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Halogens derivatives, aliphatic

halogen derivatives

1. Nomenclature and Classes of Alkyl Halides

Definition: Alkyl halides are organic compounds where one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane have been replaced
by a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I).

General Formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₁X (where X = halogen).

Classification by Halide Type:

Monohalides: Contain a single halogen atom (e.g., chloromethane, CH₃Cl).

Dihalides: Contain two halogen atoms (e.g., 1,2-dichloroethane, CH₂Cl-CH₂Cl).

Trihalides and Tetrahalides: Contain three and four halogens, respectively (e.g., chloroform, CHCl₃).

Classification by Carbon Type:

Primary (1°): Halogen is attached to a carbon bonded to one other carbon.

Secondary (2°): Halogen is attached to a carbon bonded to two other carbons.

Tertiary (3°): Halogen is attached to a carbon bonded to three other carbons.

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IUPAC Nomenclature:

Naming follows these rules: Select the longest chain containing the halogen.

Number the chain from the end nearest the halogen.

Use prefixes (fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-) with numbers to indicate the
halogen’s position. E.g., 2-chloropropane for CH₃CHClCH₃.

2. Isomerism in Alkyl Halides

Structural Isomerism:

Chain Isomerism: Variations in the carbon chain structure (e.g., 1-chlorobutane vs. 2-chlorobutane).

Position Isomerism: Different positions of the halogen on the same carbon chain (e.g., 1-chloropropane vs. 2-
chloropropane).

Functional Isomerism: Seen in compounds with the same molecular formula but different functional groups (e.g.,
ethers vs. alkyl halides).
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Stereoisomerism:Geometrical (Cis-Trans) Isomerism: Possible in alkenyl halides where the halogen is attached to a
double-bonded carbon.

Optical Isomerism: Arises in compounds with chiral carbons, often found in secondary or tertiary halides with
asymmetric centers.

3. Physical Properties

Boiling and Melting Points: Boiling points increase with molecular weight due to increased van der Waals forces.

For isomeric halides, straight-chain structures generally have higher boiling points than branched isomers.

Density: Alkyl chlorides are less dense than water, while alkyl bromides and iodides are denser.

Solubility: Alkyl halides are generally insoluble in water due to their nonpolar character but are soluble in organic
solvents like benzene and ether.

Polarity: Alkyl halides are polar molecules because of the difference in electronegativity between carbon and
halogen atoms.

4. Chemical Reactions

Alkyl halides are reactive due to the polarized C–X bond, making them susceptible to various substitution and
elimination reactions.

Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions:

Nucleophilic substitution reactions involve the replacement of a leaving group (often a halide) in a substrate (typically
an alkyl halide or alcohol) by a nucleophile. A nucleophile is a species that donates an electron pair to form a new
bond. These reactions are fundamental in organic synthesis and are classified into two primary mechanisms: SN1
(Unimolecular Nucleophilic Substitution) and SN2 (Bimolecular Nucleophilic Substitution), along with SNi
(Substitution Nucleophilic internal).

General Reaction The general reaction for a nucleophilic substitution can be represented as:

Where:

R-X is the substrate (alkyl halide).

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Nu is the nucleophile.

X is the leaving group.

SN1 Mechanism (Unimolecular Nucleophilic Substitution):

Involves two steps: (1) Formation of a carbocation by dissociation of the C–X bond, (2) Attack by the nucleophile.

General Mechanism:

Step 1: R–X → R⁺ + X⁻ (slow, rate-determining).

Step 2: R⁺ + Nu⁻ → R–Nu (fast).

Mechanism:

SN1 reactions involve a two-step mechanism.

The rate of the reaction depends only on the concentration of the substrate, hence "unimolecular."

1. Formation of Carbocation:

The leaving group (X) departs first, resulting in the formation of a carbocation intermediate (R⁺).

This step is the slow, rate-determining step.

Example:

2. Nucleophilic Attack:

The nucleophile (Nu) attacks the carbocation, forming the final product (R-Nu).

Because the carbocation is planar, the nucleophile can attack from either side, leading to racemization if the carbon is
chiral.

Stereo Chemical Aspect of sn1 reaction

Racemization:Since the carbocation is planar and sp² hybridized, it allows the nucleophile to attack from either side.
This leads to a mixture of products with both retention and inversion of configuration, resulting in racemization (50%
inversion and 50% retention) if the carbocation is symmetrical and if no other factors interfere.
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Factors Favoring SN1:

Tertiary alkyl halides (more stable carbocations).

