Introduction to Modulation:

• Modulation is the process of changing one or more properties (Amplitude,

Frequency and phase) of the carrier signal in proportional to the modulating
signal(baseband signal).
• The process of superimposing a low-frequency signal on a high-frequency
carrier signal.
• The process of varying the RF carrier wave in accordance with the
information in a low-frequency signal
Two signals are involved in the Modulation process.
1. Message
signals also
known as
baseband
signals.
Baseband
signals are
the band of
frequencies
representing the original signal.
2. The other signal involved with this is a high-frequency sinusoidal wave.
This signal is called the carrier signal.
3. The frequency of Baseband signal is usually low whereas the frequency of
the carrier signals is almost, always higher than that of the baseband signal.
Need of Modulation:
1. Increase the Signal Strength: The baseband signals transmitted by the
sender are not capable of direct transmission. The strength of the message
signal should be increased so that it can travel longer distances. This is
where modulation is essential. The most vital need of modulation is to
enhance the strength of the signal without affecting the parameters of the
carrier signal.
2. Size of the Antenna
• The efficiency of transmitted and received signal depends on the size of
the antenna , which in turns depends on the wavelength(λ) of the frequency
used.
 • For the effective transmission of a signal, the height h of the antenna
should be comparable to the wavelength λ of the signal at least the height
of the antenna h should be λ / 4 in length so that the antenna can sense the
variations of the signal properly.
• For example: If we have to transmit a signal of 5 kHz then λ = C / f and
height of the antenna h = λ/4 where C is the wave velocity, here C = 3 ×
108 m/s. h = (3 × 108) / (5 × 103) ×4, h = 15 × 103 = 15 km.
• For example: If we have to transmit a signal of 5 MHz then λ = C / f and
height of the antenna h = λ/4 where C is the wave velocity, here C = 3 ×
108 m/s. h = (3 × 108) / (5 × 106) ×4, h = 15 m.
3. Prevent interference by frequency translation:
• Due to transmission of audio signal by all the Radio stations over the same
range of 20Hz to 20 KHZ, the programs of different station will get mixed
up. So to keep various signal separate, each station is allocated a band of
frequency.
• Doing this, will translate or shift various signals to different portion of EM
spectrum.
• The process of shifting the frequency of signal within the range is called
Frequency Translation and it is done by modulation.
4. Wireless Communication System: By using modulation to transmit the
signals through space to long distances, we have removed the need for wires in
the communication systems. The technique of modulation helped humans to use
the wireless equipment in a big way in their lives. Telephones no longer had to
remain plugged to a wall. All the benefits of modulation have raised our standards
of living in a considerable manner.
Types of Modulation:
Analog Modulation: In analog modulation, analog signal (sinusoidal signal) is
used as a carrier signal that modulates the message signal or data signal. The
general function Sinusoidal wave’s is shown in the figure below, in which, three
parameters can be altered to get modulation: – They are amplitude, frequency and
phase; so, the types of analog modulation are:

AcCos(2piefct+phi)-- Ac=Ampitude, 2piefct=Freq, phi=phase,

Freq+phase=Angle, Freq= Rate of change of Angle
Types of Analog Modulation:
1. Amplitude Modulation(AM):
• A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is
the baseband message signal, which contains the information. This
wave has to be modulated.
• According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier
signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal
containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal
containing information, at each instant

Amplitude Modulation Waveform:

• The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message
signal.
• The next one is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and
contains no information.
• While, the last one is the resultant modulated wave.
 2 2
m m
PT = PC (1 + T ); I = I o 1 + T
• Complex AM waveform: 2 2
Mathematical Expressions of AM:
• Carrier Signal (c(t)): The carrier signal is a high-frequency sinusoidal
wave, represented mathematically as: c(t)=AcCos(2πfct) where, Ac =
Amplitude of the carrier signal, fc = Frequency of the carrier signal, t =
Time
• Message Signal (m(t)): The message or modulating signal is the
information-bearing signal, usually at a much lower frequency, represented
as: m(t)=AmCos(2πfmt) Where: Am = Amplitude of the message signal,
fm = Frequency of the message signal.
Modulation Index of AM: The modulation index, denoted by μ, is the ratio of
the message signal amplitude to the carrier signal amplitude: μ=Am\Ac. The AM
signal can also be expressed in terms of the modulation index:

mT = m12 + m22 + ... + mn2

Total Modulation Index:
Bandwidth of Amplitude Modulation:
• The bandwidth of an AM signal is determined by the range of frequencies
that are generated during the modulation process. When a carrier signal is
modulated by a message signal, two sidebands are created: the upper
sideband (USB) and the lower sideband (LSB).
• The bandwidth required for an AM signal is given by: BWAM=2×fm. fm
= Maximum frequency of the modulating signal (message signal)
Calculation of Amplitude:
• Amplitude of Message Signal: Am = (Vmax – Vmin)/2
• Amplitude of Carrier Signal: Ac = (Vmax + Vmin)/2
Calculation of Power:
• Total Power: P (Total) = PC + PSB m2
• Carrier Power: PC = AC2 / 2 PT = Pc (1 + )
2
Frequency Spectrum:
• The representation of frequency content of a signal using a graph is called
spectrum.
• The mathematical equation of AM modulated wave;
mam(t) = (Ac + Am cos ωmt) cos ωc t
mam(t) = Ac cos ωc t + Am cos ωmt cos ωc t
• Using trigonometric identity 2 cos A cos B = cos (A+B) + cos (A-B)
mam(t) = Ac cos ωc t + (Am/2) cos (ωm + ωc )t + (Am/2) cos (ωm – ωc )t
• Where: Ac cos ωc t = Carrier signal
(Am/2) cos (ωm + ωc )t = Message spectrum shifted ωc to the left.
(Am/2) cos (ωm – ωc )t = Message spectrum shifted ωc to the right.

AM Transmitter: The basic components are oscillator and power amplifier.

• Oscillator: The oscillator is a circuit which generates sinusoidal
waveforms of different frequencies. The crystal oscillator is generally
used in AM transmitter for generating a carrier signal of high frequency.
• Power Amplifier: Power amplifiers are used for the amplification of the
modulated signal before feeding it to the antenna for transmission. The
modulated signal has low power and it cannot be transmitted without
amplification. Bipolar junction transistors are used as Power amplifiers in
AM transmitter.
There are 3 classes of Power Amplifiers.

A. Class A Power Amplifier: The class A amplifier operates

for the whole cycles of the signal. These amplifiers amplify
the whole signal thus wasting too much power. Class A
amplifier has low efficiency.
B. Class B Power Amplifier: Class B amplifiers operate only
for half of the input signal thus the efficiency of the Class B
amplifiers ranges up to 80%.

Class C Power Amplifier: While

Class C amplifiers only operate for
only 25% (positive high portion) of
the signal. Thus the efficiency of
class C amplifiers is 90%.

There are 2 types of AM transmitters

A. Low-Level AM Transmitter: In the low-level transmitter, a crystal

oscillator is used for generating the carrier signal. The carrier and
modulating signal is amplified using class A amplifier before modulation.
After modulation, the modulated signal is amplified again before
transmission. The low-level transmitter does not need high-
efficiencyAmplifiers thus its design is much simpler.

B. High-Level AM Transmitter

• The high-level transmitter has the same design as low-level transmitter

except it uses Class C amplifier at modulation stage. Because of class C
amplifier, this transmitter has high efficiency and complex design.
• In the High-level transmitter, the carrier signal and modulating signal is
amplified using linear amplifiers. At the modulation block, both signals are
amplified with modulation and then fed to the antenna for transmission.
Block diagram of the High-level transmitter is as follows.
Advantages of AM
• AM transmitters have a simple design.
• AM receivers are also simple. Envelope detectors are the simplest
receivers.
• Due to high power, AM signals have a long range of transmission.
• The AM signal has low Bandwidth.
Disadvantages of AM
• Because the information is stored in the amplitude of the modulated
signal, which is affected by the noise in the medium.
• AM need high power for its transmission.
Applications of AM
• Because of its long range, it can be used for Radio broadcasting.
• It can be used for Television broadcasting.
Angular or Angle Modulation:
• Angle modulation is the process by which the angle (frequency or
phase) of the carrier signal is changed in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of modulating or message signal.
• Here the value of the phase and frequency get changed according to
carrier signal.
Types of Angular Modulation: Frequency Modulation & Phase Modulation
Frequency Modulation:
• In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies.
Whereas, in Frequency Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier
signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
 • Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier
signal remains constant.
• The frequency of the modulated wave remains constant and it is equal to
the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the modulating
signal is zero.
• The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the
modulating or message signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the
modulated wave decreases, when the amplitude of the modulating signal
decreases.
• The frequency of a carrier (fc) will increase as the amplitude of modulating
(input) signal increases. The carrier frequency will be maximum (fc max)
when the input signal is at its peak. The frequency of a carrier will decrease
as the amplitude of the modulating (input) signal decreases.
• The carrier frequency will be minimum (fc min) when the input signal is
at its lowest. The figure shows the frequency of the FM wave when the
input is at its max, 0V, and at its min
Frequency Modulation Waveform:

Mathematical Expressions of FM:

As we know from AM modulation, we need two sine (or) cosine waves for
modulation. m(t) modulating signal= Am cos (ωmt) and c(t) = Ac cos (ωct)

or m(t) = Am cos (2π fmt) & c(t) = Ac cos (2πfct)

Then frequency modulated wave will be;

• fm (t) = fc + km(t) , fm (t) = fc+ k Am cos (Wm t )

• Where, fm(t) = is frequency modulated wave, fc → frequency of the carrier
wave, m(t) → modulating signal, k → proportionality constant.
Frequencies in Frequency Modulation:
• In FM, variation (or) deviation in frequency the maximum deviation Δfmax

Δfmax = │fm(t) – fc│ =│KAm cos(2π fmt) + fc - fc │ =│KAm cos(2π fmt) │

OR =│KAm cos(Wmt) │ The maximum deviation in frequency is KAm

• Generally, frequency deviation is defined as the measure of the change in
a carrier frequency produced by the amplitude of the input modulating
signal.
Frequency Deviation:
• The amount of change in the carrier frequency produced, by the
amplitude of the input modulating signal, is called frequency
deviation.
• The Carrier frequency swings between fmax and fmin as the input
varies in its amplitude.
• The difference between fmax and fc is known as frequency deviation.
fd = fmax – fc
• Similarly, the difference between fc and fmin also is known as
frequency deviation. fd = fc –fmin
• It is denoted by Δf. Therefore Δf = fmax – fc = fc – fmin
• Therefore Δf = fd = fmax – fc = fc – fmin
MODULATION INDEX OF FM:
• The modulation index of FM is defined as the ratio of the frequency
deviation of the carrier to the frequency of the modulating signal
• Modulation index is the ratio of maximum deviation in frequency of the
modulating signal μ= Δfmax /fm
• Frequency modulation index describes how the frequency of the carrier
signal and amplitude of message
signal affects the frequency of the
frequency modulated (FM) signal.
Bandwidth of FM signal:
Advantages of Frequency Modulation:
• All the power transmitted in frequency modulation is useful whereas in
amplitude modulation, most of the power is in carrier (which is useless).
• Adjacent channel interference does not takes place in frequency modulation.
• Less noise and interference
• The radiated power is less.
• Lesser geographical interference among adjacent stations.
Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation
• Complex Equipment: More complicated and costly to design.
• High Bandwidth: Requires much more bandwidth than AM.
• Limited Range: Less effective for long-distance transmission.
• Multipath Interference: Prone to signal distortion from reflections.
• Power-Intensive: Needs more power for similar coverage as AM.
Applications of Frequency Modulation:
• FM Radio Broadcasting: Used for high-fidelity audio transmission,
offering better sound quality and less noise than AM radio.
• Two-Way Radio Communication: Utilized in walkie-talkies, police radios,
and other communication systems for reliable voice transmission.
• Television Sound Transmission: FM is used to transmit audio in analog TV
broadcasting.
• Radar Systems: Employed in radar for detecting and ranging objects by
varying the frequency of the signal.
• Telemetry: Used in remote monitoring systems to transmit data over
distances, such as in space communication and weather monitoring.
Types of Frequency Modulation:
Narrowband FM & Wideband FM (WBFM):
Narrowband FM:
• This frequency modulation has small bandwidth.
• The modulation index is (small)narrowband FM is nearly unity or less than1.
• Spectrum consist of LSB and USB.
• The frequency deviation is very low in narrowband FM. The maximum
frequency deviation is 5 kHz.
• Narrowband FM is frequently used for short distance communications.
 • Because of its low quality transmission, narrowband FM is used for mobile
communications.
Wideband FM:
• Modulation index is large i.e. higher than 1
• Spectrum consists of carrier signal and infinite sideband.
• The wideband FM has infinite bandwidth.
• Wideband FM occupies up to 15 times the bandwidth of the narrowband
FM.
• The frequency deviation is very high in wideband FM. However, the
maximum permissible frequency deviation is 75 KHz.
• Because of its high quality transmission, wideband FM is used in
entertainment broadcasting and also useful for broadcasting FM radio &
AM.
Amplitude Modulation vs Frequency Modulation

