MINISTRY OF MANPOWER DIRECTORATE

GENERAL OF TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION

AL MUSANAA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
CIVIL AND ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING SECTION

DIPLOMA PROGRAM ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING

ARCH1211 VISUAL COMMUNICATION II
2016 – 2017 SEM – 1

Prepared By: Revised By: Verified By

Ar. Prashant K. Yelgi Ar. Ieman A. Eltakawi Eng. Ammar A. Jasim

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 -------------------------------------------- 3

CHAPTER 2 -------------------------------------------- 7

CHAPTER 3 -------------------------------------------- 11

CHAPTER 4 -------------------------------------------- 31

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CHAPTER 1

DRAWING AND THE PROCESS OF DRAWING

Objective: Be acquainted with the process of drawing and with the graphic
vocabulary used throughout his/her course of study.

Drawings are one of the means of communicating idea's& Architectural Designs

along with physical models and Digital models. Drawings are two dimensional representation
of a 3 dimensional form, whereas the physical model is a scaled down 3 dimensional
representation of the form.

The basis of most architectural drawing is the line, and the essence of a line is its
continuity. In pure line drawing, the architectural information conveyed (volumetric space;
definition of planer elements, solids and voids; depth) depends primarily on the visual weight
of the types used and their discernible differences. A change in the intensity or line weight
would change the perception or understanding of the drawing and the same is true to the line
type. The appropriate use of Line weight and Line type would eliminate the possibilities of
errors and would convey the correct information to the persons.
Line Types, i.e. Solid (Continuous), Dashed, Centre and others, have different meanings.
Architectural conventions allow these meanings to be communicated quickly to those in this
industry. The intent of the drawing is more easily understood because the Line Types are
logical.

1.1 LINE TYPES:

Some of the most commonly used Line types are discussed below, there are various many
more but are used rarely depending upon the situation.

1. Solid Line (Continuous Line)

2. Dashed Line.

3. Property Line

4. Break Line.

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5. Centre Line.

1.1.1 SOLID LINE:

Most Commonly used line and they represent edges of objects, changes in plane or
sometimes texture of a surface. The same solid line may mean different with different line
weight. A solid line with high intensity represents the cut or sectional line and a solid line
with low intensity represents change in elevation etc.

1.1.2. DASHED LINE:

Objects above or below the cutting plane when we assume for the plans or edges are
not seen directly (Hidden) in other drawings and also in some cases the imaginary lines are
represented as dashed lines.

1.1.3. CENTRE LINE:

When we need to describe or locate any object we use the edges of the object or in
some case the centre of the object. The line used to show the centre line of any object is
displayed as a continuous long dash and a dot as shown in the above fig. They are commonly
used to show the centre line of Columns or circles etc.

1.1.4. BREAK LINE / CONTINUOUS LINE:

Due to the size restriction of the paper or the detailed nature of the drawing,
sometimes only the part of the Plan or section etc. then the continuous line is used to convey
to the observer that there is some other part of the plan etc. which is not shown.

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1.2 LINE WEIGHT:

Line refers to the Intensity of Line or the width of line depending upon the way it was
drawn (Manual drawing or Auto CAD). There will be at least 04 different types of line
weights in any Architectural drawings, which are

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.

In any Architectural drawing the amount of detail to be shown depends upon the type of the
drawing, its scale, purpose and who is going to read it. In general at a conceptual level the
drawing will contain minimal details but as we reach to the working drawing level the
drawing will have full possible details.

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CHAPTER 2

Measured Drawings

Objectives: Be Familiar with Measured Drawing.

The meanings of “as-built drawings,” “measured drawings,” and “record drawings” can be
confusing and misapplied.

2.1 As-built drawings: As-built drawings are prepared by the contractor. They show, in red
ink, on-site changes to the original construction documents.

2.2 Measured drawings: Measured drawings are prepared in the process of measuring a
building for future renovation or as historic documentation. They are created from on-site
measurements.

2.3 Record drawings: Record drawings are prepared by the architect and reflect on-site
changes the contractor noted in the as-built drawings. They are often compiled as a set of on-
site changes made for the owner per the owner-architect contract.

Measured drawings are made by measuring each part of a building and conveying this
information in graphic form. Analytical in nature, measured drawings are, in a sense, the
reverse of an architect's working drawings. Measured drawings depict a building in its
existing state and show not only its "as-built" condition (which often differs markedly from
the architect's or builder's original drawings), but also the effects of age and various
alterations over time. These drawings also measure and record the numerous quirks that all
old buildings exhibit, such as uneven floors and out of plumb walls. Measured drawings have
many advantages over photographs. Views of a building that cannot be portrayed by
photographs, such as floor plans or sections, or features that are normally hidden from view,
such as construction details, can accurately documented in measured drawings. In addition,
the dimensions of various building features can be easily determined from measured
drawings, making them an invaluable resource for restoration projects, especially if the
building is ever badly damaged by fire or another disaster. They are also particularly helpful
in obtaining more accurate and consistent bids for repair and restoration work.

