Community Development
Community Development
The evolution of the field and significant turning points have influenced the development of community
development projects. These significant events and numbers have had a significant impact on the area of
community development, affecting its guiding ideologies, methods, and tactics for resolving social,
economic, and environmental issues in many communities all over the world.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_development
3. Community Development Models
Various strategies and methods are used in the diverse field of community development to enhance the
welfare and standard of living in local communities. I'll examine and contrast various community
development models, such as the asset-based approach, top-down vs. bottom-up approaches, and urban
vs. rural community development, in the sections below:
https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-252290
4. Community Empowerment
Empowering communities consequently involves more than just getting communities involved,
involved, or engaged. It demands participation from the entire community and activity that blatantly
seeks to bring about social and political change. In order to regain more control, community
empowerment involves renegotiating power.
The growth and empowerment of local communities depend on community education programs. These
programs assist people acquire the information and skills necessary to address the particular difficulties
faced by their communities by offering chances for community learning and growth.
It may take time and patience to enable communities to manage their own development because it is not
a one-size-fits-all method. It entails a change in power dynamics, whereby the community itself now
determines its own course for growth rather than external players doing so. Communities with more
authority are better able to maintain positive improvements, adjust to new difficulties, and promote a
sense of pride in their accomplishments.
https://www.who.int/teams/health-promotion/enhanced-wellbeing/seventh-global-conference/
community-empowerment#:~:text=Community%20empowerment%2C%20therefore%2C%20is
%20more,order%20to%20gain%20more%20control.
Ecological Theory:
1. Ecological Systems and Human Development:
A foundation for comprehending how various environmental systems affect a person's development is
provided by Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory. This theory highlights the significance of
taking into account several levels of influence, from immediate, close-in situations to wider social
factors. The five major environmental systems that make up the theory each have varying degrees of
influence. Let's examine each level and use examples to show how they affect the growth of a person:
a. Microsystem:
The microsystem is a representation of the direct, immediate settings that people frequently interact
with. This encompasses friends, family, the classroom, and the neighborhood.
Example: The family is an important microsystem for a child. Positive family relationships, like
encouraging parenting and a close sibling bond, can promote balanced emotional and social growth. On
the other hand, a dysfunctional family situation that includes abuse or neglect can be harmful to a child's
growth.
b. Mesosystem:
The interactions and links that bind various elements of the microsystem together are referred to as the
mesosystem. It concerns how multiple microsystems interact with one another and overlap.
Example: The mesosystem includes a child's home, school, and extended family. The educational
experience of a kid can be improved through effective teacher-parent communication and collaboration.
On the other hand, disagreements or poor communication between these systems could impede a child's
development.
c. Exosystem:
Environments that indirectly influence a person's development are included in the exosystem. Although
not immediately experienced, these settings still have an effect on the microsystem.
Example: The exosystem includes a parent's workplace. A parent's parenting style and, as a result, the
wellbeing of the kid may be impacted by stress or volatility due to their profession.
d. Macrosystem:
The larger social and cultural settings in which an individual lives are included in the macrosystem.
Cultural norms, values, rules, and socioeconomic factors fall within this category.
Example: The educational values of a culture might influence a child's views and aspirations. Children
may be more driven to succeed in school in societies where academic achievement is highly valued,
whereas the importance of academic achievement may be downplayed in societies where it is not.
e. Chronosystem:
The chronosystem acknowledges that growth happens gradually and takes into account how historical
developments and life changes affect a person's development.
Example: A historical occurrence, such as a natural disaster or an economic downturn, can destabilize a
family and have a long-term impact on a child's development. A person's development can also be
influenced by personal life upheavals like divorce or the death of a loved one.
In conclusion, Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory emphasizes the interconnectivity of many
environmental systems while also underlining the complexity of human development. It highlights how
historical events and broader societal influences, in addition to an individual's local environment, affect
that person's development. For educators, psychologists, and politicians, having a solid understanding of
these several layers of impact can help them foster positive growth and solve issues that people
experience at various stages of life.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/bronfenbrenner.html
2. Environmental Sustainability and Ecological Theory:
The primary goal of ecological theory, as created by academics like Bronfenbrenner, is to comprehend
how diverse elements within an ecosystem interact and are interdependent with one another. This
theoretical framework, which was initially used to study human development, can also be expanded to
help with environmental sustainability efforts. Here are some ways that addressing environmental issues
on a global scale can be aided by knowledge of ecological systems:
Holistic Perspective: Ecological Theory promotes a holistic view that takes into account how linked all
of the components of an ecosystem are. It emphasizes how crucial it is to understand how human actions
and natural systems are connected when it comes to environmental sustainability. Understanding that
decisions made in one region of the world may have far-reaching effects on the entire planet is made
easier with the aid of this perspective.
Interconnectedness: Changes in one area of an ecosystem can have an impact on the whole system,
according to ecological theory. Environmental efforts can more accurately predict and reduce
unintended repercussions of activities by understanding these relationships. For instance, changing the
channel of a river to make room for farming could have an impact on the ecosystems and water quality
downstream.
Systems Thinking: This idea encourages systems thinking, which entails deconstructing complex issues
to look at the connections between the various parts. Systems thinking assists in locating the main issues
and potential sites of influence for progress in environmental sustainability. For instance, addressing
climate change necessitates comprehending the interrelationships among numerous elements, including
energy production, transportation, and land use.
