Course No.

: GED 1161
Course Name: Chemistry.
Course Teacher: Md. Masud Rana
Adjunct Lecturer (Chemistry)
Leading University, Sylhet.
Syllabus:

1st Chapter:

Atomic Structure: Fundamental particles, Rutherford’s atom model, Bohr’s atom model,
origin of spectral line, Quantum numbers, Pauli Exclusion Principle, Electron distribution,
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, Atomic orbital.

Introduction to Chemistry:

What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is the study of the properties of matter and the changes it undergoes. Elements and
compounds are substances that take part in chemical transformation.

How to Study Chemistry?

1. Attend classes regularly and take careful notes.

2. If possible, always review the topics you learned in class the same day the topics are
covered in class. Use this book to supplement your notes.

3. Think critically. Ask yourself if you really understand the meaning of a term or the use
of an equation. A good way to test your understanding is for you to explain a concept
to a classmate or some other person.

4. Do not hesitate to ask your instructor or your teaching assistant for help.

Quantum Theory:

It was discovered in 1900 by a young German physicist named Max Planck. It assumes that
energy is continuous, which means that any amount of energy could be released in a radiation
process that must be quantized. To understand quantum theory, we must have some knowledge
about some terms that are given below.

Wave: It can be defined as a vibrating disturbance by which energy is transmitted.

Wavelength: The distance between identical points on successive waves is called the
wavelength lambda (λ).

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Frequency: The frequency nu (υ) of the wave is the number of waves that pass through a
particular point in one second.

Amplitude: The amplitude is the vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or
trough.

A wave traveling through space has a speed (c), which is given by the product of its wavelength
and its frequency.

c = λυ ……………(1)

Figure: Two waves have different wavelengths and frequencies. The wavelength of the top
wave is three times that of the lower wave, but its frequency is only one-third that of the lower
wave. Both waves have the same amplitude and speed.

Wavelength is usually expressed in units of meters, centimeters, or nanometers, and frequency

is measured in hertz (Hz)

1 Hz = 1 cycle/s.

Electromagnetic Radiation:

Electromagnetic radiation is the emission and transmission of energy in the form of

electromagnetic waves. According to Maxwell’s theory, an electromagnetic wave has an
electric field component and a magnetic field component.

2 Md. Masud Rana, Adjunct Lecturer (Chemistry) | Leading University, Sylhet.

Example:

Planck gave the name quantum to the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted (or
absorbed) in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The energy E of a single quantum of energy
is given by

E = h υ ……………… (2)

Or E = hc/λ…………. (3)

Where, h is called Planck’s constant and υ is the frequency of radiation. The value of Planck’s
constant is 6.63 ⤫ 10-34 Js.

According to quantum theory, energy is always emitted in multiples of hn; for example, hυ,
2hυ, 3hυ, . . . , but never, for example, 1.67 hυ or 4.98 hυ.

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Example:

The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen and The Bohr Model:

Emission Spectra:

It can be either continuous or line spectra of radiation emitted by substances.

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Figure: An experimental arrangement for studying the emission spectra of atoms and
molecules. The gas under study is in a discharge tube containing two electrodes. As electrons
flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode, they collide with the gas. This
collision process eventually leads to the emission of light by the atoms (or molecules). The
emitted light is separated into its components by a prism. Each component color is focused at
a definite position, according to its wavelength, and forms a colored image of the slit on the
photographic plate. The colored images are called spectral lines.

Figure: The line emission spectrum of hydrogen atoms.

Bohr attributed the emission of radiation by an energized hydrogen atom to the electron
dropping from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one and giving up a quantum of energy (a
photon) in the form of light. Bohr showed that the energies that an electron in hydrogen atom
can occupy are given by

En = -RH(1/n2)..................(4)

Where, RH, the Rydberg constant, has the value 2.18 ⤫10-18 J. The number n is an integer
called the principal quantum number; it has the values n = 1, 2, 3,...

When, n = 1, which corresponds to the most stable energy state. We call this the ground state,
or ground level.

The stability of the electron diminishes for n = 2, 3,... Each of these levels is called an excited
state, or excited level, which is higher in energy than the ground state.

The difference between the energies of the initial and final states is

.................(5)

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The Various Series in Atomic Hydrogen Emission Spectrum:

When a photon is emitted, ni ＞nf. Consequently, the term in parentheses is negative (energy is
lost to the surroundings). When energy is absorbed, ni＜nf and the term in parentheses is
positive, so is positive.

Figure: The energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the various emission series. Each energy
level corresponds to the energy associated with an allowed energy state for an orbit, as
postulated by Bohr.

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Example:

The Dual Nature of Electron:

De Broglie’s reasoning led to the conclusion that waves can behave like particles and particles
can exhibit wavelike properties. De Broglie deduced that the particle and wave properties are
related by the expression λ = h/mv

Where h = Planck constant, V = velocity.

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Exanple:

Atomic Particles:

Electron: The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge.
Symbol e-

Proton: A proton is a subatomic particle with a positive electric charge. Protons are found in
the nucleus of every atom, and the number of protons in each atom is its atomic number.
Symbol p.

Neutron: A neutron is a subatomic particle that is electrically neutral and has a mass slightly
greater than a proton. Neutrons are represented by the symbol n.

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 Figure: Atomic Structure (Electron, Proton and Neutron.)

Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element is called
the atomic number (Z).

Mass Number: The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons present in
the nucleus of an atom of an element.

mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Isotope: Atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called
isotopes.

Figure: Three Isotopes of Hydrogen.

Problem:

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Isotone: Isotones are atomic species that have the same number of neutrons but different
numbers of protons.

