ENG 224 MATERIAL SC LECTURE NOTE

GLASSES
Glass is a hard substance which may be transparent and brittle in nature. It is manufactured by fusion
process. In this process sand is fused with lime, soda and some other admixtures and then cooled rapidly.
Glass is used in construction and architectural purpose in engineering. There are various types of glass
used in construction for different purposes
Types of Glass and their Uses:
1. Float Glass
Float glass is made of sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also called as soda lime glass. It is clear
and flat so it causes glare. These glasses are available from 2mm to 20mm thickness ranges. They have a
weight range of 6 to 36 kg/m2. These are used as shop fronts, public places, etc.

2. Shatterproof Glass
Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors etc. Some type of plastic polyvinyl butyral is
added in its making process. So, it cannot form sharp edged pieces when it breaks.
3. Laminated Glass
Laminated glass is the combination of layers of normal glass. So, it has more weight than normal glass. It
has more thickness and is soundproof. These are used for aquariums, bridges etc.
4. Extra Clean Glass
Extra clean glass has two special properties, photocatalytic and hydrophilic. Because of these properties,
it acts as stain proof and gives beautiful appearance. Maintenance is also easy.
5. Chromatic Glass
Chromatic glass can control the transparent efficiency of glass and protects the interior from daylight. The
chromatic glass may be photochromic which has light sensitive lamination, thermos-chromatic which has
heat sensitive lamination and electrochromic which has electric lamination over it.

6. Tinted Glass
Tinted glass is nothing but coloured glass. A colour producing ingredients is mixed to the normal glass
mix to produce coloured glass which does not affect other properties of glass. Different colour producing
ingredients are tabulated below:
7. Toughened Glass
Toughened glass is strong glass which has low visibility. It is available in all thicknesses and when it is
broken it forms small granular chunks which are dangerous. This is also called as tempered glass. This
type of glass is used for fire resistant doors, mobile screen protectors etc.
8. Glass Blocks
Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different halves and they are pressed and annealed
together while melting process of glass. These are used as architectural purpose in the construction of
walls, skylights etc. They provide aesthetic appearance when light is passed through it.
9. Glass Wool
Glass wool is made of fibres of glass and acts as good insulating filler. It is fire resistant glass.
10. Insulated Glazed Units
Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass separated into two or three layers by air or vacuum. They
cannot allow heat through it because of air between the layers and acts as good insulators. These are also
called as double glazed units.

Properties of Glass
1. Transparency of Glass
Transparency is the main property of glass which allows the vision of outside world through it. The
transparency of glass can be from both sides or from one side only. In one side transparency, glass
behaves like mirror from the other side.
2. Strength of Glass
Strength of glass depends on modulus of rupture value of glass. In general glass is a brittle material but by
adding admixtures and laminates we can make it stronger.
3. Workability of Glass
A glass can be moulded into any shape or it can be blown during melting. So, workability of glass is
superior property of glass.

4. Transmittance
The visible fraction of light that passing through glass is the property of visible transmittance.
5. U value of Glass
U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass. If a glass is said to be insulated unit then
it should have lower u value.
6. Recycle Property of Glass
Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be used as raw material in construction industry

Fracture of Glasses
Fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. The
fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces
within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface of displacement, it is called a
normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of
displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation.
Brittle fractures occur with no apparent deformation before fracture; ductile fractures occur when visible
deformation does occur before separation. Fracture strength or breaking strength is the stress when a
specimen fails or fractures.

RUBBERS
There is a wide variety of synthetic rubber available such as EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene
Monomer) rubber, commercial black rubber, SBR (Styrene butadiene rubber), NBR (nitrile butadiene
rubber), IIR (Isobutylene-isoprene) etc.

Natural Rubber?
Natural rubber is a natural polymer of organic compound isoprene obtained from the bark of tropical and
subtropical trees. The milky white fluid which is obtained from trees is called latex. This is the reason
natural rubber is also known as latex. Natural rubber is also called India rubber, Amazonian rubber and
caucho. Leading producers of natural rubber are Thailand and Indonesia.
Monomer Unit of Natural Rubber – 2-methyl 1,3-butadiene (it is also called isoprene)
Structure of Natural Rubber – It is called polyisoprene or cis-1,4-polyisoprene. Its structure is given
below –

Preparation of Natural Rubber

Natural rubber or rubber latex is directly collected from plants. Then it is processed for common use by
various methods. It is a polymer of 2-methyl 1,3-butadiene (or isoprene).