Plans, sections and elevations are all essential to include in a documentation project. Sections
are the most difficult drawings to execute but are typically the most valuable to have. They

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not only reveal the overall measurements, but also show the interior dimensions, proportions,
finishes and often complex buildings, sometimes require more than two sections in order to
record the various architectural features. Elevations and detail drawings should follow the
plans and sections. Elevations should include each of the building's exterior facades,
including those not normally seen by the public. Detail drawings may focus on structural
elements, such as the roof construction, or focus on architectural and decorative elements. For
documentation purposes, however, complex decorative features can often be more easily and
better recorded through photography.

When measuring, take cumulative or "running" measurements. Hold the measuring tape at
one corner or "datum point" and read all desired points along that line without moving the
tape, rather than continually moving the tape and taking each measurement from the last
reading. This prevents the accumulation of small errors and makes any measuring errors
quickly apparent. As a way of verifying the accuracy of the exterior measurements, make
checks from the interior once the wall thickness is determined. After the building's main
dimensions are established, go back for detailed measurements of typical features, such as
windows, columns and pinnacles.

2.4 Measuring Tips

x Measure the major structural elements in plan first: getting these right is fundamental,
and should be your first priority
x Return to fill in the plan detail
x Elevations should grow from the plan (and if you run short of time you will still have
photos &c, and this is less of a problem)
x Details should be done last, after you have finalised your sheet layout and know what
you can accommodate
x Don't assume that rooms or buildings are square, walls are plumb, or floors are level.
Take diagonal measurements and check walls and floors to determine distortion early
in the documentation project.
x Establish datum lines and planes as reference points.
x Cumulative measurements are more accurate than consecutive measurements because
they use a common zero point and thus do not require the tape to be relocated after
each measurement.

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x Hold the tape taut when making measurements. Temperatures, tension and wind can
affect the accuracy of tape measurements by causing the tape to stretch, shrink or sag.
x Know where the zero point is on the tape. It is not always at the end.
x Horizontal distances must be measured with the tape held level. Use a plumb line to
measure points displaced vertically.
x Access to roofs, vaulted ceilings, steeples and crawl space is often a major difficulty.
However, it is vitally important that these areas are measured. Vital information, such
as the thickness of the wall, the structure of the ceiling, and the pitch of the roof and
its structural framing, can often only be determined by taking measurements in attics
or crawl spaces.

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2.5 Equipment:

Measuring Tape (long and short), Drawing sheet, pencils, Plumb bob, Reference lines,
Triangles, eraser and Profile gauge.

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CHAPTER 3

Perspectives

Objectives: Be Familiar with Perspective Drawing.

Perspective is the third major type of drawing in Architectural Graphics. These are the single
view drawings. Unlike the praline drawings, perspectives eliminate the optical distortion of
lines drawn in parallel and is generally more readily understood, since it, more than any other
drawing type, represents the reality of form in three dimensions as we naturally perceive it.

3.1 Characteristics of Perspective.

Perspective drawings possess four major characteristics, which are utilized to portray a sense
of space, depth, and the third dimension within the limitations of two dimensional drawing,
which are

x Overlapping of forms
x diminution of size
x convergence of parallel lines
x foreshortening

3.1.1Overlapping of forms:

When we see objects overlapping a sense of

depth and space is achieved, isolated
objects give no sense of spatial depth.

Diminution occurs when equal sized

objects, such as lamp posts appear to
3.1.2 Diminution of Size:
diminish in size with distance, as
shown below.

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3.1.3 Convergence of parallel lines:

Parallel lines appear to converge toward a

common vanishing point as they recede
from the observer

3.1.4 Foreshortening:

In perspective lines perpendicular to the

observer's line of sight appear to diminish
in length as they are rotated away from the
observer.

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 3.2 Major Elements of Perspective:

3.2.1 Station Point (SP): The position and orientation of the observer.

The perspective is determined by the position of SP and its distance from the object and the
angle of view. It is also known as Spectator point.

3.2.2 Centre of View (C): Eye of the observer into the picture plane.

3.3.3 Cone of vision: The maximum angle of vision within which what is viewed is in focus.
The important features to be highlighted should be within this area.

3.3.4 Horizon Line (HL): A horizontal line lying within the picture plane and
perpendicular to the observer's line of sight.