Polar protic solvents (e.g., water, alcohol).

SN2 Mechanism (Bimolecular Nucleophilic Substitution):

Involves a single step where the nucleophile attacks the carbon simultaneously as the leaving group departs.

General Mechanism: Nu⁻ + R–X → [Nu–R–X]‡ → R–Nu + X⁻.

Mechanism:

1. Nucleophilic Attack and Leaving Group Departure:

The nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon at the same time as the leaving group (X) departs. This leads to a
transition state where the carbon is partially bonded to both the nucleophile and the leaving group.

This results in inversion of configuration at the carbon center (Walden inversion).

Example:

1. The nucleophile (OH⁻) approaches the carbon atom bonded to the leaving group (Br).

2. As the nucleophile forms a bond with the carbon, the C-Br bond breaks, resulting in the formation of methanol
(CH₃OH) and bromide ion (Br⁻).

Stereo chemical aspects of sn2 reaction:

Inversion of Configuration:

Due to the backside attack of the nucleophile, SN2 reactions lead to a complete inversion of configuration at the
carbon center. This is known as the Walden inversion. If the carbon is chiral, this inversion results in the formation of
the enantiomer of the starting compound.

Factors Favoring SN2:

Primary alkyl halides (less steric hindrance).

Polar aprotic solvents (e.g., DMSO, acetone).

SNi Mechanism (Internal Nucleophilic Substitution):

The SNi (Substitution Nucleophilic Internal) mechanism is a type of nucleophilic substitution reaction where a
nucleophile attacks an electrophilic center within the same molecule, leading to the displacement of a leaving group.
This mechanism is particularly significant in certain cyclic compounds and specific substrates, primarily involving
halogenated alcohols and related compounds.

Mechanism of SNi

General Mechanism Steps

1. Formation of the Leaving Group:

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The leaving group (X) departs, creating a positive charge on the adjacent carbon atom. This forms a carbocation
intermediate.

2. Nucleophilic Attack:

The nucleophile, which is part of the same molecule, attacks the positively charged carbon atom that was originally
bonded to the leaving group.

This results in the formation of a new bond between the nucleophile and the carbon atom.

3. Formation of the Final Product:

The final product is formed, usually with the retention of the original stereochemistry of the substrate.

Elimination Reactions

Compete with substitution reactions, particularly under strong basic conditions, and lead to alkenes via the E1 or E2
mechanisms.

E1: Unimolecular, involves carbocation intermediate.

E2: Bimolecular, occurs in one step with the base abstracting a β-hydrogen as the leaving group departs.

Other Reactions:

Reduction: Alkyl halides can be reduced to alkanes using hydrogen and metal catalysts or using Zn/HCl.

Wurtz Reaction: Coupling of two alkyl halides using sodium metal in dry ether to form a higher alkane.

Stereo chemical aspects of sni mechanism

1. Retention of Configuration:

In an SNi reaction, the stereochemistry of the molecule remains the same, meaning there is no inversion (as in SN2)
or racemization (as in SN1). This is because the leaving group and nucleophile both interact on the same face of the
substrate.

2. Intramolecular Mechanism:

SNi reactions proceed through an intramolecular process, where the leaving group and nucleophile are on the same
side, allowing for a concerted mechanism. This typically occurs in substrates with a suitable leaving group adjacent to
a nucleophile.

3. Common in Certain Conditions:

SNi reactions are especially common in cases where the substrate is activated by a leaving group that can also act as
a nucleophile, such as in the substitution of thionyl chloride (SOCl2) on an alcohol. In such cases, retention of
stereochemistry is observed as the nucleophile approaches from the same side as the leaving group.

Effect of Solvent in SN1, SN2, and SNi Reactions

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1. SN1 Reactions: Preferred Solvent Type: Polar Protic Solvents (e.g., water, ethanol, methanol)

Effect:SN1 reactions involve the formation of a carbocation intermediate. Polar protic solvents stabilize both the
carbocation and the leaving group through hydrogen bonding and dipole interactions.

This stabilization lowers the activation energy required for carbocation formation, thus increasing the rate of the SN1
reaction.

Examples of Polar Protic Solvents: Water, alcohols, and acetic acid are ideal for SN1 as they support the formation
and stabilization of carbocations.

