SQL

Structured Query Language

• SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is
used for storing and managing data in relational
database management system (RDMS).
• It is a standard language for Relational Database
System. It enables a user to create, read, update
and delete relational databases and tables.
• All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS
Access and SQL Server use SQL as their standard
database language.
• SQL allows users to query the database in a
number of ways, using English-like statements.
 Rules:

• SQL follows the following rules:

• Structure query language is not case sensitive.
Generally, keywords of SQL are written in
uppercase.
• Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines.
We can use a single SQL statement on one or
multiple text line.
• Using the SQL statements, you can perform most
of the actions in a database.
• SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and
relational algebra.
 SQL process
• When an SQL command is executing for any
RDBMS, then the system figure out the best way
to carry out the request and the SQL engine
determines that how to interpret the task.
• In the process, various components are included.
These components can be optimization Engine,
Query engine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc.
• All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic
query engine, but SQL query engine won't handle
logical files.
 Characteristics of SQL

• SQL is easy to learn.

• SQL is used to access data from relational database
management systems.
• SQL can execute queries against the database.
• SQL is used to describe the data.
• SQL is used to define the data in the database and
manipulate it when needed.
• SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
• SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in a
database.
• SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures,
and views.
 Advantages of SQL

• There are the following advantages of SQL:

• High speed
• Using the SQL queries, the user can quickly and efficiently
retrieve a large amount of records from a database.
• No coding needed
• In the standard SQL, it is very easy to manage the database
system. It doesn't require a substantial amount of code to
manage the database system.
• Well defined standards
• Long established are used by the SQL databases that are
being used by ISO and ANSI.
• Portability
• SQL can be used in laptop, PCs, server and even
some mobile phones.
• Interactive language
• SQL is a domain language used to communicate
with the database. It is also used to receive
answers to the complex questions in seconds.
• Multiple data view
• Using the SQL language, the users can make
different views of the database structure.
 SQL Datatype

• SQL Datatype is used to define the values that

a column can contain.
• Every column is required to have a name and
data type in the database table.
 1. Binary Datatypes

• There are Three types of binary Datatypes which

are given below:
Data Type Description
binary It has a maximum length of
8000 bytes. It contains fixed-
length binary data.
varbinary It has a maximum length of
8000 bytes. It contains variable-
length binary data.
image It has a maximum length of
2,147,483,647 bytes. It contains
variable-length binary data.
 2. Approximate Numeric Datatype :

• The subtypes are given below:

Data type From To Description

float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308 It is used to
specify a floating-
point value e.g.
6.2, 2.9 etc.
real -3.40e + 38 3.40E + 38 It specifies a
single precision
floating point
number
 3. Exact Numeric Datatype

• The subtypes are given below:

Data type Description
int It is used to specify an integer
value.
smallint It is used to specify small integer
value.
bit It has the number of bits to store.

decimal It specifies a numeric value that

can have a decimal number.
numeric It is used to specify a numeric
value.
 4. Character String Datatype

• The subtypes are given below:

Data type Description
char It has a maximum length of 8000
characters. It contains Fixed-length
non-unicode characters.
varchar It has a maximum length of 8000
characters. It contains variable-length
non-unicode characters.
text It has a maximum length of
2,147,483,647 characters. It contains
variable-length non-unicode
characters.
 5. Date and time Datatypes

• The subtypes are given below:

Datatype Description
date It is used to store the year,
month, and days value.
time It is used to store the hour,
minute, and second values.
timestamp It stores the year, month,
day, hour, minute, and the
second value.
 SQL Commands
• SQL commands are instructions. It is used to
communicate with the database. It is also
used to perform specific tasks, functions, and
queries of data.
• SQL can perform various tasks like create a
table, add data to tables, drop the table,
modify the table, set permission for users.
Types of SQL Commands
• There are five types of SQL commands: DDL,
DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
 1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

• DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a

table, deleting a table, altering a table, etc.
• All the command of DDL are auto-committed that
means it permanently save all the changes in the
database.
• Here are some commands that come under DDL:
• CREATE
• ALTER
• DROP
• TRUNCATE
• a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in
the database.
• Syntax:
• CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME
DATATYPES[,....]);
• Example:
• CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(2
0), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE);
• b. DROP: It is used to delete both the
structure and record stored in the table.
• Syntax
• DROP TABLE table_name;
• Example
• DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
• c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the
database. This change could be either to modify the
characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to
add a new attribute.
• Syntax:
• To add a new column in the table
• ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN
-definition;
• To modify existing column in the table:
• ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY(column_definitions..
..);
• EXAMPLE
• ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(2
0));
• ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(
20));
• d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows
from the table and free the space containing
the table.
• Syntax:
• TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
• Example:
• TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;
 2. Data Manipulation Language

• DML commands are used to modify the database.