Example: Sulphur-36, Chlorine-37, Argon-38, Potassium-39, and Calcium-40 are all isotones
of twenty because they have twenty neutrons.

Isobar: In chemistry, an isobar is a group of atoms or nuclides of different chemical elements

that have the same number of nucleons (protons plus neutrons).

Figure: Isobar of 40 nucleons.

Quantum Numbers:

Definition: Quantum numbers are a set of numbers that describe the position and energy of an
electron in an atom. They are important variables that describe the three-dimensional position
of electrons in an atom.

There are four quantum numbers to describe the position of an electron in an atom precisely.
They are

1. The principal quantum number. (n)

2. The angular momentum quantum number. (l)

3. The magnetic quantum number. (m)

4. The spin quantum number. (s)

The principal quantum number (n): The principal quantum number (n) can have integral
values 1, 2, 3, and so forth. The value of n determines the energy of an orbital.

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The angular momentum quantum number. (l):

The angular momentum quantum number (l) tells us the “shape” of the orbitals. The values of
depend on the value of the principal quantum number, n. For a given value of n, has possible
integral values from 0 to (n-1). If n=1, there is only one possible value of (l) that is, l=n -1=1-
1= 0. If n 2, there are two values of (l) , given by 0 and 1. If n 3, there are three values of (l),
given by 0, 1, and 2. The value of (l)is generally designated by the letters s, p, d, . . . as follows:

The magnetic quantum number. (m):

The magnetic quantum number (m) describes the orientation of the orbital in atom.

Within a subshell, the value of m depends on the value of the angular momentum

quantum number,(l) . For a certain value of(l) , there are (2l + 1) integral values of m

as follows: -l, (- l + 1), . . . 0, . . . (+ l - 1), +l . If l = 0, then m = 0. If l = 1, then there

are [(2✕ 1) + 1], or three values of m, namely, -1, 0, and +1. If 2, there are [(2✕ 2) +

1], or five values of m, namely, -2 ,-1, 0, +1, and +2. The number of m values indicates

the number of orbitals in a subshell with a particular l value.

The Electron Spin Quantum Number (s):

There are two possible spinning motions of an electron, one clockwise and the other
counterclockwise. To take the electron spin into account, it is necessary to introduce a fourth
quantum number, called the electron spin quantum number (s), which has a value of + ½ or -½

Atomic Orbitals:

Atomic orbitals are mathematical functions that describe the wave-like behavior of electrons
around the nucleus of an atom. Symbol s, p, d, f………….

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Relation Between Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals:

‘s’ Orbital:

It is assumed that an s orbital is a spherically symmetric orbital around the nucleus of an atom.
But, strictly speaking, that this is not a well-defined shape.

Figure: Boundary surface diagrams of the hydrogen 1s, 2s, and 3s orbitals.

‘p’ Orbital:

A p orbital is a dumbbell-shaped region in an atom that describes where an electron can be

found. The p orbital has two lobes and an orbital node at the nucleus. The shape of the p orbital
is similar to a pair of lobes on opposite sides of the nucleus. There are three different orientation
of p orbital. They are Px ,Py Pz .

Figure: The boundary surface diagrams of the three 2p orbitals.These orbitals are identical in
shape and energy, but their orientations are different. The p orbitals of higher principal quantum
numbers have a similar shape

‘d’ Orbital: There are five different orientation of d orbital in three dimension of atomic model.

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Figure: Boundary surface diagrams of the five 3d orbitals. Although the 3dz 2 orbital looks
different, it is equivalent to the other four orbitals in all other respects. The d orbitals of higher
principal quantum numbers have similar shapes.

Problem:

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Electronic Configuration:

Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in orbitals around an atomic nucleus.

It's a way of writing down the locations of all of the electrons in an atom.

Figure: The order in which atomic subshells are filled in a manyelectron atom. Start with the
1s orbital and move downward, following the direction of the arrows. Thus, the order goes as
follows: 1s＜ 2s ＜2p ＜3s＜ 3p ＜4s ＜3d …………………

The Pauli Exclusion Principle:

For many-electron atoms, we use the Pauli exclusion principle (after the Austrian physicist
Wolfgang Pauli) to determine electron configurations. This principle states that no two
electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers. If two electrons in an atom
should have the same n, l, and m values (that is, these two electrons are in the same atomic
orbital), then they must have different values of s. In other words, only two electrons may
occupy the same atomic orbital, and these electrons must have opposite spins. Consider the

14 Md. Masud Rana, Adjunct Lecturer (Chemistry) | Leading University, Sylhet.

helium atom, which has two electrons. The three possible ways of placing two electrons in the
1s orbital are as follows:

Diagrams (a) and (b) are ruled out by the Pauli exclusion principle. In (a), both electrons have
the same upward spin and would have the quantum numbers (1, 0, 0, +½ ); in (b), both electrons
have downward spins and would have the quantum numbers (1, 0, 0, -½). Only the
configuration in (c) is physically acceptable, because one electron has the quantum numbers
(1, 0, 0, +½ ) and the other has (1, 0, 0, -½ ).

Hund’s Rule:

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Aufbau principle:

Aufbau principle dictates that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the
elements, electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals.The Aufbau principle states that
electrons fill lower-energy atomic orbitals before filling higher-energy ones (Aufbau is German
for "building-up"). By following this rule, we can predict the electron configurations for atoms
or ions.

General Rules for Assigning Electrons to Atomic Orbitals:

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Summary of Electronic Configuration:

The Ground-State Electron Configurations of the Elements:

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Problem:

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