3. Phase Modulation:
• PM is a type of angle modulation and it is defined as the change in phase of
the carrier signal in correspondence with the amplitude of the message signal.
• Whereas, the frequency and amplitude of the carrier signal stays as constant.
• When the amplitude is positive the phase change in one direction and when
the amplitude is negative phase change in the opposite direction
 • The phase of the modulating signal has got infinite points where the phase
shift can take place.
Phase Modulation Waveform and Mathematical Expression

A. Carrier Signal (Unmodulated): The carrier signal without any modulation is

a simple sinusoidal waveform. Expression: c(t)=AcCos(2πfct). Waveform: A
steady, continuous sine wave with constant frequency and amplitude.
B. Modulating Signal: The modulating signal is typically a lower frequency sine
wave (for simplicity in visualization). Expression: m(t)=AmCos(2πfmt)
Waveform: A slower oscillating sine wave that represents the information or
message.
C. Phase Modulated Signal:
• In PM, the phase of the carrier signal is modified according to the modulating
signal.
• Expression: s(t)=AcCos(2πfct+kpm(t)), kp is the phase sensitivity constant.
• Waveform: The phase of the carrier shifts forward or backward depending
on the amplitude of the modulating signal, leading to variations in the timing
of the wave's zero-crossings, peaks, and troughs.
The advantages of Phase Modulation:
• Noise Resilience: More resistant to amplitude noise and signal degradation
compared to Amplitude Modulation (AM).
• Better Signal Quality: Provides higher fidelity and improved signal
clarity.
• Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Allows for efficient use of bandwidth in
digital communication systems.
 • Improved Security: Offers better resistance to interception and
eavesdropping due to phase changes.
• Robust Performance: Works well in environments with high interference
and multipath effects.
The disadvantages of Phase Modulation:
• Complex Receivers: Requires more complicated and expensive
demodulation equipment.
• High Bandwidth: Consumes more bandwidth compared to AM.
• Bandwidth Control: Hard to predict and control the exact bandwidth
needed.
• Signal Distortion: Susceptible to phase noise and non-linearities.
• Higher Power: May require more power for transmission.
Applications of Phase Modulation

• Digital Communication (PSK): PM is used in digital modulation

techniques like Phase Shift Keying (PSK), where the phase of the carrier
signal is changed to represent digital data (bits).
• Audio Synthesis: PM is used in synthesizers for sound generation, such
as Yamaha's famous FM synthesis, which actually relies on phase
modulation to create complex sounds.
• Satellite Communication: PM is employed in satellite communication
systems due to its robustness against signal degradation and noise,
providing reliable data transmission over long distances.
• Radar Systems: PM is used in radar systems to improve target detection
and range accuracy, especially in environments with high interference.
• Wi-Fi and Wireless LANs: PM is a component of various modulation
schemes used in Wi-Fi and wireless local area networks (WLANs),
ensuring efficient data

Digital Modulation:

It refers to the process of varying a carrier signal’s properties to transmit digital

data. This technique is essential for digital communication systems, allowing the
transmission of binary data over various media.

Advantages of Digital Modulation

• Noise Immunity: Better resistance to noise and interference compared to

analog modulation.
 • Higher Data Rates: Allows for higher data transmission rates and efficient
use of bandwidth.
• Security: Enhanced security through encryption and data encoding
techniques.
• Error Detection and Correction: Facilitates error detection and
correction, improving data integrity.
• Efficient Spectrum Use: Enables better utilization of the available
frequency spectrum.

The disadvantages of digital modulation:

• Complexity: Requires more complex transmitter and receiver designs,

leading to higher costs and development time.
• Bandwidth Requirements: Can demand more bandwidth than analog
modulation techniques, impacting spectrum efficiency.
• Power Consumption: Often needs higher power for transmission, which
can be less energy-efficient.
• Signal Processing: Requires advanced signal processing techniques and
algorithms, which can be computationally intensive.
• Error Vulnerability: Although digital modulation supports error
correction, it can still be susceptible to errors due to signal degradation and
interference.