It is responsible for all form of changes in the
database.
• The command of DML is not auto-committed that
means it can't permanently save all the changes
in the database. They can be rollback.
• Here are some commands that come under DML:
• INSERT
• UPDATE
• DELETE
• a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query.
It is used to insert data into the row of a table.
• Syntax:
• INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
• (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
• VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
• Or
• INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
• VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
• For example:
• INSERT INTO Students (Author, Subject) VALUES (“
Pandit", "DBMS");
• b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or
modify the value of a column in the table.
• Syntax:
• UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value
1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDITIO
N]
• For example:
• UPDATE Students
• SET User_Name = ‘Pandit'
• WHERE Student_Id = '3'
• c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more
row from a table.
• Syntax:
• DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition]
;
• For example:
• DELETE FROM Students
• WHERE Author=“Pandit";
 3. Data Control Language

• DCL commands are used to grant and take

back authority from any database user.
• Here are some commands that come under
DCL:
• Grant
• Revoke
• a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges
to a database.
• Example
• GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_
USER, ANOTHER_USER;
• b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions
from the user.
• Example
• REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM US
ER1, USER2;
 4. Transaction Control Language

• TCL commands can only use with DML commands

like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE only.
• These operations are automatically committed in
the database that's why they cannot be used
while creating tables or dropping them.
• Here are some commands that come under TCL:
• COMMIT
• ROLLBACK
• SAVEPOINT
• a. Commit: Commit command is used to save
all the transactions to the database.
• Syntax:
• COMMIT;
• Example:
• DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
• WHERE AGE = 25;
• COMMIT;
• b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo
transactions that have not already been saved to
the database.
• Syntax:
• ROLLBACK;
• Example:
• DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
• WHERE AGE = 25;
• ROLLBACK;
• c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction
back to a certain point without rolling back
the entire transaction.
• Syntax:
• SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
 5. Data Query Language
• DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.
• It uses only one command:
• SELECT
• a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of
relational algebra. It is used to select the attribute based on
the condition described by WHERE clause.
• Syntax:
• SELECT expressions
• FROM TABLES
• WHERE conditions;
• For example:
• SELECT emp_name
• FROM employee
• WHERE age > 20;
 SQL Operator

• There are various types of SQL operator:

 SQL Arithmetic Operators
• Let's assume 'variable a' and 'variable b'. Here,
'a' contains 20 and 'b' contains 10.
Operator Description Example
It adds the value of both a+b will give 30
+ operands.

It is used to subtract the a-b will give 10

- right-hand operand from the
left-hand operand.
It is used to multiply the a*b will give 200
* value of both operands.

It is used to divide the left- a/b will give 2

/ hand operand by the right-
hand operand.
It is used to divide the left- a%b will give 0
% hand operand by the right-
hand operand and returns
remainder.
 SQL Comparison Operators:
• Let's assume 'variable a' and 'variable b'. Here, 'a' contains 20
and 'b' contains 10.
Operator Description Example
= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if the values (a=b) is not true
are equal then condition becomes true.
!= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if values are (a!=b) is true
not equal, then condition becomes true.
<> It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if values are (a<>b) is true
not equal then condition becomes true.
> It checks if the left operand value is greater than right operand (a>b) is not true
value, if yes then condition becomes true.
< It checks if the left operand value is less than right operand (a<b) is true
value, if yes then condition becomes true.
>= It checks if the left operand value is greater than or equal to the (a>=b) is not
right operand value, if yes then condition becomes true. true
<= It checks if the left operand value is less than or equal to the (a<=b) is true
right operand value, if yes then condition becomes true.
!< It checks if the left operand value is not less than the right (a!=b) is not true
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true.
!> It checks if the left operand value is not greater than the right (a!>b) is true
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true.
 SQL Logical Operators
Operator Description
ALL It compares a value to all values in another value set.
AND It allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL
statement.
ANY It compares the values in the list according to the
condition.
BETWEEN It is used to search for values that are within a set of
values.
IN It compares a value to that specified list value.
NOT It reverses the meaning of any logical operator.
OR It combines multiple conditions in SQL statements.
EXISTS It is used to search for the presence of a row in a
specified table.
LIKE It compares a value to similar values using wildcard
operator.
 SQL Table

