in it will not be changed. However, the message signal contains
information so if we change the characteristics of the message signal, the information contained in it
will also changes. Therefore, we always change the characteristics of the carrier signal but not the
message signal. Modulation allows the transmission to occur at high frequency while it
simultaneously allows the carrying of the message signal.

1.1 Definition:

Modulation is the process of mixing a low energy message signal with the high energy carrier signal
to produce a new high energy signal which carries information to a long distance.
or
Modulation is the process of changing the characteristics (amplitude, frequency or phase) of the
carrier signal, in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.

1.2 Types of Signals in Modulation

In modulation process, three types of signals are used to transmit information from source to
destination. They are:

1. Message signal
2. Carrier signal
3. Modulated signal

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1) Message signal
The signal which contains a message to be transmitted to the destination is called a message signal.
The message signal is also known as a modulating signal or baseband signal. The original frequency
range of a transmission signal is called baseband signal. The message signal or baseband signal
undergoes a process called modulation before it gets transmitted over the communication channel.
Hence, the message signal is also known as the modulating signal.

2) Carrier signal
The high energy or high frequency signal which has characteristics like amplitude, frequency, and
phase but contains no information is called a carrier signal. It is also simply referred to as a carrier.
Carrier signal is used to carry the message signal from transmitter to receiver. The carrier signal is
also sometimes referred to as an empty signal.

3) Modulated signal
When the message signal is mixed with the carrier signal, a new signal is produced. This new signal is
known as a modulated signal. The modulated signal is the combination of the carrier signal and
modulating signal.

2. Need for Modulation

Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system because of the following reasons:

1) Avoids mixing of signals

2) Increase the range of communication
3) Wireless communication
4) Reduces the effect of noise
5) Reduces height of antenna

1) Avoids mixing of signals

One of the basic challenges facing by the communication engineering is transmitting individual
messages simultaneously over a single communication channel. A method by which many signals or
multiple signals can be combined into one signal and transmitted over a single communication
channel is called multiplexing. If the multiple baseband sound signals of same frequency range
(I.e. 20 Hz to 20 KHz) are combined into one signal and transmitted over a single communication
channel without doing modulation, then all the signals get mixed together and the receiver cannot
separate them from each other. This problem can be easily overcome by using the modulation
technique.
By using modulation, the baseband sound signals of same frequency range (I.e. 20 Hz to 20
KHz) are shifted to different frequency ranges. Therefore, now each signal has its own frequency
range within the total bandwidth. After modulation, the multiple signals having different frequency
ranges can be easily transmitted over a single communication channel without any mixing and at the
receiver side, they can be easily separated.

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2) Increase the range of communication

The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. Wave possesses greater energy at the higher
frequencies. The baseband audio signals frequency is very low so they cannot be transmitted over
large distances. On the other hand, the carrier signal has a high frequency or high energy. Therefore,
the carrier signal can travel large distances if radiated directly into space.
The only practical solution to transmit the baseband signal to a large distance is by mixing
the low energy baseband signal with the high energy carrier signal. When the low frequency or low
energy baseband signal is mixed with the high frequency or high energy carrier signal, the resultant
signal frequency will be shifted from low frequency to high frequency. Hence, it becomes possible to
transmit information over large distances. Therefore, the range of communication is increased.

3) Wireless communication
In radio communication, the signal is radiated directly into space. The baseband signals have very low
frequency range (I.e. 20 Hz to 20 KHz). So it is not possible to radiate baseband signals directly into
space because of its poor signal strength. However, by using the modulation technique, the
frequency of the baseband signal is shifted from low frequency to high frequency. Therefore, after
modulation, the signal can be directly radiated into space.

4) Reduces the effect of noise

Noise is an unwanted signal that enters the communication system via the communication channel
and interferes with the transmitted signal. A message signal cannot travel for a long distance
because of its low signal strength. Addition of external noise will further reduce the signal strength
of a message signal. So in order to send the message signal to a long distance, we need to increase
the signal strength of the message signal. This can be achieved by using a technique called
modulation. In modulation technique, a low energy or low frequency message signal is mixed with
the high energy or high frequency carrier signal to produce a new high energy signal which carries
information to a long distance without getting affected by the external noise.

5) Reduces height of antenna

When the transmission of a signal occurs over free space, the transmitting antenna radiates the
signal out and receiving antenna receives it. In order to effectively transmit and receive the signal,
the antenna height should be approximately equal to the wavelength of the signal to be transmitted.
Now,
Velocity (V) 3 × 108
Wavelength (λ) = = m
Frequency (C) freq. in Hz

The audio signal has a very low frequency (I.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz) and longer wavelength, so if the
signal is transmitted directly into space, the length of the transmitting antenna required would be
extremely large. For instance, to radiate an audio signal frequency of 20 kHz directly into space, we
would need an antenna height of 15,000 meters.

