ANURAG ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

III B. Tech, II Semester
BY
JIBILIKAPALLY SUMAN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

1
30-November-2024
 UNIT-IV
STATIC RELAYS
Static Relays
• Amplitude And Phase Comparators,
• Duality Between AC And PC,
• Static Amplitude Comparator,
• Integrating And Instantaneous Comparators,
• Static Phase Comparators,
• Coincidence Type Of Phase Comparator,
• Static Over Current Relays,
• Static Directional Relay,
• Static Differential Relay
• Static Distance Relays,
• Multi Input Comparators,
• Concept Of Quadrilateral And Elliptical Relay
• Characteristics.

• Microprocessor Based Relays:

• Advantages,
• Over Current Relays, 2

• Directional Relays,
• Distance Relays.
Amplitude And Phase Comparators
The amplitude and phase comparator relay operates based on the comparison of two input
signals:
•Operating Quantity (S): Typically proportional to the fault current or a combination of voltage
and current.
•Polarizing Quantity (R): A reference signal, often derived from the voltage or a healthy phase
current.
The relay's decision to trip or restrain hinges on the relative amplitudes and phase angles of
these two signals.
How it Works
1.Signal Conversion: The input current and voltage signals are converted into suitable forms
(e.g., DC voltages) proportional to their magnitudes.
2.Comparison: The relay compares the amplitudes and phase angles of the operating and
polarizing quantities.
3.Decision Logic: Based on the comparison results, a decision is made to trip or restrain the
circuit breaker.
4.Output: The relay provides a trip signal if the comparison falls within the predefined operating
region.
•Static Relays: Modern implementations of amplitude and phase comparators utilize static
(electronic) circuits, offering advantages such as: Faster operating times.
•Higher accuracy.
•Greater flexibility in setting characteristics.
•reduced maintenance
Amplitude And Phase Comparators

Explanation of the Block Diagram:

1.Signal Conversion:
• Current (I) and Voltage (V)
inputs are converted into
proportional DC voltages or
other suitable forms. This often
involves instrument
transformers and rectifier
circuits.
2.Operating Signal (S):
• The output of the current signal
conversion, or a combination of
current and voltage signals,
forms the operating quantity.
3.Polarizing Signal (R):
• The output of the voltage signal
conversion, or a derived signal
from voltage or current, forms
the polarizing quantity.
Amplitude And Phase Comparators(cont..)
1.Amplitude & Phase Comparator Circuitry:
• This is the core of the relay. It compares the amplitudes and phase angles of the operating
(S) and polarizing (R) signals. This can be done using various electronic circuits, such as:
✓ Coincidence detectors.
✓ Product detectors.
✓ Rectifier bridges.
✓ operational amplifiers.
2.Decision Logic & Output:
• Based on the comparator's output, the decision logic determines whether to trip or restrain
the circuit breaker. If the comparison falls within the operating region, a trip signal is
generated.
3.Trip Signal:
• The trip signal then activates the circuit breaker to interrupt the flow of fault current.
Applications
Amplitude and phase comparator relays are widely used in:
✓ Distance protection of transmission lines.
✓ Directional overcurrent protection.
✓ Ground fault protection.
✓ Generator protection.
Advantages of Static Relays
✓ Speed: Faster operating times compared to electromechanical relays.
✓ Accuracy: More precise and consistent operation.
✓ Flexibility: Adjustable settings and characteristics.
✓ Reliability: Fewer moving parts, leading to higher reliability.
✓ Compactness: Smaller size and weight.
Duality between Amplitude Comparator and Phase Comparator

Sl. No Aspect
Amplitude Comparator Phase Comparator

1 Compares the magnitudes of input Compares the phase

Basis of Comparison
signals. angles of input signals.
2 Operates on relative
Operates on the absolute values of
Input Signal Dependency phase differences
signals.
between signals.
3 Less sensitive to noise,
More sensitive to noise as it depends
Sensitivity to Noise as phase remains stable
on magnitudes.
under fluctuations.
4 More complex
implementation
Simpler implementation using
Implementation requiring phase
rectifiers, peak detectors, and diode
Complexity detectors, coincidence
circuits.
circuits, and logic
processing.
5 Slightly slower as phase
Faster response as it deals with direct
Operating Speed detection involves
magnitude comparison.
additional processing.
Duality between Amplitude Comparator and Phase Comparator(cont..)