• SQL Table is a collection of data which is

organized in terms of rows and columns. In
DBMS, the table is known as relation and row
as a tuple.
• Table is a simple form of data storage. A table
is also considered as a convenient
representation of relations.
• Let's see an example of the EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO

1 Kristen Washington 7289201223
2 Anna Franklin 9378282882
3 Jackson Bristol 9264783838
4 Kellan California 7254728346
5 Ashley Hawaii 9638482678

• In the above table, "EMPLOYEE" is the table

name, "EMP_ID", "EMP_NAME", "CITY",
"PHONE_NO" are the column names. The
combination of data of multiple columns forms a
row, e.g., 1, "Kristen", "Washington" and
7289201223 are the data of one row.
 Operation on Table

• Create table
• Drop table
• Delete table
• Rename table
 SQL Create Table
SQL create table is used to create a table in the database. To define the table,
you should define the name of the table and also define its columns and
column's data type.
Syntax
create table "table_name"
("column1" "data type",
"column2" "data type",
"column3" "data type",
...
"columnN" "data type");
Example
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (
EMP_ID INT NOT NULL,
EMP_NAME VARCHAR (25) NOT NULL,
PHONE_NO INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (30),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
• If you create the table successfully, you can
verify the table by looking at the message by
the SQL server. Else you can use DESC
command as follows:
• SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;
Field Type Null Key Default Extra
EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL

EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL

PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL

ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)

• Now we have an EMPLOYEE table in the database, and

you can use the stored information related to the
employees.
 Drop table
• A SQL drop table is used to delete a table
definition and all the data from a table. When
this command is executed, all the information
available in the table is lost forever, so you have
to very careful while using this command.
• Syntax
• DROP TABLE "table_name";
• This table shows that EMPLOYEE table is available
in the database, so we can drop it as follows:
• SQL>DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
 SQL DELETE table

• In SQL, DELETE statement is used to delete

rows from a table. We can use WHERE
condition to delete a specific row from a table.
If you want to delete all the records from the
table, then you don't need to use the WHERE
clause.
• Syntax
• DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
• The following query will DELETE an employee
whose ID is 3.
SQL> DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE EMP_ID = 3;
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Denzel Boston 7353662627 100000

4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

• If you don't specify the WHERE condition, it will remove all the rows from the
table.
• DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
• Now, the EMPLOYEE table would not have any records.
 SQL SELECT Statement

• In SQL, the SELECT statement is used to query or retrieve

data from a table in the database. The returns data is
stored in a table, and the result table is known as result-set.
• Syntax
• SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
• Here, the expression is the field name of the table that you
want to select data from.
• Use the following syntax to select all the fields available in
the table:
SELECT * FROM table_name;
 SQL INSERT Statement
The SQL INSERT statement is used to insert a
single or multiple data in a table. In SQL, You can
insert the data in two ways:
• Without specifying column name
• By specifying column name
Sample Table
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

1. Without specifying column name
If you want to specify all column values, you can specify or ignore the column
values.
Syntax
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N);
Query
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES (6, 'Marry', 'Canada', 600000, 48);
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

2. By specifying column name
To insert partial column values, you must have to specify the column names.
Syntax
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
[(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)]
VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N);
Query
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, AGE) VALUES (7, 'Jack', 40);
Output: After executing this query, the table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

7 Jack null null 40

 SQL Update Statement
The SQL UPDATE statement is used to modify the data that is already
in the database. The condition in the WHERE clause decides that
which row is to be updated.
Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Sample Table
Updating single record

Update the column EMP_NAME and set the value to

'Emma' in the row where SALARY is 500000.
Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = value
WHERE condition;
Query
UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET EMP_NAME = 'Emma'
WHERE SALARY = 500000;
Updating multiple records