2. SN2 Reactions: Preferred Solvent Type: Polar Aprotic Solvents (e.g., acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide [DMSO],
dimethylformamide [DMF])

Effect:In SN2 reactions, the nucleophile directly attacks the electrophilic carbon in a single step, and a strong,
unsolvated nucleophile is ideal.

Polar aprotic solvents do not form hydrogen bonds and therefore do not solvate nucleophiles strongly. This allows
nucleophiles to remain "free" and highly reactive, which increases the rate of the SN2 reaction.

Examples of Polar Aprotic Solvents: Acetone, DMSO, DMF, and acetonitrile are commonly used because they enhance
nucleophile availability and the SN2 reaction rate.

3. SNi Reactions: Preferred Solvent Type: Polar Protic Solvents

Effect: In SNi reactions, the nucleophile often comes from within the same molecule or is closely associated with it,
making solvent effects less pronounced than in SN1 or SN2.

However, polar protic solvents can stabilize any transition states or intermediates formed, supporting the retention of
stereochemistry typical of SNi.

Examples of Polar Protic Solvents: Ethanol and acetic acid are often used, especially in reactions involving substitution
on chiral centers (e.g., thionyl chloride reactions with alcohols), where the solvent helps stabilize intermediates and
maintain stereochemistry.

In summary:

SN1: Favors polar protic solvents to stabilize the carbocation intermediate.

SN2: Favors polar aprotic solvents to keep the nucleophile reactive and free.

SNi: Works best with polar protic solvents, which stabilize intermediates and assist in stereochemical retention.

Di, Tri & Tetra Halogen

Derivatives
This is the organic compounds with multiple halogen atoms. These halogenated compounds, which contain two or
more halogen atoms, can vary in their structures and reactivities depending on the number and placement of
halogens. Here, we cover the nomenclature, classification, preparation, properties, and applications of di-, tri-, and
tetra-halogen derivatives.

1. Nomenclature and Classification

Dihalogen Derivatives:
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Compounds with two halogen atoms attached to carbon atoms are called dihalogen derivatives.

They can be classified as:

Geminal Dihalides: Both halogens are attached to the same carbon atom (e.g., CH₂Cl₂, methylene chloride).

Vicinal Dihalides: Halogens are attached to two adjacent carbons (e.g., CH₃CHClCH₂Cl, 1,2-dichloropropane).

Isolated Dihalides: Halogens are attached to carbons separated by one or more carbons (e.g., CH₂Cl-CH₂-CH₂Cl, 1,3-
dichloropropane).

Trihalogen Derivatives:

Compounds with three halogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.

Common examples include chloroform (CHCl₃) and bromoform (CHBr₃).

Tetrahalogen Derivatives:

Compounds with four halogen atoms.

An example is carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄).

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2. Preparation of Di-, Tri-, and Tetra-Halogen Derivatives

From Alkanes (Free Radical Halogenation):

Alkanes can undergo halogenation in the presence of UV light or heat, producing various halogenated compounds
depending on reaction conditions.

For example, methane (CH₄) can be sequentially chlorinated to produce chloromethane, dichloromethane,
chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride.

From Alkenes and Alkynes:

Alkenes and alkynes react with halogens (e.g., Cl₂, Br₂) to form dihalogenated compounds.

Example: Ethene (C₂H₄) reacts with Br₂ to form 1,2-dibromoethane (C₂H₄Br₂).

From Alcohols:

Alcohols can be converted into halogenated derivatives through reactions with halogenating agents.

Example: Ethanol reacts with phosphorus tribromide (PBr₃) to form bromoethane, which can further react to form
multiple halogen derivatives.

3. Properties of Di-, Tri-, and Tetra-Halogen Derivatives

Physical Properties:

Polarity: These compounds tend to be polar due to the electronegative halogen atoms.

Boiling and Melting Points: Generally higher than corresponding alkanes, with boiling points increasing as the
number of halogens increases.

Density: Halogenated compounds are usually denser than water, especially brominated and iodinated derivatives.

Solubility: Most are poorly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.

Chemical Properties:

Reactivity:The reactivity of these compounds depends on the type and position of halogens.

Vicinal dihalides can undergo elimination reactions to form alkenes.

Geminal dihalides can form carbocations, leading to further reactions in acidic conditions.

Elimination Reactions:

Dihalides, especially vicinal ones, can undergo dehydrohalogenation to form alkenes.

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For example, 1,2-dibromoethane can eliminate hydrogen bromide (HBr) to produce ethene.