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3.3.5 Ground Plane (GP): The horizontal reference plane from
which vertical measurements are
taken. The height of the horizon line
(HL) above the ground is always
equal to the height of the observer

(SP) above the ground level

3.3.6 Ground Line (GL): The intersection of the ground plane and

the picture plane (the ground line is

used as a measuring line).

3.3.7 Picture Plane (PP): The transparent 2 dimensional plane,

perpendicular to the observer's line of
sight, through which the observer views

the object in perspective

3.3.8 Vanishing Point (VP): All Set of Parallel Lines (Not parallel
to the picture plane) appear in
perspective to converge towards a
common vanishing point. Each set of

parallel lines has its own Vanishing

Point

a) All Sets of parallel Horizontal Lines appear to

converge on the horizon line.

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 b) Set of parallel lines sloping downward and away
from the observer has its vanishing point below

the horizon lines, and a set of parallel lines

raising upward and away from the observer has

its vanishing point below the horizon line

c) All Lines parallel to the picture plane do not

converge but rather retain their true orientation.

3.4. Size / Shape / Direction of Lines and Planes in

Perspective:

A) All lines lying within the picture plane retain their true length to

scale and direction. All Planes lying in the picture plane retain their

true size to scale, shape and orientation.

B) All Lines Parallel to the Picture plane retain their true direction, but

Increase in apparent length as they come in front of it and decrease

in apparent length as they recede from it.

All Planes parallel to the picture plane retain their true shape and

Orientation, but their apparent size likewise increases as they move

in front of it and decrease as they recede from it.

C) All Lines and planes not parallel to the picture plane are never shown

in true size to scale, shape, or direction.

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 3.5 Effect of the positions of Station Point, The Picture Plane

and the object with respect to one another on the final perspective drawing

The Observers point of View (Angle of View, Height and distance from the object and
Picture Plane) is critical in the final outcome of the perspective drawing. The height of the
Observer with respect to the height of the Object determines as how the object is seen in the
perspective (From above, below or within its height)

3.6 Distances between Station Point and the Object.

The distance from the station point to the object influences the rate of foreshortening in
perspective. As the distance from the object increases the vanishing points move away/
farther apart, the horizontal lines flatten out and perspective depth is compressed.

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 3.7 Effect of Picture plane location with respect to object.

Height of the Spectator point (SP Station Point).with respect to Object

The Perspective view will be from the above or below the object depending upon the location
of the Spectator point w.r.t the object.

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3.8 Types of Perspectives:

Perspectives are classified based on either the no of Vanishing points or on the way the object
is viewed, and the classifications are given as under.

3.8.1. Parallel perspectives (One point Perspective- Parallel to the

Object)

3.8.2. Angular perspective. (Two or Three Point Perspective- At an

angle to the Object)

3.8.3. Oblique Perspective. (Two or Three Point Perspective- At an

oblique angle to the Object)

Regardless of the type of Perspective the terminologies' and the process of drawing the
perspective remains more or less the same with a minor adjustments with respect to the type
of perspective.

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 3.8.1 Parallel Perspective (One Point Perspective)

Parallel Perspective or One point Perspective occurs when one major set of parallel lines lies
parallel to the picture plane (perpendicular to the Observers line of sight).

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These are useful in portraying interior space, some street scenes and axial arrangements.
Before starting any perspective it is important that one has to decide why the perspective is
needed and desired angle of view (Spectator, point, height line, Picture plane location etc.)
and which plane to emphasise in the view. And most Important of all to check as the final
view falls within the cone of vision of the observer for proper views.

3.8.1a Process of One point Perspective Drawing:

To begin with the one point perspective, select the Plan for which the perspective is to be
drawn.

1. Draw the picture plane appropriate position

(usually touching one plane), and select the
Spectator point perpendicular to the main
plane at appropriate distance.

2. Draw the guide lines from all the corners

joining the Spectator point passing through the
picture plane.

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3. Draw the ground line at appropriate
location above the plan and project the guide
lines from the intersection where the guide
lines from the corners to the spectator point
intersect with the picture plane till the ground
line.

4. Select the appropriate height level and draw

the Height line (eye level).

Extend the line of sight till the height line and

the intersection gives us the vanishing point.

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5. Name all the corners in the plan and in
perspective wherever the corners are clear.
(This step can be done earlier in step 2 also)

6. Join the corners A, B, G & H with the

vanishing point by guide lines.

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7. Project the guide lines from the intersection
of Picture plane and the lines joining Spectator
point and Nodes DD & (CD-SP, C-SP) to the
ground line and above.