Vulcanization of Rubber
Reaction of natural rubber with sulfur molecule (S 8) in presence of heat to improve its properties is called
vulcanization of rubber. In general, natural rubber is very sticky in nature, but vulcanization removes its
stickiness and enhances its qualities. Vulcanization of rubber was discovered by Charles Goodyear in
1839.

Comparison between Natural Rubber and Vulcanized Rubber

Natural Rubber Vulcanized Rubber

It is soft and sticky. It is hard and non-sticky.

It has low tensile strength. It has high tensile strength.

It has lower elasticity. It has higher elasticity.

It can be used over a narrow range of It can be used over a wide range of temperatures (-
temperature (10-60⁰C). 40⁰C to 100⁰C).

It has low wear and tear resistance. It has high wear and tear resistance.

It is soluble in solvents like ether, CCl4, petrol

It is insoluble in all common solvents.
etc.
Synthetic Rubber
Synthetic rubber is a man-made polymer. It is synthesized under controlled conditions by petrochemicals.
Many types of synthetic rubber have been synthesized. So, all polymers or synthetic rubbers have
different monomer units as well. Although the basic monomer unit for synthetic rubber can be 2-chloro -
1,3-butadien or 1,3-butadiene. Neoprene is a synthetic rubber made up of monomer unit chloroprene.

Preparation of Synthetic Rubber

Over 20 types of synthetic rubbers are available today. Out of these we are describing preparation of two
synthetic rubbers which are part of your syllabus as well –
Neoprene
Neoprene is a synthetic rubber formed by the free radical addition polymerization of chloroprene. Thus,
its monomer unit is 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene. Polymerization reaction is given below –
Buna S (SBR)
Buna S is also a synthetic rubber. In Buna S, Bu stands for butadiene, Na for sodium or natrium (Latin
name) and S for styrene. It is also called styrene-butadiene. It is known by its abbreviation SBR (styrene
butadiene rubber) as well. It is an additional co-polymer. Its monomer units are butadiene and styrene.
Difference between Natural Rubber and Synthetic Rubber
Natural Rubber Synthetic Rubber

It is a natural polymer. It is a synthetic or man-made polymer.

It is obtained from plants. It is made from petrochemicals.

Its monomer unit is 2-methyl 1,3-butadiene or Monomer units are different in different
isoprene. synthetic rubbers.

It has higher impurities than synthetic rubber. It has a very low amount of impurities.

Its properties either cannot be changed or are very Synthetic rubbers can be customized according
difficult to change. to need.

It's eco-friendly as obtained from the bark of plants. It's not eco-friendly but can be recycled.

Uses of Rubber
Both natural and synthetic rubber are useful in various fields. Even if you look around, you will find
many things around you in which rubber has been used. Few uses of rubber are stated below
Uses of SBR

 SBR is used in pneumatic tires.

 SBR is used in chewing gum.
 SBR is used in gaskets.
 SBR is used in shoe heels and soles as well.
 SBR is one of the cheapest resins to bind pigmented coatings.
 SBR is used in place of PVA in construction as a binding agent.
  SBR is used in waterproofing systems.
 SBR is used by speaker driver manufacturers as well.
 SBR is used as rubber cutting boards
 SBR is used in batteries as well.
 SBR is used in heat exchangers as well.

Uses of Neoprene

 It is relatively inert than natural and other synthetic rubbers which makes it suitable for hoses,
gaskets, corrosion resistant coatings.
 It can be used as a base for adhesives.
 It is used for noise cancellation.
 It is used in face masks and gloves.
 Neoprene foam is also used in many things.
 It is used in construction of buildings as a load bearing base.
 It is most commonly used for making clothing for aquatic activities.
 It is used in laptop, tablet holders, remote controls, mouse pads etc.
 It is used in electric pianos with hammer tips.
 It is used in wheelchairs as well.

Uses of Vulcanized Rubber

 It is resistant to abrasion which makes it suitable for conveyor belts.

 It is used in vehicle tires.
 It is used in pumps.
 Its elasticity makes it useful for machines as shock absorbers.
 It is used in balloons, balls and cushions.
 Its resistance to water has made it useful for rainwear and diving gear.
 It is inert towards most fluid chemicals which led its use in chemical and medicinal tubing.
 It is used in railroad tank cars and lining for storage tanks.

