CHAPTER FIVE

SOURCES AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

After successfully studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Understand and distinguish between primary and secondary data and their characteristics
 Describe secondary data and their sources
 Understand and apply the methods for collecting primary data
 Design and apply questionnaires and focus group discussions

5.1. Meaning and the Need for Data

Data collection is a process of gathering data systematically for a particular purpose from various
sources, including questionnaires, interviews, observation, existing records, and electronic
devices. The process is usually preliminary to statistical analysis of the data. It is, therefore, the
information collected from various sources, which can be expressed in quantitative form, for a
specific purpose, which is called data. The rational decision maker seeks to evaluate information
in order to select the course of action that maximizes objectives. For decision making, the input
data must be appropriate. This depends on the appropriateness of the method chosen for data
collection.

5.2. Types and Sources of Data

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design/plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the
study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The
primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
The choice between primary and secondary data mainly depends upon the nature, objectives, and
scope of enquiry, availability of time & money; degree of accuracy desired the status of the
investigator. Data can also be obtained from secondary sources, as for example, company records
or achieves, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the
internet, and so on.

5.3. Methods of Primary Data collection

There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
researches. Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through
questionnaires, (iv) through schedules, and (v) other methods.
1. Observation method
Observation involves the recording of the respondent’s behavior: it is the process of recognizing
and recording the behavior of people, objects, and events. It is used to evaluate the overt behavior
of individuals in controlled and uncontrolled situations. Observational methods have occupied an

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important place in descriptive research. As a good research tool too, observation needs proper
planning, expert execution and adequate recording and interpretation.

This method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to behavioral
sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded
and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation method,
the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the
respondent.

Advantages of observation
o Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately;
o The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening;
o Independent of respondents’ willingness to respond;
o Suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of
giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other

Limitations of observation
o Expensive method
o Information provided by this method is very limited
o Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task
o Some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.

In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style
of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of
pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured observation. But when
observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is
termed as unstructured observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive
studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively
unstructured.

If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing
so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as
the participant observation. But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this
type is often termed as non-participant observation. (When the observer is observing in such a
manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is observing; such an observation is
described as disguised observation.)

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There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) the researcher is enabled to
record the natural behavior of the group. (ii) The researcher can even gather information which
could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. (iii) The researcher can even
verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.
But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may lose the
objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not
solved; and it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.

Sometimes it is classified as controlled and uncontrolled observation. If the observation takes place
in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes
place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then
termed controlled observation.
2. Interview
The interview is the process of communication or interaction in which the subject or interviewee
gives the needed information verbally in the face-to-face situation or through telephone. Although
the interview is generally associated with counseling, it can be used effectively to collect useful
information about individuals in many research situations.

Interview can be structured or unstructured. Structured interview involves the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording and it follows a rigid
procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed. The interviewer has no
freedom to rephrase the questions also. Whereas, unstructured interview do not follow a system of
pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information. In a non-
structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so requires.
Unstructured interview is the central technique of collecting information in case of exploratory or
formulate research studies. But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of
structured interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for
generalization and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.

This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.
a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the
interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. This
can be direct personal investigation or indirect oral investigation. In the former case, the
interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned and it is suitable
for intensive investigations. Whereas, indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the
interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the
problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions
and committees appointed by government to carry on investigations make use of this method.

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 b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.

Interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles. Every effort should be made to
create friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at ease while
talking to and discussing with the interviewer. The interviewer must ask questions properly and
intelligently and must record the responses accurately and completely. At the same time, the
interviewer must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the respondent and must clear any
doubt that the latter has. The interviewers’ approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational
and unbiased. The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s answer
but he must keep the direction of interview in his own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation
and must make all possible effort to keep the respondent on the track.

3. Questionnaires
It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined a: “A questionnaire is a systematic
compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information
is desired.”

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or

set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand
the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire
itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. Questioners can be used to
measure: 1) past behavior; 2) attitudes; and 3) respondents’ characteristics.
The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering devices. It is easy
to prepare and to administer.

Questioners can either be close-ended or open-ended questionnaire.

Close-ended questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and
pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the
same order to all respondents. Resort is taken to this sort of standardization to ensure that (i.e., of
the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not
constructed during questioning. Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative
questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated alternatives. Structured
questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyze. The provision of
alternative replies, at times, helps to understand the meaning of the question clearly. But it has also
limitations like, wide range of data and that too in respondent’s own words cannot be obtained
with structured questionnaires.

In open-ended questioners, questions and answers are not specified and comments in the
respondent’s own words are not held to the minimum. And there is a use open ended questions

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like unstructured interview. all respondents reply to the same set of questions. The form of the
question may be either closed

Advantages of Questionnaire Method

1. It’s very economical.
2. It’s a time saving process.
3. It covers the research in wide area.
4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.
5. It is most reliable in special cases.