Velocity (V) 3 × 108

Wavelength (λ) = = = 15000 m
Frequency (C) 20 × 103

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The antenna of this height is practically impossible to construct. On the other hand, if the audio
signal (20 Hz) has been modulated by a carrier wave of 200 MHz then, an antenna height of 1.5
meters is needed

Velocity (V) 3 × 108

Wavelength (λ) = = = 1.5 m
Frequency (C) 200 × 106

The antenna of this height is easy to construct.

3. Types of Modulation

Basically, the modulation is classified into two types: analog modulation and digital modulation.

Analog modulation
In analog modulation, the analog signal (sinusoidal signal) is used as a carrier signal that modulates
the analog message signal. In analog modulation, the characteristics (amplitude, frequency or phase)
of the carrier signal are varied in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.
There are four basic types of analog modulation:

1) Amplitude modulation
2) Frequency modulation
3) Phase modulation
4) Analog pulse modulation

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1) Amplitude modulation
Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
(changed) in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal while the frequency and phase of
carrier signal remain constant.

2) Frequency modulation
Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied
(changed) in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal while the amplitude and phase of
carrier signal remain constant.

3) Phase modulation
Phase modulation is a type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal is varied (changed) in
accordance with the amplitude of the message signal while the amplitude of carrier signal remains
constant.

1. Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the amplitude (signal strength) of the message signal. In
amplitude modulation, only the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed while the frequency and
phase of the carrier wave remain constant.

The above figures show the amplitude modulation. The first figure shows the modulating signal or
message signal which contains information, the second figure shows the high frequency carrier
signal which contains no information and the last figure shows the resultant amplitude modulated
signal. The third figure shows that the amplitude of both the positive and negative half cycles of the
carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instant amplitude of the message signal. It can be
observed that the positive and negative peaks of the amplitude modulated (AM) wave are
interconnected with an imaginary line. This imaginary line on the AM wave is called envelope.

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The shape of the envelope of AM wave looks same as the message signal. Therefore, this envelope
helps in recreating the exact shape of the message signal. The carrier signal does not contain any
information so even if we change the amplitude of the carrier signal, no information loss will occur.
However, if we change the characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the message signal,
information loss will occur because the message signal contains the information. So the
characteristics of the message signal should not be changed. Amplitude modulation was the earliest
modulation technique used to transmit voice signals by radio signals. Amplitude modulation is still
used in many forms of communication; for example, it is used in portable two-way radios, citizens
band radio, VHF aircraft radio, and in computer modems in the form of QAM (Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation).

1.1 Representation of AM Signal

In amplitude modulation, the message signal is an audio signal which represents sound, (or) a video
signal which represents the image. The carrier wave which has a much higher frequency than the
message signal carries the information. At the receiving station, the message signal is extracted from
the amplitude modulated wave by demodulation technique.

Mathematical Expression:
Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal or message signal m(t) of frequency (ωm) and amplitude
(Am) given by:

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m(t) = Am cos ωmt .................................................................. (1)

and carrier wave c(t) of frequency (ωc) and amplitude (Ac) given by:

c(t) = Ac cos ωct ..................................................................... (2)

where,
m(t) is the modulating signal or message signal
c(t) is the carrier signal
Am is the maximum amplitude of the message signal
Ac is the maximum amplitude of the carrier signal
ωm is the frequency of the message signal
ωc is the frequency of the carrier signal

Using the above mathematical expressions for message signal and the carrier signal, we can create a
new mathematical expression for the complete modulated wave.
The amplitude of modulated wave (A) is given as:
A = Ac + m(t)......................................................................... (3)

Put m(t) value from equation (1) into equation (3), then we get

A = Ac + Am cos ωmt .......................................................... (4)

The instantaneous value of the amplitude modulated wave s(t) can be given as:
s(t) = A cos θ
s(t) = A cos ωct ...................................................................................(5)

Put A value from equation (4) into equation (5), then we get

s(t) = (Ac + Am cos ωmt) cos ωct . ..................................................... (6)

This is an equation of amplitude modulated (AM) wave.

1.2 Modulation index of amplitude modulation:

Modulation index or modulation depth describes how the amplitude, frequency or phase of the
carrier signal and message signal affects the amplitude, frequency or phase of the modulated signal.
Amplitude modulation index describes how the amplitude of the carrier signal and message signal
affects the amplitude of the amplitude modulated (AM) signal. It is also defined as the ratio of the
maximum amplitude of message signal to the maximum amplitude of carrier signal. I.e.,

Am
modulation index, μ =
Ac
where,

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Am is the maximum amplitude of the message signal

Ac is the maximum amplitude of the carrier signal

The maximum amplitude of the message signal must be less than the maximum amplitude of the
carrier signal to avoid any distortion in the modulated signal. For example, if the carrier signal
amplitude is 5 volts then the message signal amplitude must be less than 5 volts. The maximum value
of the modulation index will be equal to one when Am = Ac. The minimum value of the modulation
index will be zero. If modulation index is higher than 1, then it is called over modulation. In over
modulation, the data loss will occur. When modulation index is expressed in percentage, it is also
called percentage modulation.