Sl. No Aspect
Amplitude Comparator Phase Comparator

6 Less affected by voltage

Highly dependent on system voltage
Dependency on System and current variations,
and current magnitudes, making it
Conditions as it relies on angular
susceptible to variations.
displacement.
7 Used in directional,
Used in overcurrent, voltage-based, distance relays, and
Application in Protection and distance relays (magnitude-based power factor
protection). monitoring (angle-
based protection).
8 Relay operates when
Output Decision Relay operates when one magnitude the phase difference
Mechanism exceeds the threshold. meets a preset
condition.
9 Directional overcurrent
Overvoltage protection, differential
relays, directional
Examples of Use relays, distance relay (magnitude
distance relays, power
approach).
flow monitoring.
10 Affected by system
Power System Condition Affected by system impedance, as impedance, as
Sensitivity impedance affects magnitude. impedance affects
magnitude.
Static Amplitude Comparator

• If the two input signals are S1 and S2 the amplitude comparator gives positive (yes) output
only if S2/S1 ≤ K (Fig.), S1 is the operating quantity and S2 is the restraining quantity.
• Ideally, the comparison of the two input signals is independent of their level and their phase
relationship.
• The function is represented by a circle in the complex plane, with its centre at the origin: this
defines the boundary of the marginal operation.

• Static Amplitude Comparator may be of the following types:

1.Integrating comparators,

2.Instantaneous comparators, and

3.Sampling comparators.
Integrating Comparators:
It is possible to arrange rectifier bridge networks as amplitude comparators. Rectifier bridge
comparator can either be of circulating current type or opposed voltage type.

Basic circuit for the circulating current type of

Static Amplitude Comparator is shown in Fig.
(a). The polarized relay operates when S1>S2,
where S1=K1i1 and S2=K2i2. This arrangement
provides a sensitive relay whose voltage may
be ideally represented by Fig. (b).

The opposed voltage type comparator shown

in Fig. works with voltage input signals derived
from PTs. The operation in this case depends on
the average of the difference of the rectified
voltages (v1-v2). In this case the limiting action is
the wrong way, as the rectifiers have higher
resistance at lower voltages. Also the rectifiers
are not protected at higher currents
Instantaneous Comparators:
Instantaneous or direct amplitude comparators can be of two types: averaging type and phase
splitting type.
In the averaging type instantaneous amplitude
comparator the restraining signal is rectified and
smoothed completely in order to provide a level
of restraint. This is then compared with the peak
value of the operating signal, which may or may
not be rectified, but is not smoothed. The tripping
signal is provided if the operating signal exceeds
the level of restraint. The block schematic
diagram is shown in Fig.1
Since the above method involves smoothing the
operation is slow. A faster method is phase
splitting before rectification as shown in Fig2,

Here the input is split into six components

60° apart, so that, it is smoothed within 5%.
The averaging circuit can be eliminated. The
operating time here is determined by the
time constant of the slowest arm of the
phase-splitting circuit and by the speed of
the output device.
Coincidence Type Phase Comparator:
The basic concept of phase comparison is
simpler in that it is possible to deal with signals
of equal strength whose coincidence (or
noncoinecidence) is readily measurable.
Considering two sinusoidal signals S1 and S2,
the period of coincidence of S1 and S2 will
depend on the phase difference between S1 and
S2. Figure (11.14) illustrates the coincidence of
signals for different phase relationships in
Coincidence Type Phase Comparator.
It can be seen that the period of
coincidence is equal to the period of
noncoincidence for a phase difference of
±90°,the period of coincidence is less than
the period of noncoincidence and vice
versa when the phase difference is less
than ±90°.
Depending upon the phase relation of the input signals it is possible to design the circuit to
give an output a Yes or a No, by measuring the period of Coincidence Type Phase
Comparator.

The period of coincidence of two signals with a phase difference of θ is ψ=180-θ.

 Static Over Current Relay

1. Auxiliary Current Transformer (Auxiliary

CT)
The auxiliary CT steps down the high fault current from the main power system's current
transformer (CT) to a level suitable for the relay's internal circuitry. It also provides isolation
between the high-voltage circuit and the low-voltage electronic components of the relay.
2. Rectifier and Filter
The rectifier and filter convert the AC signal from the auxiliary CT into a stable DC voltage.
3. Level Detector (Comparator)
The level detector compares the filtered DC voltage (representing the fault current) with a pre-set
threshold value (the relay's pickup setting).
4. Amplifier
The amplifier increases the strength of the output signal from the level detector.
5. Output Device
The output device acts as an interface between the electronic circuitry and the trip circuit.
6. Trip Circuit
The trip circuit is responsible for interrupting the flow of current in the power system's circuit
breaker.
Static Definite Time Over Current Relay

1.Input Transformer , Potentiometer:

•Function: Steps down the high current from the main CT to a usable level. The
potentiometer allows you to adjust the current pickup setting (the level at which the relay
activates).
2.Rectifier and Filter:
•Function: Converts the AC signal from the input transformer into a stable DC voltage,
representing the magnitude of the current.