Applications of Digital Modulation Techniques

• Military Communication Systems, where security and accuracy of the

signal plays a crucial role. Digital Modulation can provide confidential and
error free communication.
• Mobile Communication Systems, where the number of users are daily
increasing and Digital Modulation can provide high capacity and less
interference. Long distance communication can be easily done with the
help of Digital Modulation.
 • Digital Broadcasting, Digital modulation techniques are used in digital
broadcasting standards such as Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital
Video Broadcasting (DVB), and Terrestrial Digital Multimedia
Broadcasting (T-DMB) for transmitting audio, video, and data content
efficiently.
• Radar Systems, In radar systems, digital modulation techniques like phase
modulation (PM) and frequency modulation (FM) are used for transmitting
radar pulses and modulating radar signals to detect and track objects
accurately in various applications such as air traffic control, weather
monitoring, and military surveillance.

Types of Digital Modulation System:

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): ASK is a type of digital modulation where

the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the binary data
being transmitted. How It Works:

• Binary 0: Typically represented by a lower amplitude or no carrier signal.

• Binary 1: Represented by a higher amplitude of the carrier signal.

Mathematical Expression:

• A1 and A0 = Amplitudes for binary 1 and 0, respectively.

• fc = Carrier frequency, t = Time

Applications of ASK: Simple data communication systems & Optical

communication

Advantages of ASK: Simple to implement and understand & Low bandwidth

requirement

Disadvantages of ASK: Susceptible to noise and signal degradation & Less

efficient in noisy environments
ASK- Modulation Signal:

2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): FSK is a type of digital modulation where

the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary data. How It
Works:

• Binary 0: Represented by one frequency.

• Binary 1: Represented by another frequency.

Mathematical Expression:

Where:

o fc1 and fc2 = Frequencies representing binary 0 and 1, respectively.

o Ac= Amplitude of the carrier signal. t = Time
• Applications: Radio transmission & Data communication systems
• Advantages: More resistant to amplitude noise compared to ASK & Better
performance in noisy environments
 • Disadvantages: Requires more bandwidth than ASK & Can be more
complex to implement

Example of FSK:

Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is a digital modulation
technique where the phase of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary data.
Each phase shift corresponds to a different symbol, which encodes the data.
Example of PSK:

Types of PSK:

A. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): Uses two phases, typically 180 degrees
apart, to represent binary 0 and 1.

Mathematical Expression: s(t)=AcCos(2πfct+ϕ) Where: ϕ=0 for Binary 1 &

ϕ=π for Binary 0. Applications: Simple digital communication systems.

B. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK): Uses four distinct phase shifts
(e.g., 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°) to represent two bits of data per symbol.

• Mathematical Expression: s(t)=AcCos(2πfct+ϕk). Where ϕk represents

different phase shifts for each of the four symbols.
• Applications: Efficient in systems where bandwidth efficiency is crucial,
such as in digital TV and satellite communication.

Advantages of PSK:

• Efficient Bandwidth Usage: Encodes more bits per symbol compared to

ASK and FSK.
• Noise Immunity: More resistant to amplitude noise compared to ASK,
making it suitable for noisy environments.
• Error Detection: Allows for robust error detection and correction.
Disadvantages of PSK:

• Complex Demodulation: Requires complex demodulation and

synchronization techniques.
• Phase Noise Sensitivity: Performance can degrade due to phase noise and
synchronization errors.
• Higher Complexity: Increased complexity in both transmitter and receiver
designs.

Needs of Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)

• Digital Processing: Digital systems, such as computers and

microcontrollers, operate using binary data. Analog signals need to be
converted to digital form to be processed by these systems. Example:
Audio signals are converted to digital form for processing in digital audio
workstations (DAWs).
• Storage: Digital data can be easily stored on various media, such as hard
drives, SSDs, or cloud storage. Analog signals are more challenging to
store efficiently. Example: Digital images are stored in formats like JPEG
or PNG, while analog images are typically stored as physical film.
• Transmission: Reason: Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and
interference during transmission compared to analog signals. This
improves signal integrity and reduces error rates. Example: Digital TV
broadcasts are less prone to interference compared to analog broadcasts.
• Integration with Digital Systems: Reason: Many modern systems,
including sensors and communication devices, use digital interfaces and
require analog signals to be converted to digital form for compatibility.
Example: Sensors in smartphones convert analog data (like temperature or
light intensity) into digital signals for processing and display.
• Accuracy and Precision:Reason: Digital systems can provide higher
accuracy and precision in measurements and calculations compared to
analog systems. Example: Digital voltmeters offer more precise readings
compared to analog voltmeters.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC)