Nucleophilic Substitution:

Trihalogen and tetrahalogen compounds may undergo substitution reactions where halogen atoms are replaced by
other nucleophiles.

4. Applications of Di-, Tri-, and Tetra-Halogen Derivatives

Industrial Solvents:Compounds like methylene chloride (CH₂Cl₂) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) are widely used as
solvents.However, due to environmental and health concerns, their usage is regulated.

Refrigerants:Halogenated compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been used as refrigerants but are
being phased out due to their harmful effects on the ozone layer.

Pharmaceuticals:Halogenated compounds often serve as intermediates in drug synthesis due to their reactivity and
ability to be further modified.

Insecticides and Pesticides:Many di-, tri-, and tetra-halogenated compounds, like DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), have been used as insecticides, though several are now banned due to toxicity
concerns.

Aromatic Halogen Compounds

Aromatic halogen compounds are derivatives of benzene in which one or more hydrogen atoms on the benzene ring
are replaced by halogen atoms. They display unique chemical behaviors due to the resonance stability of the
aromatic ring and the influence of halogens.

1. Nomenclature of Aromatic Halogen Compounds

Simple Aromatic Halides:Compounds are named based on the halogen and the aromatic ring structure.

Monohalogenated Compounds: Named as “halo” derivatives of benzene

. For example: Chlorobenzene (C₆H₅Cl), Bromobenzene (C₆H₅Br)

Polyhalogenated Compounds: For multiple halogens, indicate the positions using ortho (1,2-), meta (1,3-), or para
(1,4-) descriptors.

For example, 1,2-dichlorobenzene (o-dichlorobenzene), 1,3-dibromobenzene (m-dibromobenzene).

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Substituted Benzene Derivatives:

If other functional groups are present, priority rules determine the base name.

Halogens are considered as substituents in compounds with higher-priority groups, such as nitrobenzene derivatives
(e.g., 4-chloronitrobenzene).

2. Preparation of Aromatic Halogen Compounds

Direct Halogenation:Aromatic compounds undergo electrophilic substitution reactions with halogens in the presence
of a catalyst (like FeCl₃, FeBr₃, or AlCl₃).

Example: Benzene reacts with chlorine in the presence of FeCl₃ to form chlorobenzene.

Sandmeyer Reaction:

Aromatic amines can be converted into aryl halides by treating the diazonium salts with CuCl or CuBr.

Example: Aniline (C₆H₅NH₂) is diazotized and then converted to chlorobenzene using CuCl.
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Gattermann Reaction:

Similar to the Sandmeyer reaction but uses Cu powder and HCl/HBr instead.

Useful for preparing aryl chlorides and bromides from aromatic amines.

3. Properties of Aromatic Halogen Compounds

Physical Properties:

Boiling and Melting Points: Generally higher than those of corresponding alkanes and alkenes due to the polarity
and increased molecular mass.

Density: Most aromatic halides are denser than water and are usually insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents.

Polarity: The carbon-halogen bond is polar, but the overall molecule may have a lower dipole moment due to
resonance delocalization.

Chemical Properties:

Reactivity: The halogen on the benzene ring makes these compounds less reactive toward further substitution, as
halogens are electron-withdrawing but also donate electron density through resonance.

Electrophilic Substitution:

Halogens are deactivating but ortho/para-directing groups. Hence, further substitutions occur at ortho and para
positions relative to the halogen.

Example: Chlorobenzene, when nitrated, yields o- and p-nitrochlorobenzene.

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Nucleophilic Substitution:

Aromatic halides are less prone to nucleophilic substitution compared to aliphatic halides due to the partial double
bond character of the C–X bond from resonance. However, they can undergo nucleophilic aromatic substitution
under specific conditions (e.g., when strongly electron-withdrawing groups are ortho/para to the halogen).

4. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution (Benzyne Intermediate)

The nucleophilic aromatic substitution (NAS) via the benzyne mechanism is a two-step reaction mechanism that
generally occurs when an aromatic ring has a leaving group and lacks an electron-donating substituent. This type of
NAS differs from the typical electrophilic aromatic substitution because it proceeds through a highly reactive
intermediate known as "benzyne."

benzyne mechanism:

1. Conditions for Benzyne Mechanism

For the benzyne mechanism to occur, the following conditions are typically required:

An electron-deficient aromatic ring with a leaving group (usually a halide such as -Cl, -Br).