Calculation of µ from Amplitude

Modulated waveform:

The figure shows the amplitude

modulated (AM) waveform
through which the modulation
index can be calculated. It is
clear from the below figure that
the modulating signal rides
above the carrier signal.

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From the above figure, we can write,

Amax − Amin............................
Am = (i)
2

Ac = Amax − Am ..................................(ii)

Put Am value from equation (i) into equation (ii), then we get

Amax − Amin
Ac = Amax −
2
Taking the ratio of equation (i) and (iii), modulation index can be written as:

Amax − Amin
μ= … … . … (iv)
Amax + Amin

Modulation Index Examples

The maximum amplitude of the message signal must be less than (or equal to) the maximum
amplitude of the carrier signal to avoid any distortion in the modulated signal. Based on value of
modulation index, there are three types of modulation:
1. Perfect-Modulation
2. Under-Modulation
3. Over-Modulation

1. Perfect-Modulation:

Perfect-modulation occurs when the

maximum amplitude of the message
signal or modulating signal is exactly
equal to the maximum amplitude of the
carrier signal (Am = Ac). The modulation
index is the ratio of the maximum
amplitude of the message signal to the
maximum amplitude of carrier signal.
Therefore, the modulation index in
perfect-modulation is equal to one µ= 1.

The modulation index is also known as the modulation depth. The perfect-modulation has a
modulation depth of 100%. In perfect-modulation, the carrier level falls to zero. Perfect-modulation
causes no distortion.

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2. Under-Modulation:

Under-modulation occurs when the

maximum amplitude of the message
signal or modulating signal is less than
the maximum amplitude of the carrier
signal (Am < Ac). The modulation index
is the ratio of the maximum amplitude
of the message signal to the maximum
amplitude of carrier signal. Therefore,
the modulation index in under-
modulation is less than one (µ < 1). The
under-modulation has a modulation depth of less than 100%. In under-modulation, the carrier level
falls above zero. Under-modulation causes no distortion.

3. Over-Modulation:

Over-modulation occurs when the

maximum amplitude of the message
signal or modulating signal is greater
than the maximum amplitude of the
carrier signal (Am > Ac). The modulation
index is the ratio of the maximum
amplitude of the message signal to the
maximum amplitude of carrier signal.
Therefore, the modulation index in
over-modulation is greater than one
(µ > 1). The over-modulation has a
modulation depth of greater than 100%. In over-modulation, the carrier wave experiences 180° phase
reversals where the carrier level falls below the zero point.

Over-modulation causes severe distortion of the waveform of the message signal which results in
data loss. Over-modulation is one of the reasons why amplitude modulation is no longer used to
transmit high-quality sound signals. At the transmitter, limiters are included which prevent more
than 100% modulation.

1.3 Frequency Spectrum of Amplitude Modulation

The carrier is an un-modulated sine wave which has a single value of frequency (eg: 3 MHz) and
carries no useful information. When such a carrier is modulated with a message signal, other
frequencies can be detected in it. These new frequencies that are caused by modulation are called
sidebands. These sidebands are created above and below the carrier frequency.

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The sidebands that are created above the carrier frequency are called upper sidebands and the
sidebands that are created below the carrier frequency are called lower sidebands.

fUSB = fc + fm and fLSB = fc – fm

where, fc is the carrier frequency

fm is the message signal frequency
fLSB is lower sideband frequency
fUSB is upper sideband frequency

To see how it works, take the example of a

carrier of 800 kHz frequency which is modulated
by a message signal (audio signal) of 10 kHz
frequency. The process of modulating a carrier
signal with message signal is same as mixing two signals together. As a result of modulation, two
sideband frequencies are produced. Two sideband frequencies are created above and below the
carrier frequency. These sidebands are known as upper sidebands or sum frequencies. The upper
sidebands are created due to the addition of carrier signal frequency (800 kHz) with the message
signal frequency (10 kHz) I.e. 800 kHz + 10 kHz = 810 kHz.

Another sideband frequency is created below the carrier frequency. These sidebands are known as
lower sidebands or difference frequencies. The lower sidebands are created due to the subtraction
of message signal frequency (10kHz) with the carrier signal frequency (800 kHz) I.e. 800 kHz – 10 kHz
= 790 kHz. I.e. 10 kHz frequency is produced above and below the carrier.

Consider the expression of AM (amplitude modulated) wave given by equation (6)

s(t) = (Ac + Am cos ωmt) cos ωct

We know that µ = Am / Ac.