• Output to Analog Devices: Reason: Many real-world devices, such as

speakers, analog meters, and certain control systems, operate using analog
signals. Digital systems need to convert digital data into analog signals to
interface with these devices. Example: A DAC converts digital audio data
into an analog signal that drives speakers.
• Analog Signal Generation: Reason: In many applications, such as radio
transmission and analog signal generation, it is necessary to create analog
 signals from digital data. Example: Generating a modulated signal for
radio transmission from digital data.
• Signal Representation: Reason: Certain types of signals, like continuous
waveform signals, are best represented and analyzed in analog form.
Example: Analog oscilloscopes and waveform generators require analog
signals to visualize or generate continuous waveforms.
• Real-Time Processing: Reason: In systems requiring real-time feedback
and control, analog signals may be needed to interact with physical
processes and equipment in real-time. Example: Real-time control systems
in industrial automation that use analog control signals to adjust machinery.
• Improving Signal Quality: Reason: Some systems benefit from the
smoother and continuous nature of analog signals, which can reduce
quantization noise and improve signal quality in certain applications.
Example: High-fidelity audio systems where DACs improve the sound
quality by providing smoother analog output.
Analog to Digital Modulation:

• The process in which analog signal is changed into digital signal based on
the information of digital signal.
• Sine-wave is defined by three characteristic i.e. amplitude, frequency and
Phase.
• Binary numbers are defined by 0 & 1.
• Application of analog to digital modulation is to transmission of digital
data over telephonic wire.

Digital Modulation Techniques:

M-ary ASK:

• M-ary ASK uses MMM different amplitude levels to represent log2M bits
per symbol. Each amplitude level corresponds to a unique pattern of bits.
• Amplitude Levels: M Levels: Each level represents a different
combination of bits. For example, in 4-ASK (M=4), there are 4 different
amplitude levels representing 2 bits per symbol.
• Mathematical Expression: s(t)=AiCos(2πfct), Where Ai represents one of
the M possible amplitudes.
• Spectral Efficiency: Higher than binary ASK because more bits are
transmitted per symbol, making better use of available bandwidth.
• Error Performance: As M increases, the amplitude levels become closer
together, which can lead to increased susceptibility to noise and
interference, impacting error rates.
• Example:
4-ASK (M=4): Uses 4 different amplitude levels to represent 2 bits per
symbol (00, 01, 10, 11).
16-ASK (M=16): Uses 16 different amplitude levels to represent 4 bits per
symbol.
Advantages of M-ary ASK :
• Higher Data Rate: Transmits more bits per symbol compared to binary
ASK.
• Efficient Bandwidth Use: Can achieve higher data rates within the same
bandwidth.
Disadvantages of M-ary ASK ::
• Noise Sensitivity: As the number of amplitude levels increases, the signal
becomes more susceptible to noise and interference.
• Complexity: Requires more complex detection and demodulation
techniques to differentiate between multiple amplitude levels.

M-ary FSK

• M-ary FSK extends the basic Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) concept by
using MMM different frequencies to represent log⁡2M\log_2 Mlog2M
bits per symbol. Each frequency corresponds to a unique combination of
bits.
• Frequency Levels: M Frequencies: The signal uses MMM different
frequencies to represent log2M bits. For instance, in 4-FSK (M=4), there
are 4 different frequencies, each representing 2 bits.
• Symbol Rate: The rate at which symbols (each representing log2M bits)
are transmitted.
• Bit Rate: The product of the symbol rate and log2M, representing the
number of bits transmitted per second.
• Spectral Efficiency: Generally less efficient compared to M-ary ASK, as
more bandwidth is required to accommodate multiple frequencies.
• Error Performance: M-ary FSK can provide better performance in noisy
environments compared to ASK because the frequency differences are
more distinguishable than amplitude differences.

Example M-ary FSK:

• 4-FSK (M=4): Uses 4 distinct frequencies to represent 2 bits per symbol.

Each frequency is spaced apart to avoid interference.
• 16-FSK (M=16): Uses 16 different frequencies to represent 4 bits per
symbol.

Advantages M-ary FSK :

• Noise Immunity: More resistant to amplitude noise compared to ASK due

to frequency-based modulation.
 • Better Signal Integrity: Frequencies are less susceptible to noise and
interference, leading to more reliable communication in noisy
environments.

Disadvantages M-ary FSK:

• Bandwidth Consumption: Requires more bandwidth compared to other

modulation schemes like M-ary ASK.
• Complexity: Increased complexity in both modulation and demodulation,
especially as MMM increases.