3.Level Detector (First):

•Function: Compares the rectified DC voltage to the pickup setting. If the measured current
exceeds the pickup value, it triggers the timing circuit.
Static Definite Time Over Current Relay(cont..)

4.Timing Circuit:
Function: Starts a timer when the first level detector activates. This timer
provides the "definite time" delay. The relay will only trip after this fixed
time delay has elapsed.
5.Level Detector (Second) + Potentiometer:
Function: Monitors the output of the timing circuit. When the timing
circuit's set time is reached, this level detector activates. The
potentiometer in this section might be used to fine tune the timing circuit.
6. Amplifier:
Function: Strengthens the signal from the second level detector, making
it powerful enough to drive the output device.
7. Output Device:
Function: Acts as a switch, typically a relay or solid-state device, that
closes its contacts when the amplifier output is high. This isolates the low
voltage electronic portion of the relay, from the high voltage trip circut.
8.Trip Signal:
Function: The closing of the output device's contacts energizes the
circuit breaker's trip coil, causing it to open and interrupt the fault current.
Static Inverse Time Over Current Relay

1. Input Transformer:
•Function: Steps down the high fault current from the main CT to a lower, manageable level for
the relay's electronic circuitry. Provides isolation.
2. Rectifier and Filter:
•Function: Converts the AC signal from the input transformer into a stable DC voltage,
representing the magnitude of the fault current.
Static Inverse Time Over Current Relay(Cont..)

3. Level Detector (1) + Potentiometer -> Switch 1:

•Function:
•The level detector compares the rectified DC voltage with
the pickup setting (adjusted by the potentiometer).
•When the current exceeds the pickup setting, the level
detector activates.
•Switch 1, is then activated, which enables the first timing
circuit.
4. Timing Circuit + Potentiometer (First):
•Function:
•This is the first timing circuit that contributes to the inverse
time characteristic.
•The potentiometer is used to adjust the time-current
characteristic of this specific element.
•The rectifier that is feeding this timing circuit is fed from the
level detector 1 output.
•This timing circuit's time delay is inversely proportional to
the magnitude of the overcurrent. Meaning that the higher
the over current, the faster the timer will count down.
Static Inverse Time Over Current Relay(Cont..)

5. Rectifier -> Switch 2 -> Timing Circuit + Potentiometer (Second):

•Function:
•The rectifier converts the output of the first timing circuit back into a DC signal.
•Switch 2 is activated when the first timing circuit has timed out.
•This second timing circuit further refines the inverse time characteristic.
•The potentiometer adjusts the time-current characteristic of this second element.
•This second timing circuit's time delay is also inversely proportional to the magnitude of the
overcurrent.
6. Level Detector (2) + Potentiometer:
•Function:
•Monitors the output of the second timing circuit.
•When the second timing circuit completes its timing sequence, this level detector activates.
•The potentiometer allows for fine tuning the point at which the relay will trip.
7. Amplifier:
•Function: Strengthens the output signal from the second level detector, providing enough
power to drive the output device.
8. Output Device:
•Function: Acts as a switch (relay or solid-state device) that closes its contacts when the
amplifier output is high. This isolates the low voltage electronic portion of the relay, from the
high voltage trip circut.
9. Trip Signal:
•Function: The closing of the output device's contacts energizes the circuit breaker's trip coil,
causing it to open and interrupt the fault current.
 Static Differential Relays

1. Input 1 + Input 2:
•Function: These inputs represent the currents entering and leaving the protected zone.
Typically, these inputs come from current transformers (CTs) placed on either side of the
protected equipment (e.g., a transformer, busbar, or generator). Input 1 and Input 2 are the
scaled down representations of the currents entering and exiting the protected equipment.