Disadvantages of Questionnaire Method

1. Through this we get only limited responses.
2. Lack of personal contact.
3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
6. It may be useless in many problems.

Designing Questionnaire
Questionnaire design forms the central role in the data collection process as the questionnaire is
often the first point of contact with the respondent. Good questionnaire design is crucial in terms
of:
o encouraging the respondent to participate in the data collection; and
o Eliciting the required information from the respondent in a valid way
The main objectives of a questionnaire are to:
o obtain accurate information from respondents;
o provide a logical structure to the questionnaire/ interview so that it flows smoothly;
o provide a standard form on which responses can be recorded; and
o Facilitate data entry and processing through the use of coding.
Principles of Questionnaire Design
When designing a questionnaire, there are some general principles that should be considered.

When researchers design a data collection the first step that they will take is to decide what they
want to learn from the data collection as this will determine the objectives of the data collection.
The objectives help researchers decide who they need to collect data from and the data required.
If data collection objectives are unclear it is highly likely the data collected with be unclear. The
more specific the objectives, the more usable the data collected.

When we establish our objectives, we should list them, split them into topic areas and then design
questions based on these topics.

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 1. Overall layout of the questionnaire
Before you start to think about the questions that you will ask it is important to consider what the
overall layout of the questionnaire will be. Ideally you want to ensure that the questionnaire is kept
short and simple. This can be achieved by:
a) Minimizing Clutter: All questionnaires should be kept as uncluttered as possible. Nearly
all aspects of the questionnaire will require some response from the respondent. This might simply
be that they have to read the instructions or questions, or they may have to assimilate what is
needed in a response box. The more cluttered a questionnaire is with text, graphics and symbols,
the greater the burden on the respondent. White space within a questionnaire should be maximized;
not only does it make the questionnaire easier to read but it is thought that it will also help to relax
the respondent.
b) Questionnaire/Section Title: The first thing that the respondent will read is the
questionnaire title. It will set the tone of the questionnaire and inform the respondent of its
relevance to them. Titles should also be used throughout the questionnaire, in order for respondents
to distinguish one section from the next. All titles should be clear and easily understood.
c) Accessibility and clarity: We all have a different perception of what we see; therefore, we
should consider this within our questionnaire design and ensure that it is accessible/easy to
understand for all respondents. We often assume the level of comprehension of our respondents
and that all are at the same level. This is often not the case and care must be taken to ensure that
all respondents can understand what is being asked of them.
d) Wording: The major problem faced when designing questionnaires is designing questions
that the respondent can understand and interpret in the way in which we desire them to.
e) Terminology: When designing a questionnaire, you should always use language and
terminology that the respondent is familiar with. Therefore, you should look to:
o avoid jargon, shorthand or uncommon words;
o avoid ambiguous words that do not have a specific meaning, for example the words
‘often’, ‘usually’ and ‘frequently’ have no specific meaning and should be made more
specific;
o avoid words which can be misinterpreted
2. Question Structure
As well as considering the terminology of questions we should also consider their structure.
o ‘Least Read’ – respondents only read as much of the question as they think is
necessary. It is therefore important that questions are structured so respondents are
more likely to read the whole question before they answer it. As a guide, keep questions
short and concise.
o Multi-part questions will only lead to confusion. Even though they may appear to
save space they should be avoided.
o Double-hollowed questions that ask the respondent for two pieces of information at
the same time may confuse respondents. Some respondents may only answer one part
of the question whilst others will answer the other part.