If you want to update multiple columns, you should

separate each field assigned with a comma. In the
EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME to
'Kevin' and CITY to 'Boston' where EMP_ID is 5.
Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = value1, column_name2 = value2
WHERE condition;
Query
UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET EMP_NAME = 'Kevin', City = 'Boston'
WHERE EMP_ID = 5;
Without use of WHERE clause
If you want to update all row from a table, then you don't need to use the WHERE
clause. In the EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME as 'Harry'.
Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = value1;
Query
UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET EMP_NAME = 'Harry';
 SQL DELETE Statement

• The SQL DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. Generally,
DELETE statement removes one or more records form a table.
• Syntax
• DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;
Deleting Single Record
Delete the row from the table EMPLOYEE where EMP_NAME
= 'Kristen'. This will delete only the fourth row.
Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EMP_NAME = 'Kristen';
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will
look like:
Deleting Multiple Record
Delete the row from the EMPLOYEE table where AGE is
30. This will delete two rows(first and third row).
Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE= 30;
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table
will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NA CITY SALARY AGE

ME

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Delete all of the records
Delete all the row from the EMPLOYEE table. After this, no
records left to display. The EMPLOYEE table will become
empty.
Syntax
DELETE * FROM table_name;
or
DELETE FROM table_name;
Query
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will
look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

 Views in SQL

• Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table.

A view also contains rows and columns.
• To create the view, we can select the fields
from one or more tables present in the
database.
• A view can either have specific rows based on
certain condition or all the rows of a table.
 1. Creating view

A view can be created using the CREATE

VIEW statement. We can create a view from a
single table or multiple tables.
Syntax:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
 2. Creating View from a single table
In this example, we create a View named DetailsView from the table
Student_Detail.
Query:
CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS
SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
FROM Student_Details
WHERE STU_ID < 4;
Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.
SELECT * FROM DetailsView;
Output:

NAME ADDRESS

Stephan Delhi

Kathrin Noida

David Ghaziabad
 3. Creating View from multiple tables
View from multiple tables can be created by simply
include multiple tables in the SELECT statement.
In the given example, a view is created named
MarksView from two tables Student_Detail and
Student_Marks.
Query:
CREATE VIEW MarksView AS
SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS,
Student_Marks.MARKS
FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark
WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;
• To display data of View MarksView:
• SELECT * FROM MarksView;

NAME ADDRESS MARKS

Stephan Delhi 97

Kathrin Noida 86

David Ghaziabad 74

Alina Gurugram 90
 4. Deleting View

A view can be deleted using the Drop View

statement.
Syntax
DROP VIEW view_name;
Example:
If we want to delete the View MarksView, we
can do this as:
DROP VIEW MarksView;
 SQL Index

• An index is a schema object. It is used by the server to

speed up the retrieval of rows by using a pointer. It can
reduce disk I/O(input/output) by using a rapid path
access method to locate data quickly. Indexes are
special lookup tables. It is used to retrieve data from
the database very fast.
• An Index is used to speed up select queries and where
clauses.
• An index in a database is just like an index in the back
of a book.
• For example: When you reference all pages in a book
that discusses a certain topic, you first have to refer to
the index, which alphabetically lists all the topics and
then referred to one or more specific page numbers.
 1. Create Index statement

It is used to create an index on a table. It allows

duplicate value.
Syntax
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
Example
CREATE INDEX idx_name
ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);
 2. Unique Index statement

It is used to create a unique index on a table. It

does not allow duplicate value.
Syntax
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
Example
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX websites_idx
ON websites (site_name);
 3. Drop Index Statement

It is used to delete an index in a table.

Syntax
DROP INDEX index_name;
Example
DROP INDEX websites_idx;
 SQL Sub Query
• A Subquery is a query within another SQL query and
embedded within the WHERE clause.
• Important Rule:
• A subquery can be placed in a number of SQL clauses like
WHERE clause, FROM clause, HAVING clause.
• You can use Subquery with SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE
statements along with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN,
BETWEEN, etc.
• A subquery is a query within another query. The outer query
is known as the main query, and the inner query is known as
a subquery.
• Subqueries are on the right side of the comparison operator.
• A subquery is enclosed in parentheses.
• In the Subquery, ORDER BY command cannot be used. But
GROUP BY command can be used to perform the same
function as ORDER BY command.
 1. Subqueries with the Select
Statement
SQL subqueries are most frequently used with
the Select statement.
Syntax
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name expression operator
( SELECT column_name from table_name WHER
E ... );
• Example
• Consider the EMPLOYEE table have the following
records:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