2. Comparator:
•Function: This is the heart of the differential relay. It compares the magnitudes and
phases of Input 1 and Input 2. Ideally, under normal operating conditions or external faults,
these two currents should be equal (or nearly equal) in magnitude and 180 degrees out of
phase. The comparator's role is to detect any significant difference between these
currents.
Static Differential Relays(cont..)
3. Vector Difference:
•Function: The comparator calculates the vector difference between Input 1 and Input 2. This
difference represents the "differential current" or "spill current." If the differential current is zero
or very small, it indicates that the currents entering and leaving the protected zone are
balanced, and no internal fault is present. A significant differential current indicates an internal
fault within the protected zone, as current is now flowing into the fault, and not out the other
side
.
4. Amplifier:
•Function: The vector difference signal from the comparator is often a low-level signal. The
amplifier increases the strength of this signal to a level sufficient to drive the output device.

•Output Device:
5. Function: This is typically a relay (electromechanical or solid-state) or a semiconductor
switch. When the amplified differential current exceeds a pre-set threshold (the pickup
setting), the output device activates (closes its contacts). This isolates the low voltage
electronic portion of the relay, from the high voltage trip circut.

6. Trip Signal:
•Function: When the output device activates, it energizes the trip coil of the circuit breaker(s)
associated with the protected equipment. This causes the circuit breaker(s) to open,
disconnecting the faulty equipment from the power system.
Static Distance or Impedance Relays

1. Measuring Circuit (Blocks 2 with line voltage and line current inputs):
•Function:
• This is the core of the distance relay. It receives voltage and current signals from the
potential transformers (PTs) and current transformers (CTs) of the transmission line.
• These circuits process the voltage and current signals to calculate the impedance (or
related quantities like reactance and resistance) of the line up to the fault location.
• Essentially, it calculates the ratio of voltage to current, which is impedance.
• These circuits are designed to very accurately measure the phase angle between the
voltage, and the current, which is very important in distance protection.
2. Comparator:
•Function:
•The comparator compares the calculated impedance (or related quantities) with pre-set
impedance zones.
•These zones represent specific distances along the transmission line.
•If the measured impedance falls within a particular zone, the comparator generates an
output signal indicating that a fault has occurred within that zone.
•This is where the relay makes the decision if the fault is within its protection zone.
Static Distance or Impedance Relays(cont..)
3. Polarity Detector:
•Function:
•This block determines the direction of the fault.
•It analyzes the phase relationship between the voltage and current to ascertain whether the
fault is in the forward or reverse direction from the relay's location.
•This is very important to prevent the relay from tripping for faults that are behind the
protected zone.
•This unit works in conjunction with the comparator.
4. Amplifier:
•Function:
•The output signal from the comparator and polarity detector is often a low-level signal.
•The amplifier boosts this signal to a level sufficient to drive the output device (e.g., a tripping
relay).
5. Trip Circuit:
•Function:
•When the amplifier output activates the output device, the trip circuit energizes the trip coil of
the circuit breaker.
•This causes the circuit breaker to open, disconnecting the faulty section of the transmission
line.
 Multi Input Comparators

•Purpose:
•Multi-input comparators extend the functionality of a
standard comparator (which usually compares two
inputs) to handle multiple inputs simultaneously.
•Function:
•They compare a set of input voltages and output a
binary signal indicating which of the inputs is the largest
(or smallest).
•Applications:
•These are useful in applications such as threshold
detection, peak detection, and signal sorting.
 Multi Input Comparators(cont..)

Examples and Types:

•Single-Bit Comparator:
•Compares two bits and outputs less than, equal to, or greater than based
on the input bits.
•Magnitude Comparator:
•Compares two multi-bit binary numbers to determine if one is greater
than, less than, or equal to the other.
•Three-Input Comparator:
•Facilitates comparing a signal to the greater of two different reference
voltages while minimizing propagation delay.
•Hysteresis Comparator:
•Has a resistor-divider feedback path from the output to the inverting
input, exhibiting hysteresis to reduce noise or improve system stability.
 Concept Of Quadrilateral And Elliptical Relay Characteristics
Quadrilateral and Elliptical relay characteristics are distance protection relay operating regions on
an R-X (resistance-reactance) diagram, used to determine if a fault is inside or outside the
protected zone

Understanding the R-X Diagram

•Distance relays are used to detect
and clear faults on transmission lines
based on the impedance
(combination of resistance and
reactance) they measure.
•The R-X diagram plots the resistance
(R) of the fault impedance on the
horizontal axis and the reactance (X)
on the vertical axis.
•The relay characteristic on this
diagram defines the operating region
of the relay. If the fault impedance
(calculated from voltage and current)
falls within this region, the relay trips
to clear the fault.
Concept Of Quadrilateral And Elliptical Relay Characteristics(cont..)
Quadrilateral Characteristics
•Shape: A quadrilateral distance relay characteristic has a shape that looks like a quadrilateral (four-
sided figure) on the R-X diagram, consisting of four straight lines.
•Operating Region: The relay trips if the measured impedance falls inside the quadrilateral.
•Directional Protection: Quadrilateral characteristics can be designed to have directional properties,
allowing for better discrimination between forward and backward faults on the transmission line.