Strong base, which will deprotonate the ring and initiate the reaction.

2. Mechanism Steps

1. Formation of Benzyne: Chlorobenzene reacts with NaNH₂, leading to the elimination of H and Cl, forming the
benzyne intermediate.
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2. Nucleophilic Attack: The NH₂⁻ ion attacks one of the carbons in the benzyne, resulting in an intermediate.

3. Protonation: The intermediate is protonated, yielding aniline.

5. Uses of Aromatic Halogen Compounds

Industrial Solvents:Aromatic halides like chlorobenzene are widely used as industrial solvents in organic synthesis.

Pharmaceutical Intermediates:Many pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals are synthesized using aromatic halides as
intermediates.

Pesticides and Herbicides:Some aromatic halogen compounds, such as DDT, were historically used as pesticides
(though many are now banned or restricted due to environmental concerns).

Aryl Alkyl Halides

Aryl alkyl halides are compounds in which a halogen atom is attached to an alkyl group bonded to an aromatic ring,
such as benzene. The structure impacts the reactivity and properties of these compounds, which are distinct from
simple alkyl or aryl halides.

1.Nomenclature of Aryl Alkyl Halides

1. Aryl alkyl halides are typically named as derivatives of alkyl benzene compounds, indicating the position and type
of halogen attached.Common aryl alkyl halides include benzyl chloride (C₆H₅CH₂Cl), benzyl bromide (C₆H₅CH₂Br),
and benzyl iodide (C₆H₅CH₂I).

When additional substituents are present on the benzene ring, the position of the substituents is specified using
ortho (1,2-), meta (1,3-), or para (1,4-) prefixes.
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2. Preparation of Benzyl Chloride (An Important Aryl Alkyl Halide)

Chlorination of Toluene:

Benzyl chloride can be prepared by the free radical chlorination of toluene (methylbenzene) in the presence of light
or heat.

The reaction proceeds via a radical mechanism, where the chlorine molecule (Cl₂) cleaves into two chlorine radicals,
one of which replaces a hydrogen on the benzylic (CH₃-) group.

Reaction:

3. Properties of Aryl Alkyl Halides

Physical Properties:

Polarity: The C–Cl bond in benzyl chloride is polar, making it slightly polar overall.

Boiling and Melting Points: Generally have higher boiling points than alkyl halides due to the benzene ring's
influence.

Solubility: Aryl alkyl halides are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as benzene, ether, and
chloroform.
Chemical Properties:

Reactivity of Benzyl Chloride:Benzyl halides are generally more reactive than simple aryl halides because the benzyl
group stabilizes the formation of a carbocation.

Benzyl chloride undergoes both nucleophilic substitution reactions and elimination reactions readily.

Nucleophilic Substitution:

Benzyl chloride can undergo both SN1 and SN2 reactions due to the stability of the benzyl carbocation and the
availability of the benzylic position for backside attack.

Example: Reaction with aqueous NaOH produces benzyl alcohol (C₆H₅CH₂OH).

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4. Uses of Benzyl Chloride and Other Aryl Alkyl Halides

Benzyl chloride uses:

Solvent and Intermediate:Benzyl chloride is an important chemical intermediate in the synthesis of various
compounds, including pharmaceuticals, perfumes, and other aromatic derivatives.

Synthesis of Benzyl Compounds:It is a precursor in making benzyl alcohol, benzyl cyanide, and other benzyl
derivatives.

Industrial Applications: Benzyl chloride is used in the synthesis of certain dyes, resins, and plasticizers.

Aryl alkyl halides uses:

1. Pharmaceuticals – as intermediates for drugs.

2. Dyes and Pigments – for color stability.

3. Laboratory Reagents – for introducing benzyl groups.

4. Organic Synthesis – in Grignard and substitution reactions.

They are versatile due to their reactivity and aromatic stability.

Alcohols
Alcohols are organic compounds that contain one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to a carbon atom. They are
a vital class of compounds in organic chemistry and are widely used in various industrial, laboratory, and
pharmaceutical applications.

1. Nomenclature and Classification of Alcohols

Nomenclature:

IUPAC Naming: The parent hydrocarbon chain is named, and the “-e” at the end is replaced with “-ol” to denote an
alcohol. The carbon chain is numbered to give the lowest possible number to the hydroxyl group.
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Common Names: Often named by adding "alcohol" to the name of the alkyl group attached to the -OH group. For
example:

Methanol (CH₃OH): Also called methyl alcohol.