4 Alina 29 UK 6500.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 8500.00

6 Harry 42 China 4500.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

The subquery with a SELECT statement will be:
SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SALARY > 4500);
This would produce the following result:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

4 Alina 29 UK 6500.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 8500.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

 2. Subqueries with the INSERT
Statement
• SQL subquery can also be used with the Insert
statement. In the insert statement, data returned from
the subquery is used to insert into another table.
• In the subquery, the selected data can be modified
with any of the character, date functions.
• Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3....
)
SELECT *
FROM table_name
WHERE VALUE OPERATOR
• Example
• Consider a table EMPLOYEE_BKP with similar as
EMPLOYEE.
• Now use the following syntax to copy the
complete EMPLOYEE table into the
EMPLOYEE_BKP table.
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE_BKP
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM EMPLOYEE);
 3. Subqueries with the UPDATE
Statement
• The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with
the Update statement. When a subquery is used with
the Update statement, then either single or multiple
columns in a table can be updated.
• Syntax
UPDATE table
SET column_name = new_value
WHERE VALUE OPERATOR
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME
WHERE condition);
• Example
• Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup
of EMPLOYEE table. The given example updates the SALARY by .25 times in
the EMPLOYEE table for all employee whose AGE is greater than or equal
to 29.
UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25
WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 29);
• This would impact three rows, and finally, the EMPLOYEE table would have
the following records.
ID Name AGE ADDRESS Salary
1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

4 Alina 29 UK 1625.00

5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 2125.00

6 Harry 42 China 1125.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

 4. Subqueries with the DELETE
Statement
• The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction
with the Delete statement just like any other
statements mentioned above.
• Syntax
• DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME
• WHERE VALUE OPERATOR
• (SELECT COLUMN_NAME
• FROM TABLE_NAME
• WHERE condition);
• Example
• Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup
of EMPLOYEE table. The given example deletes the records from the
EMPLOYEE table for all EMPLOYEE whose AGE is greater than or equal to
29.
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM EMPLOYEE_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 29 );
• This would impact three rows, and finally, the EMPLOYEE table would have
the following records.

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 John 20 US 2000.00

2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00

3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00

7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

 SQL Aggregate Functions
• SQL aggregation function is used to perform the
calculations on multiple rows of a single column
of a table. It returns a single value.
• It is also used to summarize the data.
Types of SQL Aggregation Function
 1. COUNT FUNCTION

• COUNT function is used to Count the number of

rows in a database table. It can work on both
numeric and non-numeric data types.
• COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns
the count of all the rows in a specified table.
COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.
• Syntax
COUNT(*)
or
COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
• Sample table: PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

• PRODUCT_MAST Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60
1. Example: COUNT() Item4 Com3 5 10 50

SELECT COUNT(*) Item5 Com2 2 20 40

FROM PRODUCT_MAST; Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Output: Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30
10
Item9 Com2 2 25 50
2. Example: COUNT with WHERE
Item10 Com3 4 30 120
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
WHERE RATE>=20;
Output:
7
 2. SUM Function
• Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all
selected columns. It works on numeric fields only.
Syntax
SUM()
Example: SUM()
SELECT SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output:
670
Example: SUM() with WHERE
SELECT SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST
WHERE QTY>3;
Output:
320
 3. AVG function

• The AVG function is used to calculate the average

value of the numeric type. AVG function returns
the average of all non-Null values.
Syntax
AVG()
Example:
SELECT AVG(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output:
67.00
 4. MAX Function

• MAX function is used to find the maximum value

of a certain column. This function determines the
largest value of all selected values of a column.
Syntax PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

MAX() Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75
Example: Item3 Com1 2 30 60

SELECT MAX(RATE) Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40
FROM PRODUCT_MAST; Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Output: Item7 Com1 5 30 150

30 Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

 5. MIN Function

• MIN function is used to find the minimum value

of a certain column. This function determines the
smallest value of all selected values of a column.
Syntax PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

MIN() Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75
Example: Item3 Com1 2 30 60
SELECT MIN(RATE) Item4 Com3 5 10 50