Elliptical Characteristics

•Shape: An elliptical distance relay characteristic forms an ellipse on the R-X diagram.
•Operating Region: The relay trips if the measured impedance falls inside the ellipse.
•Directionality: Elliptical characteristics can also be designed with directional properties.

Advantages of Quadrilateral and Elliptical Characteristics:

•Enhanced Protection: Both characteristics provide better protection for transmission lines
•Flexibility: They can be adjusted to cover different fault conditions,
•Improved Accuracy: These characteristics help in more accurate determination of fault location
and clearing.
 Advantages of Micro-processor Based Relays

•Increased Flexibility and Programmability:

Microprocessor relays allow for easy modification of protection settings and logic through software,
eliminating the need for physical hardware changes.
•Enhanced Accuracy and Precision:
Digital processing enables highly accurate measurement and analysis of electrical parameters, leading to
more precise fault detection.
•Improved Reliability:
Fewer moving parts and self-diagnostic capabilities contribute to increased reliability and reduced
maintenance requirements.
•Advanced Monitoring and Diagnostics:
These relays can provide detailed information on system conditions, including fault location, event recording,
and real-time data monitoring.
•Communication Capabilities:
Microprocessor relays often support communication protocols, enabling remote monitoring, control, and data
exchange with other devices.
•Self-Checking and Supervision:
Built-in self-testing features continuously monitor the relay's health, ensuring proper operation.
•Complex Protection Functions:
They can implement complex protection algorithms and logic, enabling sophisticated protection schemes.
•Reduced Size and Cost:
Integration of multiple functions into a single device reduces panel space and overall system costs.
•Adaptive Protection:
Microprocessor relays can adapt their settings and response based on changing system conditions,
optimizing protection performance.
•Event Recording and Analysis:
They can store large amounts of data related to system events, which allows for in depth post fault analysis.
 Microprocessor Based Overcurrent Relay

•Current is taken from C.T. and given to I to V converter because many electronics circuit require voltage
signal for operation.
•The A.C. voltage is converted into D.C. voltage by using rectifier.
•This D.C. voltage is proportional to load current only.
•The output of rectifier is given to Multiplexer.
•The Multiplexer gives output to A/D Converter where Analog DC voltage is converted to Digital form (in
form of O and 1 i.e. binary form).
•Microprocessor understands only codes in 0 and 1 form.
•HP (Microprocessor) gives S/C (start of conversion) signal to A/D converter (I.e. analog to digital
conversion is started and HP gives permission to A/D convertor for this by sending S/C)
•When converting from analog to digital is over (finish) then A/D converter sends E/C signal to HP (E/C –
End of Conversion).
•When work of A/D is over then up compare the magnitude of this incoming current with required current
value (I.e. set value or reference value).

If incoming value is more – fault is occurring and trip signal is send to CB circuit breaker.
 Microprocessor Based Overcurrent Relay(cont..)

Program Flow Chart

 Microprocessor Based Directional Relay
A directional relay senses the
direction of power flow. The
polarity of the instantaneous value
of the current at the moment of
the voltage peak is examined to
judge the direction of power flow.
The program developed for this
relay is able to judge whether the
fault point is in the forward or
reverse direction with respect to
relay location as in Fig.(a). The
instantaneous value of the current
at the moment of voltage peak is,
as shown in Fig. (b). For a fault
point lying in the
forward direction, is
positive for lying within ± 90°.
For a fault lying in the
reverse direction,
becomes negative, as shown in
Fig. (c).
 Microprocessor Based Directional Relay