Hence, we have Am = µ Ac. Putting this value of Am in
above equation we get,

s(t) = (Ac + µ Ac cos ωmt) cos ωct

s(t) = Ac (1 + µ cos ωmt) cos ωct
s(t) = Ac cos ωct + Ac µ cos ωmt cos ωct
we know that,
1 1
cos(A)cos(B) = cos(A − B) + cos (A +B)
2 2

Applying this result to term in equation above, we get

s(t) = Accos2πfct + cos 2π (fc − fm) t + cos2π (fc + fm) t

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In the above equation, the first term represents unmodulated carrier, the second term represents
lower sideband and the last term represents upper sideband.

Note that ωc = 2πfc and ωm = 2πfm.

Hence, the above equation can also be written as:

s(t) = Accos2πfct + cos 2π(fc − fm)t + cos2π(fc + fm)t

2 2

s(t) = Accos2πfct + cos 2πfLSBt + cos2πfUSBt

2 2

The frequency spectrum of AM wave is shown in the figure.

The spectrum consists of full carrier and both the sidebands. Hence, it is also called Double Sideband
Full Carrier (DSB-FC) system.

➔ Bandwidth of Amplitude Modulation

The bandwidth of the signal can be obtained by taking the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies of the signal. From the above figure, we can obtain the bandwidth of AM wave
as, BW = fUSB – fLSB
BW = (fc + fm) – (fc – fm)
BW = 2 fm

➔ Power Calculations of AM Wave

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave

s(t) = Accos2πfct + cos 2π(fc − fm)t + cos2π(fc + fm)t

Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband
frequency components.
Pt = Pc + PUSB + PLSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

2
Vrms 2 (Vm ⁄√2)
P= =
R R
where,
Vrms = RMS value of cos signal. Vm= peak value of cos signal.

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First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.
1. Carrier power (Pc):
2
(Ac⁄√2) = Ac 2
Pc = 2R
R
2. Upper sideband power (PUSB):
2
(μ Ac⁄2√2) μ2Ac2
PUSB = =
R 8R

3. Lower sideband power will be same as that of the upper side band power
μ2Ac2
PLSB =
8R

Now, adding these three powers in order to get the total power (Pt) of AM wave

Ac2 μ2Ac2 μ2Ac2

Pt = + +
2R 8R 8R

Above formula can be used to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power and the
modulation index are known. If the modulation index μ=1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5
times the carrier power [Pt = 1.5 Pc]. So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times
the carrier power for a perfect modulation.

Note: Power Efficiency of AM Signal is given by:

𝑷𝑼𝑺𝑩 + 𝑷𝑳𝑺𝑩 𝝁𝟐
𝜼=( ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = ( 𝟐 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒄 + 𝑷𝑼𝑺𝑩 + 𝑷𝑳𝑺𝑩 𝝁 +𝟐

Maximum Efficiency of AM wave is calculated at 𝝁 = 𝟏. Its value is 𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑%

➔ Advantages of Amplitude Modulation:

1. Few components needed: At the receiver side, the original signal is extracted (demodulated) using
a circuit consisting of very few components.
2. Low cost: The components used in amplitude modulation are very cheap. So the AM transmitter
and AM receiver build at low cost.
3. It is simple to implement.
4. Long distance communication: Amplitude modulated waves can travel a longer distance.

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➔ Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation:

1. Amplitude modulation is inefficient in terms of its power usage since most of the power is
concentrated in the carrier signal which contains no information. At the receiver side, the power
consumed by the carrier wave is wasted.
2. It requires high bandwidth: The amplitude modulation is not efficient in terms of its use of
bandwidth. It requires a bandwidth equal to twice that of the highest audio signal frequency.
3. This type of transmission can be easily affected by the external radiation.
4. Amplitude modulation cannot be used for transmission of sensitive information like in the army,
where interpretation or loss or disruption during transmission is not an option.

➔ Applications of Amplitude Modulation:

1. Air band radio: The amplitude modulation is extensively used in aerospace industry. The VHF (Very
High Frequency) transmissions made by the airborne equipment still use amplitude modulation. The
radio contact between ground to ground and also ground to air use amplitude modulated signals.
2. Broadcast transmission: Amplitude modulation is still widely used for broadcasting either short or
medium or long wave bands.
3. Quadrature amplitude modulation: Amplitude modulation is used in the transmission of data of
almost everything, from short-range transmission such as Wi-Fi to cellular communications.
Quadrature amplitude modulation is formed by mixing two carriers that are out of phase by 90°.
4. Single sideband: The amplitude modulation (AM) in the form of single sideband is still used for HF
(High Frequency) radio links.

5.1 Principle of Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier [DSB-SC] Modulation

Bandwidth and power are two most important resources in any communication system. The
minimum usage of these two resources ensures efficient system. In the process of amplitude
modulation, modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and two side bands. The transmission of
signals which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be termed as Double Sideband Full
Carrier [DSB-FC] system. However, such transmission is inefficient in terms of its power usage since
most of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal which contains no information. At receiver
side, the power consumed by the carrier wave is wasted. This wastage of power can be prevented by
suppressing the carrier wave. The modulation scheme which utilizes this concept is known as
‘Double Side band Suppressed Carrier [DSB-SC] Modulation.’