FROM PRODUCT_MAST; Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Output: Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

10 Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

 SQL JOIN

As the name shows, JOIN means to combine

something. In case of SQL, JOIN means "to
combine two or more tables".
In SQL, JOIN clause is used to combine the
records from two or more tables in a database.
Types of SQL JOIN
• INNER JOIN
• LEFT JOIN
• RIGHT JOIN
• FULL JOIN
 Sample Tables
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

EMPLOYEE 3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washingto 500000 29

n

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

PROJECT_NO EMP_ID DEPARTMENT

101 1 Testing
PROJECT 102 2 Development

103 3 Designing

104 4 Development
• 1. INNER JOIN
• In SQL, INNER JOIN selects records that have
matching values in both tables as long as the
condition is satisfied. It returns the
combination of all rows from both the tables
where the condition satisfies.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Query
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
FROM EMPLOYEE
INNER JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output
EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development
 2. LEFT JOIN
• The SQL left join returns all the values from left table
and the matching values from the right table. If there is
no matching join value, it will return NULL.
• Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,
....
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
• Query
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
FROM EMPLOYEE
LEFT JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
 Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

Russell NULL

Marry NULL
 3. RIGHT JOIN
• In SQL, RIGHT JOIN returns all the values from
the values from the rows of right table and the
matched values from the left table. If there is
no matching in both tables, it will return NULL.
• Syntax
• SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....
• FROM table1
• RIGHT JOIN table2
• ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
• Query
• SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
• FROM EMPLOYEE
• RIGHT JOIN PROJECT
• ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Output Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development
 4. FULL JOIN

• In SQL, FULL JOIN is the result of a

combination of both left and right outer join.
Join tables have all the records from both
tables. It puts NULL on the place of matches
not found.
• Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....
FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
• Query
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
FROM EMPLOYEE
FULL JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Output Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

Russell NULL

Marry NULL
 SQL Set Operation

• The SQL Set operation is used to combine the

two or more SQL SELECT statements.
 1. Union
The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of
two or more SQL SELECT queries.
In the union operation, all the number of datatype and
columns must be same in both the tables on which
UNION operation is being applied.
The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from
its resultset.

Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
 The First table The Second table

ID NAME
ID NAME
3 Jackson
1 Jack
4 Stephan
2 Harry

3 Jackson
5 David

Union SQL query will be:

SELECT * FROM First ID NAME
UNION
1 Jack
SELECT * FROM Second;
2 Harry

The result set table will look like: 3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David
 2. Union All
• Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It
returns the set without removing duplication and sorting
the data.
Syntax:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example: Using the above First and Second table.
Union All query will be like: ID NAME
SELECT * FROM First
1 Jack
UNION ALL
2 Harry
SELECT * FROM Second;
3 Jackson

3 Jackson
The result set table will look like:
4 Stephan

5 David
 3. Intersect
It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation
returns the common rows from both the SELECT statements.
In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must
be the same.
It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by
default.
Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
INTERSECT
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example:
Using the above First and Second table.
Intersect query will be:
SELECT * FROM First
INTERSECT
SELECT * FROM Second; ID NAME
The result set table will look like:
3 Jackson
4. Minus
It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus
operator is used to display the rows which are present in
the first query but absent in the second query.
It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order
by default.
Syntax:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
MINUS
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example
Using the above First and Second table.
Minus query will be:
SELECT * FROM First
MINUS ID NAME

SELECT * FROM Second; 1 Jack

The resultset table will look like: 2 Harry

 PL/SQL Introduction
PL/SQL is a block structured language that enables
developers to combine the power of SQL with
procedural statements.All the statements of a block are
passed to oracle engine all at once which increases
processing speed and decreases the traffic.

Disadvantages of SQL:
• SQL doesn’t provide the programmers with a technique
of condition checking, looping and branching.
• SQL statements are passed to Oracle engine one at a
time which increases traffic and decreases speed.
• SQL has no facility of error checking during
manipulation of data.
 Features of PL/SQL

• PL/SQL is basically a procedural language, which provides

the functionality of decision making, iteration and many
more features of procedural programming languages.
• PL/SQL can execute a number of queries in one block using
single command.
• One can create a PL/SQL unit such as procedures,
functions, packages, triggers, and types, which are stored in
the database for reuse by applications.
• PL/SQL provides a feature to handle the exception which
occurs in PL/SQL block known as exception handling block.
• Applications written in PL/SQL are portable to computer
hardware or operating system where Oracle is operational.
• PL/SQL Offers extensive error checking.
Differences between SQL and PL/SQL:
SQL PL/SQL
PL/SQL is a block of codes that used
SQL is a single query that is used to
to write the entire program blocks/
perform DML and DDL operations.
procedure/ function, etc.