Let's break down the block diagram of this microprocessor-based directional relay, based on the
provided description:
1. Voltage Input:
•This is where the voltage signal from the power system is fed into the relay. It represents the
voltage being monitored for directional information.
2. Phase-Shifter:
•This block takes the voltage signal and shifts its phase by 90 degrees. This phase shift is crucial
for determining the direction of power flow. By shifting the voltage, the relay can compare the
phase relationship between voltage and current.
 Microprocessor Based Directional Relay(cont..)
3. Zero-Crossing Detector:
•The output of the phase-shifter is fed into this block. The zero-crossing detector generates a pulse precisely at the
moment the phase-shifted voltage crosses zero. This zero-crossing point corresponds to the peak of the original
voltage signal. This pulse acts as a timing reference for the microcomputer.
4. Microcomputer (Microprocessor):
•This is the "brain" of the relay. It performs several key functions:
• Pulse Detection: It reads the output of the zero-crossing detector to detect the pulse, indicating the voltage
peak.
• Multiplexer Control: Upon receiving the pulse, it sends a command to the multiplexer to switch to the
current measurement channel (S2).
• A/D Conversion Reading: It reads the instantaneous value of the current from the A/D converter.
• Directional Logic: It analyzes the sign (positive or negative) of the current value.
• Tripping Decision: Based on the current sign and the relay's settings, it determines if a trip signal should
be sent to the circuit breaker.
• Communication: in a modern relay the microcomputer will also handle communication with other devices.
• Fault recording: it will store information about the fault.
5. Multiplexer:
•The multiplexer acts as a switch, selecting which input signal is sent to the A/D converter. In this case, it switches
between the voltage and current signals. When the microcomputer receives the voltage peak pulse, it commands the
multiplexer to switch to the current input (S2).
6. Current Input:
•This is where the current signal from the power system is fed into the relay. It represents the current being
monitored for directional information.
7. A/D Converter (Analog-to-Digital Converter):
•This block converts the analog current signal from the multiplexer into a digital value that the microcomputer can
understand. This digital value represents the instantaneous value of the current at the moment of the voltage peak.
8. Trip Circuit:
•If the microcomputer determines that a fault has occurred in the reverse direction, it sends a trip signal to this circuit.
The trip circuit then activates the circuit breaker, disconnecting the faulty section of the power system.
 Microprocessor Based Directional Relay(cont..)
Program Flow Chart
 Microprocessor Based Distance/Impedance Relay

1. Current Input:
•This is where the current signal from the power system is fed into the relay. It's crucial for determining
the impedance (reactance) seen by the relay.
2. Zero-Crossing Detector (Current):
•This block monitors the current signal and generates a pulse precisely when the current crosses zero.
This zero-crossing point is used as a timing reference for the microcomputer to sample the voltage.
 Microprocessor Based Distance/Impedance Relay(cont..)

3. Microcomputer (Microprocessor):
•This is the central processing unit, and it performs a series of calculations and logical decisions:
• Zero-Crossing Detection: It reads the output of the zero-crossing detector to detect the current
zero-crossing.
• Multiplexer Control: Upon detecting the zero-crossing, it sends commands to the multiplexer to
switch to the voltage (S4) and rectified current (S7) channels.
• A/D Conversion Reading: It reads the instantaneous voltage (Vm sin f) and rectified current
values from the A/D converter.
• Reactance Calculation: It calculates the reactance (X) seen by the relay using the sampled
voltage and current values.
• Zone Comparison: It compares the calculated reactance (X) with predetermined reactance
values (X1, X2) that define the protection zones.
• Tripping Decision and Timing: Based on the zone comparison, it determines whether to send
a trip signal and with what delay.
• Directional Unit Integration: it runs the program for the directional unit, and only if the
directional unit determines the fault is in the forward direction will the reactance calculations be
used to determine tripping.
• Communication and Fault Recording: As with all modern relays, it will handle communication,
and fault recording.
4. Multiplexer:
•This acts as a switch, selecting which input signal is sent to the A/D converter. It switches between:
• Voltage (S4)
• Rectified Current (S7)
5. Voltage Input:
•This is where the voltage signal from the power system is fed into the relay.
6. Rectified Current Input:
•This block takes the current signal and rectifies it. This rectified current is used in the reactance
calculation.
 Microprocessor Based Distance/Impedance Relay(cont..)

7. A/D Converter (Analog-to-Digital Converter):

•This converts the analog voltage and rectified current signals from the multiplexer into digital values that
the microcomputer can process.
8. Directional Unit (Mho Characteristic):
•This is a crucial addition, as the reactance relay itself is non-directional.
•It uses a mho characteristic passing through the origin.
•The microcomputer integrates the directional unit's logic into its main program.
•It determines whether the fault is in the forward or reverse direction.
•The reactance relay's logic is only executed if the directional unit confirms a forward fault.
•The directional unit also provides the third zone of protection.
9. Trip Circuit:
•If the microcomputer determines that a fault is within a protection zone and the directional unit has
allowed the tripping, it sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker.
•The trip signal may be instantaneous or delayed, depending on the zone.
 Microprocessor Based Distance/Impedance Relay(cont..)

Program Flow Chart