M-ary PSK:

• M-ary PSK uses MMM different phase shifts to represent log⁡2M\log_2

Mlog2M bits per symbol. Each phase shift corresponds to a unique
combination of bits.
• Phase Levels:: M Phases: The signal uses MMM distinct phase shifts to
represent log2M bits. For example, in 4-PSK (also known as QPSK, M=4),
there are 4 different phase shifts, each representing 2 bits.
• Symbol Rate: The rate at which symbols (each representing log2M bits)
are transmitted.
• Bit Rate: The product of the symbol rate and log2M, representing the
number of bits transmitted per second.
• Spectral Efficiency: Generally higher than binary PSK (BPSK) because
more bits are transmitted per symbol.
• Error Performance: The performance can degrade with increasing M due
to the reduced distance between phase points, making the system more
susceptible to phase noise and synchronization errors.

Example M-ary PSK:

• 4-PSK (QPSK): Uses 4 distinct phase shifts (0°, 90°, 180°, 270°) to
represent 2 bits per symbol.
• 8-PSK: Uses 8 different phase shifts to represent 3 bits per symbol.
• 16-PSK: Uses 16 different phase shifts to represent 4 bits per symbol.

Advantages M-ary PSK:

• High Spectral Efficiency: Transmits multiple bits per symbol, making

efficient use of bandwidth.
• Better Noise Immunity: More resistant to amplitude noise compared to
ASK.
Disadvantages M-ary PSK:

1. Complexity: Increased complexity in modulation and demodulation,

requiring precise phase synchronization.
2. Error Performance: Performance degrades with higher MMM due to
reduced phase separation, which can increase error rates in noisy
environments.
3. Phase Noise Sensitivity: More sensitive to phase noise and
synchronization issues.

ASK Modulator

• ASK Modulation
The ASK modulator
block diagram
comprises of the
carrier signal
generator, the binary
sequence from the
message signal and
the band-limited
filter. Following is
the block diagram of
the ASK Modulator.
• The carrier generator,
sends a continuous high-frequency carrier. The binary sequence from the
message signal makes the unipolar input to be either High or Low. The high
signal closes the switch, allowing a carrier wave.
• Hence, the output will be the carrier signal at high input. When there is low
input, the switch opens, allowing no voltage to appear. Hence, the output
will be low.
• The band-limiting filter, shapes the pulse depending upon the amplitude
and phase characteristics of the band-limiting filter or the pulse-shaping
filter.

ASK Demodulator: ASK Demodulation involves detecting the amplitude

variations in the received signal to retrieve the original digital data. The process
typically involves envelope detection or coherent detection techniques.

• There are two types of ASK Demodulation techniques. They are

Asynchronous ASK Demodulation/detection & Synchronous ASK
Demodulation/detection
 • The clock frequency at the transmitter when matches with the clock
frequency at the receiver, it is known as a Synchronous method, as the
frequency gets synchronized. Otherwise, it is known as Asynchronous.

Asynchronous Demodulator

• The Asynchronous ASK detector consists of a half-wave rectifier, a low pass

filter, and a comparator.
• The modulated ASK signal is given to the half-wave rectifier, which delivers
a positive half output.
• The low pass filter suppresses the higher frequencies and gives an envelope
detected output from which the comparator delivers a digital output.
• Following is the block diagram for the same.

Synchronous ASK Demodulator

• Synchronous ASK detector consists of a Square law detector, low pass

filter, a comparator, and a voltage limiter. Following is the block diagram
for the same.
• The ASK modulated input signal is given to the Square law detector.
• A square law detector is one whose output voltage is proportional to the
square of the amplitude modulated input voltage.
• The low pass filter minimizes the higher frequencies. The comparator and
the voltage limiter help to get a clean digital output.
FSK Modulator

• The FSK modulator block diagram comprises of two oscillators with a

clock and the input binary sequence.
• The two oscillators, producing a higher and a lower frequency signals, are
connected to a switch along with an internal clock.
• To avoid the abrupt phase discontinuities of the output waveform during
the transmission of the message, a clock is applied to both the oscillators,
internally.
• The binary input sequence is applied to the transmitter so as to choose the
frequencies according to the binary input.

FSK Demodulator

• There are different methods for demodulating a FSK wave. The main
methods of FSK detection are asynchronous detector and synchronous
detector.
• The synchronous detector is a coherent one, while asynchronous detector
is a non-coherent one.

Asynchronous FSK Detector

• The block diagram of Asynchronous FSK detector consists of two band

pass filters, two envelope detectors, and a decision circuit
• The FSK signal is passed through the two Band Pass Filters.
• BPFs tuned to Space and Mark frequencies.
• The output from these two BPFs look like ASK signal, which is given to
the envelope detector.
 • The signal in each envelope detector is modulated asynchronously.
• The decision circuit chooses which output is more likely and selects it from
any one of the envelope detectors. It also reshapes the waveform.