It is declarative, that defines what

PL/SQL is procedural that defines
needs to be done, rather than how
how the things needs to be done.
things need to be done.

Execute as a single statement. Execute as a whole block.

Mainly used to create an

Mainly used to manipulate data.
application.

It is an extension of SQL, so it can

Cannot contain PL/SQL code in it.
contain SQL inside it.
 Structure of PL/SQL Block
• PL/SQL extends SQL by adding constructs found in
procedural languages, resulting in a structural
language that is more powerful than SQL. The basic
unit in PL/SQL is a block. All PL/SQL programs are
made up of blocks, which can be nested within each
other.
• Typically, each block performs a logical action
in the program. A block has the following
structure:
DECLARE
declaration statements;
BEGIN
executable statements
EXCEPTIONS
exception handling statements
END;
• Declare section starts with DECLARE keyword in which
variables, constants, records as cursors can be declared
which stores data temporarily. It basically consists
definition of PL/SQL identifiers. This part of the code is
optional.
• Execution section starts with BEGIN and ends
with END keyword. This is a mandatory section and
here the program logic is written to perform any task
like loops and conditional statements. It supports
all DML commands, DDL commands and SQL*PLUS
built-in functions as well.
• Exception section starts with EXCEPTION keyword. This
section is optional which contains statements that are
executed when a run-time error occurs. Any exceptions
can be handled in this section.
 PL/SQL identifiers

There are several PL/SQL identifiers such as

variables, constants, procedures, cursors, triggers
etc.
Variables:
Like several other programming languages,
variables in PL/SQL must be declared prior to its
use. They should have a valid name and data type
as well.
• Syntax for declaration of variables:
variable_name datatype [NOT NULL := value ];
• Example to show how to declare variables in
PL/SQL :
SQL> DECLARE
var1 INTEGER;
var2 REAL;
var3 varchar2(20) ;
BEGIN
null;
END;
/
• Output:
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
• INITIALISING VARIABLES:
SQL> DECLARE
var1 INTEGER := 2 ;
var3 varchar2(20) := ‘My Course is B.Tech' ;

BEGIN
null;

END;
/
• Output:
• PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
• Taking input from user:
SQL> DECLARE

-- taking input for variable a

a number := &a;

-- taking input for variable b

b varchar2(30) := &b;

BEGIN Output:
null; Enter value for a: 24
Enter value for b: ‘Branch'
END; PL/SQL procedure successfully
/ completed.
Note:
• Single Line Comment: To create a single line comment , the
symbol – – is used.
• Multi Line Comment: To create comments that span over several
lines, the symbol /* and */ is used.
Example on PL/SQL to demonstrate all above concepts in one single block of
code.

SQL> DECLARE

-- taking input for variable a

a integer := &a ;

-- taking input for variable b

b integer := &b ;
c integer ;

BEGIN
c := a + b ;
dbms_output.put_line('Sum of '||a||' and '||b||' is = '||c);

END;
/
Enter value for a: 2 Enter value for b: 3 Sum of 2 and 3 is = 5
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
 Cursors in PL/SQL

• Cursor in SQL

To execute SQL statements, a work area is

used by the Oracle engine for its internal
processing and storing the information. This
work area is private to SQL’s operations. The
‘Cursor’ is the PL/SQL construct that allows
the user to name the work area and access
the stored information in it.
• Use of Cursor