Ethanol (CH₃CH₂OH): Also called ethyl alcohol.

Isopropanol (CH₃CH(OH)CH₃): Also called isopropyl alcohol.

Classification:

Based on the Number of Hydroxyl Groups:

Monohydric: Contains one -OH group (e.g., ethanol, methanol).

Dihydric: Contains two -OH groups (e.g., ethylene glycol).

Trihydric: Contains three -OH groups (e.g., glycerol).

Based on the Carbon Attached to the -OH Group:

Primary (1°): The -OH group is attached to a carbon atom with only one alkyl group (e.g., ethanol).

Secondary (2°): The -OH group is attached to a carbon with two alkyl groups (e.g., isopropanol).

Tertiary (3°): The -OH group is attached to a carbon with three alkyl groups (e.g., tert-butanol).

2. Preparation of Alcohols

Hydration of Alkenes:Alkenes react with water in the presence of an acid catalyst to form alcohols.

Example: Ethene can be converted to ethanol by hydration.

Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones:

Aldehydes are reduced to primary alcohols, and ketones are reduced to secondary alcohols using reducing agents like
NaBH₄ or LiAlH₄.

Example: Acetone (CH₃COCH₃) is reduced to isopropanol (CH₃CHOHCH₃).

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Fermentation:

Ethanol is prepared by the fermentation of sugars, such as glucose, by yeast under anaerobic conditions.

Reaction:

Hydrolysis of Alkyl Halides:

Alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH to produce alcohols.

Example: Ethyl chloride (C₂H₅Cl) reacts with NaOH to form ethanol.

3. Properties of Alcohols

Physical Properties:

Boiling Points: Alcohols have relatively high boiling points due to hydrogen bonding between -OH groups.

Solubility: Lower alcohols are soluble in water because of hydrogen bonding. Solubility decreases as the alkyl chain
length increases.

Polarity: Alcohols are polar molecules due to the -OH group, making them good solvents for polar substances.

Chemical Properties:

Acidity: Alcohols are weakly acidic, with pKa values around 15-18. They can donate a proton (H⁺) to form alkoxide
ions (RO⁻).

Oxidation:

Primary Alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes and further to carboxylic acids.

Secondary Alcohols are oxidized to ketones.

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Tertiary Alcohols do not undergo oxidation easily.

Dehydration:

Alcohols can undergo dehydration (loss of water) in the presence of an acid catalyst to form alkenes.

Example: Ethanol can be dehydrated to form ethene.

4. Uses of Alcohols

Ethanol:

Widely used as a solvent, in alcoholic beverages, as a fuel additive, and as an antiseptic.

Methanol:

Used as a solvent, antifreeze, and fuel. It is also a starting material for synthesizing formaldehyde.

Glycerol:

Used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food products as a moisturizer and sweetener.

5. Conversions in Alcohols: Ascent and Descent of Series

Ascent of Series:

Converting lower alcohols to higher alcohols (e.g., converting methanol to ethanol or propanol).
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Often achieved by chain elongation reactions such as the Grignard reaction.

Descent of Series:

Converting higher alcohols to lower alcohols (e.g., converting butanol to propanol or ethanol).

Often done by controlled oxidation and then reduction or by cleavage reactions.

6. Test for Hydroxyl Groups

Lucas Test:

Alcohols react with Lucas reagent (a mixture of ZnCl₂ and HCl) to form alkyl chlorides.

Tertiary alcohols react quickly, secondary alcohols moderately, and primary alcohols slowly or not at all.

Sodium Test:

Alcohols react with metallic sodium, releasing hydrogen gas. This test confirms the presence of an -OH group.

7. Oxidation of Diols by Periodic Acid and Lead Tetraacetate

Periodic Acid Oxidation:

Diols (1,2-diols) can be cleaved by periodic acid (HIO₄) to form carbonyl compounds.

Lead Tetraacetate Oxidation:

Lead tetraacetate (Pb(OAc)₄) also cleaves 1,2-diols into carbonyl compounds, similar to periodic acid.
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8.Reaction of diols by periodic action

Periodic acid (HIO₄) cleaves vicinal diols (diols with -OH groups on adjacent carbons) by oxidizing both -OH groups,
leading to the formation of two carbonyl compounds (either aldehydes or ketones). For example, ethane-1,2-diol
(ethylene glycol) reacts with periodic acid to form formaldehyde (HCHO).