Synchronous FSK Detector

• The block diagram of Synchronous FSK detector consists of two mixers

with local oscillator circuits, two band pass filters and a decision circuit.
• The FSK signal input is given to the two mixers with local oscillator
circuits. These two are connected to two band pass filters.
• These combinations act as demodulators and the decision circuit chooses
which output is more likely and selects it from any one of the detectors.
The two signals have a minimum frequency separation.
• For both of the demodulators, the bandwidth of each of them depends on
their bit rate. This synchronous demodulator is. a bit complex than
asynchronous type demodulators.
BPSK Modulator

• The block diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the balance
modulator which has the carrier sine wave as one input and the binary
sequence as the other input. Following is the diagrammatic representation.
• The modulation of BPSK is done using a balance modulator, which
multiplies the two signals applied at the input.
• For a zero binary input, the phase will be 0° and for a high input, the phase
reversal is of 180°.
• Following is the diagrammatic representation of BPSK Modulated output
wave along with its given input.

BPSK Demodulator

• By recovering the band-limited message signal, with the help of the mixer
circuit and the band pass filter, the first stage of demodulation gets
completed.
• The base band signal which is band limited is obtained and this signal is
used to regenerate the binary message bit stream.
• In the next stage of demodulation, the bit clock rate is needed at the
detector circuit to produce the original binary message signal.
• If the bit rate is a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency, then the bit clock
regeneration is simplified.
• The block diagram of BPSK demodulator consists of a mixer with local
oscillator circuit, a bandpass filter, a two-input detector circuit.
QPSK Modulator

• The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local

oscillator, a 2-bit serial to parallel converter, and a summer circuit.
• At the modulator's input, the message signal's even bits (i.e., 2nd bit, 4th
bit, 6th bit, etc.) and odd bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are separated
by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the same carrier to generate odd
BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK (called as PSKQ).
• The PSKQ, signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being modulated.
• The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the
modulated result for different instances of binary inputs.
 QPSK Demodulator

• The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits with local
oscillator, two band pass filters, two integrator circuits, and a 2-bit parallel
to serial converter. Following is the diagram for the same.
• The two product detectors at the input of demodulator simultaneously
demodulate the two BPSK signals.
• The pair of bits are recovered here from the original data.
• These signals after processing, are passed to the parallel to serial converter.

Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

• DPSK encodes data by varying the phase of the carrier signal relative to
the previous symbol, rather than the absolute phase. This means that the
information is carried by the difference between successive symbols.
• Phase Difference Encoding:: Phase Shifts: Data is encoded in the
difference between the phases of consecutive symbols. For instance, in
binary DPSK (BDPSK), a change in phase represents a binary 1, while no
change represents a binary 0.
• Symbol Rate: The rate at which symbols (phase changes) are transmitted.
Each symbol in DPSK represents a change in phase from the previous
symbol.
• Bit Rate: The product of the symbol rate and the number of bits per
symbol.
• Error Performance: DPSK can offer improved robustness against phase
noise and synchronization errors compared to traditional PSK because it
relies on phase differences rather than absolute phase values.
• Mathematical Representation: For binary DPSK (BDPSK), the modulated signal
s(t)s(t)s(t) can be expressed as:

•
Where: Ac is the amplitude of the carrier signal. Fc is the carrier frequency. Φ
represents the phase shift.

DPSK Modulator

• DPSK is a technique of BPSK, in which there is no reference phase signal.

Here, the transmitted signal itself can be used as a reference signal.
• DPSK encodes two distinct signals, i.e., the carrier and the modulating
signal with 180° phase shift each.
• The serial data input is given to the NOR gate and the output is again fed
back to the other input through 1-bit delay.
• The output of the NOR gate along with the carrier signal is given to the
balance modulator, to produce the DPSK modulated signal.

DPSK Demodulator

• In DPSK demodulator, the phase of the reversed bit is compared with the
phase of the previous bit. Following is the block diagram of DPSK
demodulator.
• From the above figure, it is evident that the balance modulator is given the
DPSK signal along with 1-bit delay input.
• That signal is made to confine to lower frequencies with the help of LPF.
• Then it is passed to a shaper circuit, which is a comparator or a Schmitt
trigger circuit, to recover the original binary data as the output.