The point where this line (projected) intersects

the guide line joining node A, B, F & G to the
vanishing point gives us the nodes D, C, H &
J in perspective.

8. Repeat step 7 for the door and complete the

door on the wall parallel to the ground line.

For the height of the door always remember

the true height in perspective is measured only
on the line touching the picture plane in this
case either point A or B.

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9. Following similar steps complete the door
on the side wall also.

The completed perspective without guidelines

looks as in the following image.

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 3.8.2 Angular Perspective (Two Point Perspective):

This is the most widely used type of perspectives which portrays natural and realistic view to
the observer. Angular or Two point perspective retains the verticality of vertical lines, but
both major sets of horizontal lines which are at an angle to the picture plane will merge in
two vanishing points.

3.8.2a Process of two point Perspective drawing:

Select the Cube for which we have to draw the perspective, let's assume we have a cube of
5cm x 3cm x 5cm and place at 8cm away from the observer.

Place the cube as shown in the image at

an appropriate angle. Draw the Picture
Plane (Horizontal & Perpendicular to
Observer) touching one of the corners of
the cube.

Project the parallel lines from SP on

both right and left sides till they
intersect the Picture plane, these points
are the Vanishing Point R & L
respectively.

Draw a horizontal Ground line above

the cube (Plan) at appropriate location
to draw the perspective.

Draw aahorizontal
Draw horizontalline
lineatat
thethe
eyeeye
Level
Level above
(3cm) (3cm) ground
above line.
ground line.

Nameall
Name allthe
thenodes
nodes (In(In Plan)
Plan) asB, C,
as A,
A,B,C,Detc and project the guide
D etc. and project the guide line from
linevanishing
the from the points
vanishing
to thepoints
groundtoline
the
ground
and line
height andAnd
line. height
theseline. And
are the
these are point
Vanishing the Vanishing point R and
R and L respectively
L respectively
for drawing the for drawing the
Perspective.
Perspective.

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Draw guide lines SP-A, SP-B, SP-C &
SP-D through the Picture Plane.

Then project these guide lines form the

point of intersection at the picture plane
till the height live above.

Draw a vertical line from Point A in

perspective which will be our vertical
measurement line (as it touches the
Picture plane, the true height of the
object can be measured here).

Draw the guide lines from both

Vanishing points connecting point A.

And draw line from VPR to Point D and

from VPL to point B intersection at
point C

Mark 5 cm height on the vertical

measurement line from A, on
perspective and mark as E.

Draw guidelines from both VPR & VPL

till Point E.

Extend the guide lines from the plan till

these lines VPR-E & VPL-E which will
give us the remaining 3 points, F & H.

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Draw dark lines AE, BF & DH, HE,
AD, AB, & EF.

Draw Guide lines from VPR to Point D

and VPL to Point B, the intersection of
these guide line gives us point C, which
should be intersecting with the vertical
line projected from the ground (Plan).

Draw Guide lines from VPR to Point H

and VPL to Point F, the intersection of
these guide line gives us point C, which
should be intersecting with the vertical
line projected from the ground (Plan).
Continue the line vertically.

Draw Guide lines from VPR to Point H,

then VPL to Point F intersecting at the
vertical line projected earlier which will
be point G

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The completed two point Perspective will be like the above picture.

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CHAPTER 4

SHADES AND SHADOWS:

Objectives: Be Familiar with Sciography (Shades & Shadows) 11

Shades and Shadows are used in Architectural drawing to make drawings more easily
understood by expressing both the third dimension of depth and the form of surfaces whether
flat or rounded, slanted or vertical.

In the above images the actual shape and the projections and recesses will be clear only after
the shade and shadows otherwise it's not clear.

The Shape of the shadow is dependent on

x The position of the shade line

x The position of the observer.
x The direction of the light.
x The form of the surface on which the plane of the shadow falls.

Lighted areas

Shade

Shadows

Shade refers to the comparatively dark values of surfaces turned away from the light source.
(As shown in the image above)

Shadows are the dark values cast by an object or part of an object upon a surface that would
otherwise be illuminated by the light source.

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We assume the light source to be on the top left corner of the object and the direction of light
is the diagonal of a cube, from the top left- front corner to the bottom right- rear corner. It is
shown in the following image in plan and elevation.

Some simple examples of shade and shadows

In most cases to draw the shadows we need to draw the plan and Elevations (front and Side)
to get the correct shadows. The images shown above are the some examples where we need

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just the Side elevation and Front elevation. The following examples will show as we need the
Plan, Front Elevation and the side Elevation to draw the shadows. As we need to project the
light rays form plan to Elevation or vice versa as the case may be.

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References:

Perspective: From Basic to Creative

By Robert W. Gill

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