Mathematical Expression and Spectrum for DSB-SC Modulation:

Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal and carrier wave is given by: m(t) = Am cos ωmt and
c(t) = Ac cos ωct

Mathematically, DSB-SC can be represented as the product of modulating and carrier signals:

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i. e. , s(t) = m(t) c(t)

➔ Bandwidth of DSB-SC Modulation

The bandwidth of the signal can be obtained by taking the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies of the signal. From the above figure, we can obtain the bandwidth of wave as,
BW = fUSB – fLSB
BW = (fc + fm) – (fc – fm)
BW = 2 fm

➔ Advantage of DSB-SC Modulation:

1. Consumption of Power is less since carrier is suppressed.
2. The modulation system is simple

➔ Disadvantages of DSB-SC Modulation:

1. Demodulation system becomes complex as compared to AM.

5.2 Principle of Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier [SSB-SC] Modulation

Bandwidth and power are two most important resources in any communication system. The
minimum usage of these two resources ensures efficient system. In the process of amplitude
modulation, modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and two side bands. However, such
transmission is inefficient in terms of its power usage since most of the power is concentrated in the
carrier signal which contains no information. Whereas, Double Side band Suppressed Carrier [DSB-
SC] Modulation has two sidebands. Since, both sidebands carry same information; there is no need
to transmit the both sidebands. The system becomes both power and bandwidth efficient when one
side band is suppressed. This process of suppressing one sideband along with the carrier and
transmitting a single sideband is called as Single Side Band Suppressed carrier [SSB-SC] modulation.

Mathematical Expression and Spectrum for SSB-SC Modulation:

Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal and carrier wave is given by:
m(t) = Am cos ωmt
c(t) = Ac cos ωct

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➔ Bandwidth of SSB-SC Modulation

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is 2fm. Since
the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the bandwidth of
DSBSC modulated wave i.e., the bandwidth (BW) of SSB-SC signal = 2fm/2 = fm.

Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm and it is equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal.

➔ Advantages of SSB-SC Modulation

1. Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSB signals.

2. Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
3. Power is saved.
4. High power signal can be transmitted.
5. Less amount of noise is present.
6. Signal fading is less likely to occur.

➔ Disadvantages of SSB-SC Modulation

1. The generation and detection of SSB signal is a complex process.

2. Quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have excellent
frequency stability.

➔ Applications of SSB-SC Modulation:

1. for power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

2. in land, air, and maritime mobile communications.
3. in point-to-point communications.
4. in radio communications.
5. in television, telemetry, and radar communications.
6. in military communications

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6. Details of AM Transmitter
AM transmitter takes the audio signal as an input and delivers amplitude modulated wave to
the antenna as an output to be transmitted. Block diagram of a typical amplitude modulation
transmitter is shown in the figure below:

The working of AM transmitter can be explained as follows:

• Sound wave produced by speech or music strike the diaphragm of microphone that
converts them into a tiny varying current.
• The audio frequency output of microphone is amplified by a low level audio
amplifier and finally by a power amplifier.
• On the other side, the carrier waves of radio frequency are generated by a crystal oscillator.
• These carrier waves are applied to a tuned buffer amplifier and finally to an RF
output amplifier which is nothing but modulator.
• Buffer amplifier is used to isolate the RF oscillator and amplifier stage.
• The amplified audio signal is then combined with the carrier to give a modulated
carrier wave which is fed to the transmitter antenna.

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1] AM Receiver: AM Receiver is a device used with an antenna to receive transmitted radio signals
and to convert these signals to a form that permits use of the transmitted information.

Functions of AM Receiver:
The principle functions of an AM receiver are frequency selection, amplification and detection ➔
1. Frequency Selection is the discrimination of the part of the radio-frequency spectrum that contains
the desired information from the entire spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations.
2. Amplification is the process of strengthening the signals. It magnifies the energy of the received
oscillations, which are usually very weak, to a usable level.
3. Detection is the conversion of modulated radio-frequency oscillations to electric oscillations
corresponding to the modulation envelope that directly convey the transmitted information.

2] Receiver Characteristics:

These are the parameters which are required to evaluate the ability of a receiver to successfully
demodulate the received radio signals. Few important receiver characteristics are mentioned here:

2.1 Selectivity:
The selectivity is defined as an ability of AM receiver to accept (or select) the desired band of
frequency and reject all other unwanted frequencies which can be interfering signals.
• The signal bandwidth should be narrow for better selectivity.
• Graphically selectivity can be represented as a curve shown, which shows the attenuation
that the receiver offers to signal at frequencies near to the tuned frequency.
• The selectivity determines the adjacent channel rejection of a receiver.