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 o Leading or biased questions will force a respondent to answer in a certain way thus
biasing the response. Questions should be worded in a neutral and balanced way to
guard against response bias.
3. Layout of the Questionnaires
The layout of the questionnaire should be inviting and interesting and should provide a clear and
logical path for the eye to follow. Throughout the questionnaire this layout should stay consistent
to help respondents navigate through the questionnaire. Much of this can be achieved through the
effective use of blank space so that it is clear and easy to read. There should be more space between
the questions than there is within them (this helps the respondent to group question parts together).
Questions, response options, response boxes and instructions should be laid out in a standard
format. Where appropriate there should be enough space made available for the respondent to write
their responses.
4. The order of Questions
The questions and sections within a questionnaire should be ordered in a logical manner that makes
sense to the respondent. For example, all demographic questions such as age and sex should be
contained within the same section. The respondent should be able to work through the
questionnaire without having to look back or forwards for references. It is also sensible to ensure
that questions are ordered in a way that minimizes the need for routing or filtering to other
questions. You should ensure that the questionnaire starts with easy or less sensitive questions to
encourage the respondent to participate. Respondents are more likely to answer sensitive
questions, for example, those relating to income or alcohol consumption, if they are placed towards
the end of the questionnaire rather than at the beginning. As a whole, the questions should be
grouped into topics in a logical sequence and should flow easily.
5. Routing or Filtering
Routing questions can be used to guide respondents to questions that are applicable to them and to
ensure that they do not respond to questions that are not applicable. The use of routing should be
kept to a minimum, respondents can find them difficult to follow and they can disrupt a
respondent’s flow through the questionnaire. Where routing is used, instructions should be
included that aid the respondent and these should be placed with the appropriate questions rather
than with the general instructions for the questionnaire.
6. Front Page
The front page of a questionnaire should contain all of the information that the respondent will
need to know to complete the questionnaire. However, we should ensure that respondents are not
overloaded with information as this can be confusing. The front page should act as an introduction
or covering letter and should inform the respondent of: Who is conducting the data collection
activities; Why they have been selected to take part; Whether the data collection is compulsory;
Confidentiality; Who should complete the questionnaire; How and when they should return the
questionnaire; What the data collected will be used for, i.e., the objectives of the data collection;
and Contact details for advice and further information. Where possible, questionnaires should be

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personalized. This can be done by using the name and address of the respondent and including a
signature of the person responsible for the data collection.
7. Instructions for the Respondents
A respondent needs to know how to complete a questionnaire. As such, the questionnaire should
include some clear guidance on how to complete it. Instructions should be presented where they
are needed and before the respondent is required to put pen to paper. For example, where a question
requires a tick or cross in a box the respondent should be informed of this. Instructions that are
presented away from the questionnaire, for example in a booklet or on a separate page, can confuse
respondents and will often be forgotten. Instructions should also be repeated throughout the
questionnaire to remind the respondent.

There may be cases where specific instructions are needed for a particular question. Where this is
the case, the instructions should be integrated into the question. If this is not possible, they should
be placed immediately after the question but before the respondent is required to respond.
8. Question Styles
There are many types of questions available for a questionnaire. Two such types are open and
closed questions. The type of question used depends on the data required. By using a variety of
question styles, the respondent will become more interested and engaged in the data collection.
1. Open-ended Questions
Open questions require the respondent to produce their own answers. In a self-completion
questionnaire respondent write in their own answers constrained only by the space available. In an
interview, the interviewer writes down the respondent’s answer verbatim.

Open questions are used when rich, detailed information is required from the respondent. They
provide a source of qualitative data, where qualitative data refers to descriptive rather than numeric
data. Let’s assume that a theatre director wants to know what the audience thought of his latest
play. He designs a questionnaire and distributes them to the audience to complete. An open
question that he could have asked is: What did you think of tonight’s show?
2. Closed-Ended Questionnaires
Closed questions offer respondents a choice of answers, or response categories. Some closed
questionnaires require ‘yes/no’ answers; others provide a list of possible choices. Closed
questionnaires tend to be used when high level, quantifiable data is required. Quantifiable refers
to data that is numeric or can be summarized in numeric form. In relation to the theatre director’s
questionnaire above the question, “What did you think of tonight’s show?”, can be changed into a
closed question by offering the audience a set of response categories and asking them to choose
one.

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For example: What did you think of tonight’s show? (Please tick one box only)
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
d) Very poor
e) No opinion

The advantages and disadvantages of open-ended and closed-ended questions should be balanced
against the response that we require before we decide which type of question to use.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Open Questions

Advantages Disadvantages
o They allow an unlimited number of o Different respondents give different degrees of
possible answers. detail in their answers making them difficult to
o Respondents can answer in detail compare.
and can clarify responses. o Responses may be irrelevant or buried in useless
o Unanticipated responses can be detail.
discovered. o Comparisons and statistical analysis can be
o They enable adequate answers to be difficult and indeed there is a methodological
given to complex issues/questions. argument against converting qualitative data into
They encourage creativity, self- a quantifiable form.
expression and richness of detail. o Coding of responses can be time consuming and
o They reveal a respondent’s logic, difficult especially where responses are
thinking process and frame of incomplete or unclear. Questions may be too
reference general causing respondents to lose focus.
o A large amount of respondent time, effort and
energy is required to answer open questions
Response boxes for open questions often take up
a lot of space on a questionnaire.
o Articulate and highly literate respondents have
an advantage over those who are less literate

Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed Ended Questions

Advantages Disadvantages
o They are easy and quick to answer. o Misinterpretation of a question may go
o The answers of different respondents unnoticed.
are comparable o They force respondents to give simplistic
o Responses are easier to code and answers to potentially complex questions.
analyze compared to open questions.