CONCRETE
What is Concrete?
A typical concrete mixture has 5 main components:
Portland cement 7-15%, Water 14-21%, Air 0.5-8%, Fine sand Aggregate 24-30%, Coarse sand
Aggregate 31-50%
Concrete ≠ Cement!
1. Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (Aggregate) within a matrix of
cement paste (Portland cement and water)
2. Cement is a mixture of lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide that forms the binder for concrete.
3. Portland cement is the most common type of cement, and has five types:
a. Type I: Common/General Purpose - used for general construction, when not significant contact with
soils or groundwater is expected.
Examples:
b. Type II: Moderate Sulfate Resistance - for concrete in contact with soil or groundwater and for large
structures that may be subject to high temperatures.
c. Type III: High Early Strength - develops significant compressive strength in ~7 days (same as 28 day
strength for Types I and II). Often used when laying concrete in cold weather
d. Type IV: Low Heat of Hydration - low heat of hydration as concrete strengthens. Often used for
dams and massive structures.
e. Type V: Sulfate Resistant - prevents sulfate attack in highly alkaline soil or seawater.
Variations of Concrete
Reinforced Concrete - since the tensile strength of plain concrete is 10-15 times lower than its
compressive strength, reinforcement can be added to carry the tensile load.
1. Examples of reinforcement: Rebar (steel rods), wires, mesh, glass fibers, carbon fiber, etc.
Pre-stressed Concrete: place concrete under compression before supporting any loads (besides its own
dead weight).
1. The process involves tensioning steel “tendons” that are located within or adjacent to the concrete
form.
2. This improves structural capacity and serviceability.
3. Applications: long-span bridges, high rise buildings, names, foundation systems

Post-tensioned concrete: tendons are tensioned after the concrete has been cast.
Shotcrete: Concrete is reinforced with 1-3 inch long glass, fibers, etcetera, and is sprayed through a
nozzle/hose.
1. Wet and dry mix variations
2. Gunite is another variation that is a dry mix of sand and cement
3. Many applications in the mining industry

Mechanical Properties of Concrete

Strength increases with time from 1-6 months after placement. It is often tested at 3, 7, and 28 days. The
compressive strength varies from ≈ 3-14 ksi. The tensile strength is about 10% of compressive strength.
The following empirical Equation can be used to estimate elastic modulus based on compressive strength:

POLYMERS (PLASTICS)
Polymers are large, high – molecular – weight molecules produced by joining smaller molecules called
monomers. E.g. Wood, Nylon, Resin.
Characteristics of Polymers:
Light weight, High corrosion resistance, Low density, Low coefficient of friction, Good surface finish,
Noise reduction, It can be produced in various colours, Easy to fabricate, Low cost.
4.2. Types of Polymers (How are polymers classified?)
There are 3 types of polymers – thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers.
Differentiate between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers

Thermoplastics: Thermosetting plastics: E.g. Phenol formaldehyde,

E.g. PVC, PE, PP, PS, PMMA, PET, PC, PA, Urea formaldehyde, Nylon, etc.,
ABS, PI, PAI, PPO, PEEK, PTFE
Thermoplastic polymers soften upon heating and Thermosetting polymers become permanent hard when
harden on cooling heat is applied and do not soften upon subsequent
heating.
Thermoplastic polymers are long – chain straight Thermosetting polymers have a similar structure as the
 or branched molecules and the chains are held thermo plastics before heating, but cross linking occurs
close to each other by weak Vander wall force during heating. This result in a three dimensional giant
molecule.
Thermo plastic polymers can be remoulded or Thermo setting polymers cannot be remoulded or
reshaped reshaped.
Thermoplastic polymers have low melting Thermo setting polymers are very harder, stronger and
temperatures and are not so strong as more brittle than thermo plastics and Thermo sets possess
thermosetting plastics lower ductility and poor impact properties
Dielectric strength is low. Dielectric strength is high.
Recycling is possible. Recycling is not possible.
Low cast fabrication Fabrication is expensive

Elastomers:
They have large characteristic ability to undergo large elastic deformations without rupture. They are soft,
and they have a low elastic modulus: types
Commodity polymers:
They are mostly widely used polymers. They are light weight polymers with low strength and stiffness
and not suitable for high temperature uses.
These polymers are inexpensive and can be readily formed into a variety of shapes ranging from plastic
bags to bath tubs.
Engineering polymers:
The polymers that are designed to give improved strength, greater environmental resistance, better
performance at elevated temperature are called engineering polymers. These materials are produced
relatively in small quantities and are more expensive.

ENGINEERING CERAMICS
Ceramics are non- metallic and inorganic solids that are processed and used at high temperature.
Ceramics are electrical and thermal insulators with good chemical stability and good compressive
strength.
Engineering ceramics are mainly oxides, carbides, sulphides, and nitrides of metal.