2.2 Fidelity:
Fidelity of a receiver is a measure of the ability of receiver to reproduce an exact replica of the
original transmitted signals at the receiver output.
• For better fidelity, the amplifier must pass high bandwidth signals to amplify the frequencies
of the outermost sidebands, while for better selectivity the signal should have narrow
bandwidth. Thus, a trade-off is made between selectivity and fidelity.

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• Low frequency response of IF amplifier determines fidelity at the lower modulating

frequencies while high frequency response of the IF amplifier determines fidelity at the
higher modulating frequencies.

2.3 Sensitivity:
Sensitivity of a receiver is its ability to identify and amplify weak signals at the receiver output. It is
often defined in terms of voltage that must be applied to the input terminals of the receiver to
produce a standard output power which is measured at the output terminals.
• The higher value of receiver gain ensures smaller input signal necessary to produce the
desired output power. Thus, a receiver with good sensitivity will detect minimum RF signal at
the input and still produce utilizable demodulated signal.
• Sensitivity is also known as receiver threshold. It is expressed in microvolts (µV) or decibels.
• It can be improved by reducing the noise level and bandwidth of the receiver.
• Sensitivity can be graphically represented as a curve shown in figure, which depicts that
sensitivity varies over the tuning band.

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3] Types of AM Receivers:
Of the various forms of receivers, only two have any practical or commercial significance. There are:
1. Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver
2. Superhetrodyne Receiver.

Of these superhetrodyne receiver is used to a large extent today. The best way of justifying the
existence and overwhelming popularity of superhetrodyne receiver is by showing the shortcomings
of TRF type. Hence, TRF receiver is explained in the next section.

3.1 Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver:

The Tuned Radio-Frequency receiver was among the first designs available in the early days when
means of amplification by valves became available. The basic principle was that all radio frequency
stages simultaneously tuned to the received frequency before detection and subsequent
amplification of the audio signal.

Figure: Block diagram of TRF Receiver

The TRF receiver block diagram is shown in figure above. It consists of a receiving antenna, three RF
amplifiers, detector, audio amplifier and power amplifier blocks.

WORKING:
The receiver antenna will receive RF signal which is transmitted by the transmitting antenna. Then
this signal acts as input signal to an assembly of RF amplifiers. Three RF amplifiers are used here. All
these amplifiers are tuned together in order to select and amplify the incoming frequency and
simultaneously to reject all others. After the signal was amplified to a suitable level, it is given to next
block i.e., detector. The detector block demodulates the signal in order to get original transmitted
signal at the output. This detected signal is now given to audio amplifier. Audio amplifier strengthen
the transmitted signal and then fed to the power amplifier. The signal at the output of Power
amplifier then drives the loudspeaker section.

Advantages of TRF Receiver:

1. It is the simplest type of receiver because it does not require mixing and IF operation.
2. This type of receivers have good sensitivity.
3. It is very much applicable to receive single frequency
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Disadvantages of TRF Receiver:

1. Poor selectivity and low sensitivity in proportion to the number of tuned amplifiers used.
2. Selectivity requires narrow bandwidth, and narrow bandwidth at a high radio frequency
implies high Q or many filter sections.
3. An additional problem for the TRF receiver is tuning different frequencies. All the tuned
circuits need to tune together to the same frequency or track very closely. Another problem
to keep the narrow bandwidth tuning. Keeping several tuned circuits aligned is difficult.
4. The bandwidth of a tuned circuit doesn’t remain constant and increases with the frequency
increase.
5. Instability due to large number of RF stages.
6. Received bandwidth increases with frequency (varies with center frequency)
7. Gain is non-uniform over a wide range of frequencies.

3.2 Superheterodyne Receiver

Superheterodyne is basically a process of designing and constructing wireless communications such

as radio receivers by mixing two frequencies together in order to produce a difference frequency
component called as intermediate frequency (IF), so as to reduce signal frequency prior to
processing. A superheterodyne receiver usually consists of an antenna, RF amplifier, mixer, local
oscillator, IF amplifier, detector, AF amplifier and a speaker. The working of a superheterodyne
receiver is explained with the help of the block diagram given below in figure along with the
waveforms at the output of each block.

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3.2.1 RF Amplifier: In the superheterodyne receiver, the incoming signal through the antenna is
filtered to reject the image frequency and then amplified by the RF amplifier. RF amplifier can be
tuned to select and amplify a particular carrier frequency within the AM broadcast range. Only the
selected frequency and it two sidebands are allowed to pass through the amplifier.

3.2.2 Local Oscillator: The carrier of the received signal is called radio frequency carrier and its
frequency is radio frequency fRF and the local oscillator signal operates at fLO. The amplified RF
frequency is then mixed with the local oscillator frequency.