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 o Response categories can clarify the o It can be confusing for the respondent if many
question meaning to respondents response categories are offered (especially where
o Respondents are more likely to the categories are read by an interviewer).
respond to closed questions that o The response categories can suggest ideas that
relate to a sensitive topic than they respondents would not otherwise have
are to an open question on the same considered thereby influencing their response.
topic. o Respondents with no opinion or knowledge may
o Less articulate or less literate people just choose a category anyway.
are not disadvantaged by closed o A respondent’s desired answer may not be listed
questions. and as such they may feel forced to choose an
available category instead of their preferred
option. (This problem should not occur if an
‘Other’ category is provided.)

4. Focus group discussion

Focus group discussion is an important, yet, structured discussion in which a small number of
participants (usually six to twelve), guided by a moderator or facilitator, talk about topics of special
importance to a particular research issue participants are selected from a narrowly defined
population whose opinions and ideas are relevant to the research. The discussion is observed and
recorded and provided the basis from which information and recommendations are obtained,
unlike interview focus group discussion helps to get an in-depth data since participants’ interaction
with each other is common feature of focus group discussion.

In focus group discussion participants should not be too large or too small (the optimum No. of
participant is 10 - 12) but if participants are 6 or 7 it would be better. Social, intellectual and
educational homogeneity are important for effective participation of all group members.

When selecting respondents careful screening is essential to the success of the focus group
discussion. So, group members must have had adequate experience with the object or issue being
discussed. The group members should be allowed to contain relatives, neighbor or friends. The
typical focus group discussion lasts 11/2 to 2 hours.

Role of the moderator

The selection of and role played by the moderator are critical. The moderator introduces the topic,
observes, and takes notes and or tapes the discussions. The moderator never becomes an integral
part of the discussions, but merely steers the group persuasively to obtain all the relevant
information and helps the group members to get through any impasse that might occur. The
moderator also ensures that all members participate in the discussion and that no member
dominates the group. Someone from the research team may also observe the proceedings through
a one-way mirror, listening to the verbal statements and noticing the non-verbal cues of the
members.

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The nature of data obtained through focus groups
It should be noted that though data obtained through these homogeneous group members are the
least expensive of the various data collection methods, and also lend themselves for quick analysis,
the content analysis of the data so obtained provides only qualitative and not quantitative
information. Also, since the members are not selected scientifically to reflect the opinions of the
population at large (see the next chapter on sampling for more details on this), their opinions cannot
be considered to be truly representative. However, when exploratory information is collected as a
basis for further scientific research, focus groups serve an important function. Consider for
example, the value of focus groups in exploring the concept of “intellectual Property”. When
animated discussions take place, there is a serendipitous flow of new ideas among the group
members who discuss the nuances of each thought process. Researchers are thereby helped to
obtain valuable insights from the snowballing effects of the discussions.

In sum, focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making generalizations based on the
information generated by them, and (3) conducting sample surveys. Focus groups have been
credited with enlightening investigators as to why certain products are not doing well, why certain
advertising strategies are effective, why specific management techniques do not work, and the like.

Video-conferencing
If regional variations in responses are expected, several focus groups could be formed including
trained moderators at different locations. This process is easily facilitated through
videoconferencing. By zooming in on a particular member the non-verbal cues and gestures of that
individual can be captured, as and when desired. This also obviates the need for an observer
looking through a one-way mirror.

With the great strides in technological advancement, and with the facility for communication with
the moderator by relaying instant messages, videoconferencing as a means of gathering
information from different groups in distant locations is indeed a promising prospect for the future.
It should be noted that online focus groups are also common. Email, web sites, and internet chat
rooms facilitate focus group sessions as well.

5.4. Methods of Secondary Data collection

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already
been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then
he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not
confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. There are several sources of
secondary data, including books and periodicals, government publications of economic indicators,
census data, statistical abstracts, databases, the media, annual reports of companies, etc.

Usually published data are available in:

a) various publications of the central, state are local governments;

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 b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary
organizations;
c) technical and trade journals;
d) books, magazines and newspapers;
e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry,
banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and
g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published
information.
The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished
biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers,
trade associations, labor bureaus and other public/ private individuals and organizations.
1. Advantages of Secondary Data
Advantages of secondary data are following:
o The primary advantage of secondary data is that it is cheaper and faster to access.
o Secondly, it provides a way to access the work of the best scholars all over the world.
o Thirdly, secondary data gives a frame of mind to the researcher that in which direction
he/she should go for the specific research.
o Fourthly secondary data save time, efforts and money and add to the value of the research
study.
2. Disadvantages of Secondary data:
Following are the disadvantage of secondary data:
o The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and
accuracy of data go down.
o Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
o With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old
o Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data,
a special care is required to am3end or modify for use.
o Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.

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