Properties of Engineering Ceramics:

High strength, High fracture toughness, Fine grain size, No porosity, Poor machinability, High stiffness,
High temperature, Low thermal conductivity, High resistance to creep and fatigue.

Some commonly used Engineering ceramics include:

1. Al2O3 (Alumina), 2. Silicon carbide (Silicon Carbide, SiC), 3. Si3N4 (Silicon Nitride),
4. PSZ (Partially stabilized Zirconia), 5. Si3Al3O3N5 (Sialons):
Characteristics & Applications of a few Engineering ceramics:
1. Al2O3 (Alumina):

i Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) is the oldest engineering ceramic and most widely used in engineering
applications.
ii, It is obtained from the fusion of bauxite ore (Al2O3.2H2O), iron fillings and coke in electric furnaces.
iii The product obtained is cooled, crushed and then graded into various sizes.
iv Al2O3 parts are manufactured from these powders by cold pressing and sintering. v
Alumina has a hexagonal structure with very strong ionic and covalent bonds.
Properties:

High hardness,
Moderate tensile strength.
Good wear resistance.
Good chemical properties
Applications:
Grinding wheels, rocket nozzles, pump impellers, check valves, spark plugs, vacuum tubes, electronic
micro circuits, metal cutting tool tips

2, Si3N4 (Silicon Nitride)

It is an engineering ceramic which is fully resistant to strong acids. There are two types of silicon nitride:
Reaction bonded silicon nitride, and the Hot pressed silicon nitride.
Properties:
High thermal conductivity. Low coefficient of thermal expansion. Low density. Low weight. High
resistance to thermal shocks. High resistance to creep. High temperatures.
Applications:
Cutting tool material, turbine blades, automobile engines, sand blast nozzles, spindle bearings, pump
parts, components of paper industry.

COMPOSITES
Composites is a combination of two or more different materials that are mixed to get the best properties
of both. It has two parts (i) Matrix (ii) Reinforcement
(i) Matrix phase:
- The continuous phase is known as the matrix phase.
- It is otherwise known as the binder.
- It surrounds and binds together fibres or fragments.
- There are four main types of composites based on the type of matrix used – polymer matrix composites
(PMC), ceramic matrix composites (CMC), metal matrix composites (MMC), Carbon/Graphite matrix
composites
Polymer matrix:
This is the most common type in matrix composites.
They are produced in the largest quantities, due to their good room temperature properties, ease of
manufacture and low cost.
There are two types of polymer matrix composites, they are thermoplastic and thermosetting.
Examples of thermoplastics are PE, PP, PS, and PA
Examples of thermosets are epoxy resins, Pf resins and urea formaldehyde resins.

Metal matrix:
Metals and alloys are used as matrix materials.
They have high strength, fracture toughness and stiffness and can withstand elevated temperature in
corrosive environment than polymer composites. Popular matrix metals include Al, Mg and Ni
Ceramic matrix:
Ceramic materials are used as matrix.
They have high melting points, good corrosion resistance, and stability at elevated temperatures (above
15000C). Examples: Clay, Porcelein, SiC, and boron nitride.

Carbon/ Graphite matrix:

Carbon/Garphite is used as the matrix. C/G is a hard material and highly resistant to thermal expansion. It
is less brittle than many other ceramics.

(ii) Reinforcement phase:

It is the discontinuous phase. The fibres and fragments that are dispersed in a composite is known as the
reinforcement. It increases the composite's stiffness and tensile strength.
Types of reinforcements

Fibres:
Fibres transfer strength to the matrix constituent.
Commonly used inorganic fibres are glass, boron, carbon, SiC, alumina etc.
Organic fibres like aramid and carbon fibres are also used.
Natural fibres like silk, jute, cotton are also used.
Filler:
Filler reduce the cost of the end product.
They provide decorative look to the composites (colour, opacity)
Examples: CaCO3, Saw dust, wood powder.

Flakes:
Flakes are used in place of fibres, as they can be densely packed.
Flakes are cost effective than fibres.

Whisker:
They are discontinuous and short fibres made from several materials like graphite, SiC, Copper, Iron etc.
Whiskers increase the toughness, corrosion resistance, durability and imparts thermal shock resistance.

Particulates:
Particulates modify the thermal, electrical, chemical and magnetic properties.
Examples: Talc, clay, mica, calcium silicate, wood, alumina, asbestos, metal powder, carbon powder.
Uses of composites:
Air craft Industry.
Automobile Industry.
Constructive Industry.
Pressure Vessel.
Pipes and Fittings.
Marine Structure.
Power Plant Applications.