3.2.3 Mixer: The combining of these two signals is done at the mixer which produces sum and
difference frequency signals of the incoming carrier signal and local oscillator signal. Thus, two
outputs of mixer are (fLO + fRF) and (fLO − fRF). The sum frequency (fLO + fRF) is rejected by the
filter and the remaining difference frequency (fLO − fRF) signal which is a down converted frequency
signal is called as intermediate frequency (IF) carrier (fIF = fLO − fRF).

The frequency of local oscillator is not same as the frequency to which RF amplifier is tuned. Local
oscillator is tuned to a frequency that may be either higher or lower than the incoming frequency by
an amount equal to the IF frequency. Thus, idea of the superheterodyne receiver is to reduce the
high frequency radio components of the incoming carrier to a fairly low, fixed value such as to be
processed at the different stages of the receiver. It also provides good stability, gain and proper
selectivity and fidelity. The modulation of the IF carrier signal is same as that of the original carrier
signal and it has a fixed frequency of 455 kHz which is amplified by one or more stages of
amplification.

3.2.4 IF Amplifier: The IF signal is amplified with the help of IF amplifier which raises its level for the
information extraction process. Also, the IF amplifier fulfils most of the gain and bandwidth
requirements of the receiver. IF amplifier operations are independent to the frequency at which
receiver is tuned, maintaining the selectivity and sensitivity of the superheterodyne receiver
considerably constant throughout the tuning range of the receiver. This amplified IF signal is applied
to the detector to detect the information signal component from 455 kHz IF, to reproduce the
original information data, which is generally in the form of audio signal.

3.2.5 Detector:

Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) AM wave. This envelope detector consists of a
diode and low pass filter. Here, the diode is the main detecting element. Hence, the envelope
detector is also called as the diode detector. The low pass filter contains a parallel combination of
the resistor and the capacitor. The AM wave s(t) is applied as an input to this detector.

The standard form of AM wave is given by

s(t)=Ac [1+ m(t)] cos (2πfct)

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In the positive half cycle of AM wave, diode conducts and the capacitor charges to the peak value of
AM wave. When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the diode will be reverse biased. Thus,
the capacitor will discharge through resistor R till the next positive half cycle of AM wave. When the
value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts and the process will be
repeated. The component values should be selected in such a way that the capacitor charges very
quickly and discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same as
that of the envelope of AM wave, which is almost similar to the modulating signal.

• Advantages of Envelope detector:

1. Low cost: The diode detector only requires the use of a few low cost components.
2. Simplicity: Using very few components, the Diode AM detector was easy to implement.

• Disadvantages of Envelope detector:

1. Distortion: As diode detector is non-linear it introduces distortion in detected audio signal.
2. Sensitivity: It has poor sensitivity.

3.2.6 Audio Amplifier: The generated audio signal is then applied to the AF amplifier to increase the
audio frequency level of the signal and to provide enough gain to drive the speaker or headphones.
A speaker is connected to the AF amplifier to play the audio information signal.

3.2.7 Automatic Gain Control [AGC]:

An important part of superheterodyne receiver is Automatic gain control (AGC) which is given to the
RF, IF and mixer stages in order to generate constant output irrespective of the varying input signal.
It is a mechanism wherein the overall gain of the radio receiver is automatically varied according to
the changing strength of the received signal. This is done to maintain the output at a constant level.

Need of AGC:
In majority of cases the signal voltage arriving at the input of the receiver changes appreciably. This is
due to the difference in power of the transmitters and the difference in their distance from the
location of the receiver, the fading of diffused signals, abrupt change of distance and reception
conditions between a transmitter and a receiver mounted on moving objects, such as airplanes and
automobiles. These changes lead to unacceptable oscillations or distortions of signals in the receiver.

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The automatic gain control is designed to significantly reduce variations in the output signal voltage
of the receiver with respect to the input signal voltage. If the gain is not varied as per the input
signal, consider a stronger input signal, then the signal might probably be distorted with some of the
amplifiers reaching saturation level. AGC is applied to the RF, IF and mixer stages, which also helps in
improving the dynamic range of the receiver antenna by adjusting the gain of the various stages in
the radio receiver. AGC facilitates tuning to varying signal strength stations providing a constant
output. AGC smoothens the amplitude variations of the input signal and the gain control does not
have to be recalibrated every time the receiver is tuned from station to station. An AGC which is not
designed correctly can lead to considerable distortion to a smooth signal.

There are two types of AGC circuits:

1. Simple AGC:
In simple AGC, the gain control mechanism is active for
high as well as low value of carrier voltage. Hence, low
AGC voltage decreases overall gain and reduce the
sensitivity of the receiver. Figure shows AGC
characteristics. By observing the difference between
simple AGC and no AGC, it can be concluded that at low
input signals, the output of receiver is low as compared to
that would have been with no AGC.