The major function of a cursor is to retrieve data, one row

at a time, from a result set, unlike the SQL commands
which operate on all the rows in the result set at one time.
Cursors are used when the user needs to update records
in a singleton fashion or in a row by row manner, in a
database table.
The Data that is stored in the Cursor is called the Active
Data Set. Oracle DBMS has another predefined area in the
main memory Set, within which the cursors are opened.
Hence the size of the cursor is limited by the size of this
pre-defined area.
 Cursor Actions
• Declare Cursor: A cursor is declared by defining the
SQL statement that returns a result set.
• Open: A Cursor is opened and populated by executing
the SQL statement defined by the cursor.
• Fetch: When the cursor is opened, rows can be fetched
from the cursor one by one or in a block to perform
data manipulation.
• Close: After data manipulation, close the cursor
explicitly.
• Deallocate: Finally, delete the cursor definition and
release all the system resources associated with the
cursor.
 Types of Cursors
Cursors are classified depending on the
circumstances in which they are opened.
• Implicit Cursor: If the Oracle engine opened a
cursor for its internal processing it is known as an
Implicit Cursor. It is created “automatically” for
the user by Oracle when a query is executed and
is simpler to code.
• Explicit Cursor: A Cursor can also be opened for
processing data through a PL/SQL block, on
demand. Such a user-defined cursor is known as
an Explicit Cursor.
• Explicit cursor
An explicit cursor is defined in the declaration
section of the PL/SQL Block. It is created on a
SELECT Statement which returns more than
one row. A suitable name for the cursor.
• General syntax for creating a cursor:
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;
cursor_name – A suitable name for the cursor.
select_statement – A select query which
returns multiple rows
 Triggers
• Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically
executed or fired when some events occur. Triggers
are, in fact, written to be executed in response to any
of the following events −
• A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE,
INSERT, or UPDATE)
• A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE,
ALTER, or DROP).
• A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON,
LOGOFF, STARTUP, or SHUTDOWN).
• Triggers can be defined on the table, view, schema, or
database with which the event is associated.
 Benefits of Triggers
Triggers can be written for the following purposes
−
• Generating some derived column values
automatically
• Enforcing referential integrity
• Event logging and storing information on table
access
• Auditing
• Synchronous replication of tables
• Imposing security authorizations
• Preventing invalid transactions
 Types of Triggers –
•
We can define 6 types of triggers for each table:
• AFTER INSERT activated after data is inserted into the table.

• AFTER UPDATE: activated after data in the table is modified.

• AFTER DELETE: activated after data is deleted/removed from the

table.

• BEFORE INSERT: activated before data is inserted into the table.

• BEFORE UPDATE: activated before data in the table is modified.

• BEFORE DELETE: activated before data is deleted/removed from the

table.
 Creating Triggers
• The syntax for creaƟng a trigger is −
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] [FOR
EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
DECLARE
Declaration-statements
BEGIN
Executable-statements
EXCEPTION
Exception-handling-statements
END;
Where,
• CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name − Creates or replaces an
existing trigger with the trigger_name.
• {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} − This specifies when the trigger will
be executed. The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a
view.
• {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} − This specifies the DML
operation.
• [OF col_name] − This specifies the column name that will be updated.
• [ON table_name] − This specifies the name of the table associated
with the trigger.
• [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] − This allows you to refer new
and old values for various DML statements, such as INSERT, UPDATE,
and DELETE.
• [FOR EACH ROW] − This specifies a row-level trigger, i.e., the trigger
will be executed for each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger
will execute just once when the SQL statement is executed, which is
called a table level trigger.
• WHEN (condiƟon) − This provides a condiƟon for rows for which the
trigger would fire. This clause is valid only for row-level triggers.
• 1. Write a trigger to ensure that no employee
of age less than 25 can be inserted in the
database.

CREATE TRIGGER Check_age BEFORE INSERT ON employee

FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN IF NEW.age < 25 THEN
SET MESSAGE_TEXT = 'ERROR: AGE MUST BE ATLEAST 25
YEARS!';
END IF;
END;
• Write a trigger to count number of new tuples
inserted using each insert statement.

Declare count int

Set count=0;
CREATE TRIGGER Count_tupples
AFTER INSERT ON employee
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
SET count = count + 1;
END;
• Create a trigger which will work before deletion in
employee table and create a duplicate copy of the
record in another table employee_backup.
• create table employee_backup (employee_no int,
employee_name varchar(40), job varchar(40), hiredate
date, salary int, primary key(employee_no));

CREATE TRIGGER Backup

BEFORE DELETE ON employee
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN INSERT INTO employee_backup
VALUES (OLD.employee_no, OLD.name, OLD.job,
OLD.hiredate, OLD.salary);
END;