NANOCOMPOSITES:
A nanocomposite is a composite material in which one of the components has at least one dimension
around 10-9m.
Nanocomposites have exceptionally high aspect ratio (surface area to volume).
It consists of one or more discontinuous phases distributed in one continuous phase.
Continuous phase – matrix, Discontinuous phase – reinforcement.

Classification of nanocomposites: There are two types of composites: Polymer based nanocomposites
and Non polymer based nanocomposites

1. Polymer based nanocomposites

a. Polymer/ceramic nanocomposites- layer structure
b. Inorganic/ organic polymer nanocomposites- clusters
c. Inorganic/Organic Hybrid Nanocomposites – Nanocrystal
d. Polymer/polymer nanocomposites-fillers
e. Bio composites
2. Non polymer based nanocomposites
a. Metal / metal nanocomposites
b. Metal/Ceramic Nanocomposites
c. Ceramic/ Ceramic nanocomposites

Characteristics of nanocomposites:
Melting temperature, colour, magnetization and charge capacity is more
Interacting zone is high so it is possible to get the expected property.

Applications of Nanocomposites:
Electro catalysts in batteries for energy saving
Lightweight materials for less fuel consumption
In artificial joints
Abrasion and wear applications
Food packing
Fuel tanks
Films
Environmental protection
Erosion and corrosion applications

CONDUCTORS, SUPERCONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors:
When we come in contact with a conductor, there occurs a flow of electrons from one body to another.
This is the reason we experience shock. Shock is basically a mini feeling of current passing through the
body.
Conductors are the materials or substances which allow electricity to flow through them. Also, conductors
allow the transmission of heat or light from one source to another
Forms of electrical conduction are by free electrons, by diffusion of ions in ionic solids, and by Cooper
pairs in superconductors.
Silver Copper, Brass, Steel, Gold, Mercury and Aluminum are good conductors of electricity. They are
used in electric circuits and systems in the form of wires.
Applications of Conductors.

Some uses of Conductors

Mercury is a common material in thermometer to check the temperature of the body.
Aluminum finds its use in making foils to store food. It is also used in the production of fry pans to store
heat quickly.
Iron is a common material used in vehicle engine manufacturing to conduct heat.
Aluminum and copper are most commonly used for electricity wires for conduction of electricity.

Insulators:
Insulators are the materials or substances which resist or don’t allow the current to flow through them. In
general, they are solid in nature. Also, insulators are finding use in a variety of systems. As they do not
allow the flow of heat. The property which makes insulators different from conductors is its resistivity.

Wood, cloth, glass, mica, and quartz are some good examples of insulators. Also, insulators are
protectors. They give protection against heat, sound and of course passage of electricity.
Some other examples of Insulators are: Glass: the best insulator as it has the highest resistivity. Plastic: a
good insulator it finds its use in making a number of things. Rubber: a common material used in making
tyres, fire-resistant clothes and slippers. This is because it is a very good insulator.

Applications of Insulators
Thermal insulators, disallow heat to move from one place to another. Hence, we use them in making
thermoplastic bottles. They are also used in fireproofing ceilings and walls.
Sound insulators help in controlling noise level, as they are good in absorbance of sound. Thus, we use
them in buildings and conference halls to make them noise-free.
Electrical insulators hinder the flow of electron or passage of current through them. So, we use them
extensively in circuit boards and high-voltage systems. They are also used in coating electric wire and
cables.

Magnetic materials: properties and characteristics.

Magnetism:—the phenomenon by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force or
influence on other materials.
All substances are influenced to some degree by the presence of a magnetic field however some
examples of materials that exhibit magnetic properties are Iron, some steels, and the naturally
occurring lodestone.
Magnetic Dipoles are where magnetic forces are generated by moving electrically charged
particles; these magnetic forces are in addition to any electrostatic forces that may exist.

Figure 1 Magnetic field lines of force around a current loop and a bar magnet.

Figure 2 (a) The magnetic field H as generated by a cylindrical coil is dependent on the current

density B0 in the presence of a vacuum is equal to 𝜇0H, where 𝜇0 is the permeability of a

I, the number of turns N, and the coil length l, according to Equation 18.1. The magnetic flux

vacuum, 4𝜋 × 10−7 H/m.

(b) The magnetic flux density B within a solid material is equal to 𝜇H, where 𝜇 is the
permeability of the solid material.