2. Delayed AGC: In delayed AGC, AGC bias is not applied to the amplifiers until signal strength
reaches a predetermined level. When the output signal tries to exceed this level, the AGC bias is
applied and gain is reduced so that voltage remained at predetermined level. Hence, this type of AGC
is called as delayed AGC. From figure it can be observed that the characteristic of delayed AGC is very
close to that of ideal AGC. Almost all the receivers use delayed AGC

4. Introduction to Noise:

In any communication system, during the transmission of the signal or while receiving the signal,
some unwanted signal gets introduced into the communication, making it unpleasant for the
receiver, and questioning the quality of the communication. Such a disturbance is called as Noise.
Noise is an unwanted signal, which interferes with the original message signal and corrupts the
parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the communication process, leads to the
message getting altered. It most likely enters at the channel or the receiver.

Types of Noise:

The classification of noise is done depending on the type of the source, the effect it shows or the
relation it has with the receiver, etc. There are two main ways in which noise is produced. One is
through some external source while the other is created by an internal source, within the receiver
section.

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1] External Source:
This noise is produced by the external sources, which may occur in the medium or channel of
communication usually. This noise cannot be completely eliminated. The best way is to avoid the
noise from affecting the signal. Most common examples of this type of noise are
• Atmospheric noise (due to irregularities in the atmosphere),
• Extra-terrestrial noise, such as solar noise and cosmic noise and
• Industrial noise.

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2] Internal Source:
This noise is produced by the receiver components while functioning. The components in the circuits,
due to continuous functioning, may produce few types of noise. This noise is quantifiable. A proper
receiver design may lower the effect of this internal noise. Most common examples of this type of
noise are
• Thermal noise (Johnson noise or Electrical noise),
• Shot noise (due to the random movement of electrons and holes),
• Transit-time noise (during transition),
Effects of Noise:
• Noise affects the system performance.
• It limits the operating range of the systems
• Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers

Important Definitions:
1. Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR): It is the ratio of signal power to the noise power. Higher the value of
SNR, greater will be the quality of received output.

Average power of modulating signal

Input SNR: (SNR)i =
Average power of noise at input

Average power of demodulated signal

Output SNR: (SNR)o =
Average power of noise at output

Average power of modulated signal

Channel SNR: (SNR)c =
Average power of noise in message bandwidth

2. Figure of Merit (FoM): It is defined as the ratio of output SNR to the input SNR. It describes the
performance of a device.
Output SNR (SNR)o
FOM = =
Input SNR (SNR)i

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1. What is the difference between percent modulation and modulation index?

2. What do you understand by modulation? Explain the need of modulation in communication.
3. Obtain mathematical expression for representing amplitude modulated wave and draw its spectrum. / Derive an
expression for AM signal with suitable waveform. Also draw its frequency spectrum.
4. Comparison of DSB – FC, DSB – SC, SSB – SC.
5. A modulated signal 20 sin (2𝜋1000𝑡) is used to modulate a carrier signal 80 sin (2𝜋106𝑡). Find the percentage
modulation, frequencies of sideband components, their amplitudes. What is the BW of modulated signal? Also draw
the spectrum of AM wave.
6. Prove that 𝑃𝑡 = 1.5𝑃𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒r?
7. Define and explain following characteristics (performance parameters) of Radio Receiver with suitable curves.
i) Selectivity ii) Fidelity iii) Sensitivity
8. Write short notes on Automatic Gain Control (AGC) and explain types of AGC (simple and delayed).
9. Explain Superheterodyne receiver with block diagram.
10. Calculate percentage power saving when carrier and one of the sidebands is suppressed in an AM signal modulated
to a depth of I) 100%, II) 50%
11. If carrier frequency is 2.8 MHz and modulating frequency is 3 KHz, then calculate upper sideband frequency,
lower sideband and bandwidth.
12. A 400 W carrier is modulated to a depth of 75%. Calculate the total power in the modulated wave.
13. A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 KW, when modulation coefficient is 60 %. How much of this is carrier
power?
14. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8A when only the carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93A when the
carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the percentage modulation. Determine the antenna current, when the
percent of a modulation changes to 0.8.
15. A certain transmitter radiates 9 KW with the carrier unmodulated & 10.125 KW when the carrier is sinusoidally
modulated. Calculate the modulation index, percent of modulation of another sine wave corresponding to 40%
modulation is transmitted simultaneously, determine the total radiated power.
16. An Audio frequency 25*sin2π*500t is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of 80*sin 2π*10^5t. Calculate,
I. Modulation Index II. Sideband Frequency
III. Bandwidth required IV. Total power delivered into a load of 600 Ω
17. The r. m. s. antenna current of an AM transmitter is 10 A when un-modulated and 12 A when sinusoidally
modulated. Calculate the modulation index.
18. Derive the relation between carrier power and total power in AM signal.
19. Calculate bandwidth, total power, carrier power, modulation index, sideband power & modulation efficiency for AM
signal given by VAM = 10 [1+ 0.5 sin (31.4 *103 t)] sin (628*103 t).

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