Multi-Level Analysis: Environmental problems can be analyzed at many scales using the multi-level
analysis of ecological theory, which includes microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, macrosystems,
and chronosystems. This enables a thorough awareness of the environmental issues that local
communities, countries, and the international community are facing. Addressing a local pollution issue,
for instance, would entail looking at interactions within a microsystem (such as a factory and the local
community), mesosystem (such as governmental rules and community organizations), and macrosystem
(such as international policy on pollution control).
Adaptive Management: Addressing environmental concerns, which frequently change over time,
requires a strong understanding of ecological theory and its emphasis on flexibility and response to
changing environments. To evaluate the efficacy of methods and make necessary adjustments,
sustainable environmental management should include feedback mechanisms.
In conclusion, by encouraging holistic thinking, recognizing interconnections, and emphasizing multi-
level analysis, ecological theory offers a useful framework for comprehending and tackling global
environmental concerns. Policymakers, scientists, and communities may create more efficient strategies
and policies to alleviate environmental degradation and support a healthier world for both the present
and the future generations by applying this idea to environmental sustainability initiatives.
https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory
Interactional Theory:
3. Symbolic Interactionism in Everyday Life:
Sociological theory known as symbolic interactionism is concerned with the way people create meaning
from their social interactions. This viewpoint emphasizes the significance of symbols, language, and
social processes in forming our perception of the world. It was primarily developed by George Herbert
Mead and then built upon by academics like Herbert Blumer. The following are the main ideas of
symbolic interactionism, with examples from everyday life:
Symbols: Symbols are things, phrases, motions, or signs that have a common meaning in a culture. The
foundation of social interaction and communication is made up of these symbols.
Examples: The American flag is a representation of the United States. When people view the flag, they think of
ideas like democracy, patriotism, and freedom. Through a common cultural understanding, the meaning of the
flag is socially produced.
Interaction: The term "interaction" describes how people interact and communicate with one another. These
encounters are how people come to have a common understanding of symbols and their meanings.
Examples: In a classroom, a teacher's nod or smile can be seen as a symbol of acceptance or motivation.
Through frequent encounters with the teacher, the significance of these gestures is conveyed to the students.
Self and Identity: According to symbolic interactionism, people gain a sense of who they are and how they fit
into the world through social interactions and feedback from others. The "looking glass self" is the name given
to this process.
Example: The opinions of one's friends and family might have an impact on one's self-concept as a teenager.
The teenager may start to believe they are humorous if peers frequently appreciate their sense of humor.
Role-Taking: Role-taking is the skill of being able to view oneself through the viewpoint of another. It entails
comprehending how other people see you and changing your conduct accordingly.
Example: In a job interview, a candidate assumes the persona of the perfect worker and presents themselves in
a way that is consistent with the employer's expectations. This role-playing contributes to a positive first
impression.
Socialization: People learn the customs, beliefs, and behaviors of their culture through the lifelong process of
socialization. Social connections with family, classmates, and institutions have a major role in its occurrence.
Example: Through encounters with parents, teachers, and the media, kids pick up gender roles. They adopt
stereotypes of what it means to be a "boy" or "girl" and act accordingly.
Labeling Theory: The labeling theory, which emerged from symbolic interactionism, contends that societal
labels and judgments have an impact on how people perceive themselves and behave. For instance, being called
a deviant can encourage further deviant behavior.
Example: When a youngster receives the label of "troublemaker" from instructors and peers, they may begin to
exhibit the behaviors that go along with it, furthering the perception.
In conclusion, symbolic interactionism draws attention to the crucial role that symbols, social interactions, and
the creation of meaning have in influencing people's behavior and society. It highlights the fact that our
perception of the world is not static but rather changes as a result of our interactions with people and the
interpretations we give to signs and body language in various social settings.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/symbolic-interaction-theory.html
According to the symbolic interactionism viewpoint, symbols are extremely important in determining
how people interact with one another. This sociological theory places a strong emphasis on the role of
symbols in human communication and how they affect how we see the world and behave in social
settings.
In conclusion, symbols are the fundamental units of human contact and communication. They aid people
in communicating with one another, navigating the complexity of society, and making sense of their
social environment. The meanings ascribed to symbols are not static; rather, they are social
constructions that change through time, impacting how people view the world and behave in social
circumstances. The dynamic function that symbols play in influencing our perception of the world and
how we interact with others is emphasized by symbolic interactionism.
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/social-studies/social-institutions/symbolic-interactionism/
Structural-Functional Theory:
5. Functionalism and Social Order:
Early sociologists like Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons created the functionalist worldview, which sees
society as a complex system made up of several social institutions that cooperate to sustain social order and
stability. This viewpoint holds that each social organization has a certain purpose or function and contributes to
the overall harmony and efficiency of society. Here is a summary of the functionalist viewpoint on how social
institutions support the upkeep of social order, along with its advantages and disadvantages:
1. Social Institutions and Functions:
Functionalists argue that social institutions, such as family, education, religion, government, and the
economy, serve essential functions in society.
Each institution has specific roles and responsibilities that contribute to the smooth functioning of
society. For example, the family is responsible for socializing children and providing emotional support,
while the government maintains law and order.
2. Integration and Stability:
Social institutions are seen as interrelated and interdependent. They help integrate individuals into
society by providing a structure for their roles and responsibilities.
The cooperation and coordination of these institutions contribute to social stability and order. For
instance, the education system prepares individuals for their future roles in the workforce, contributing
to economic stability.
3. Socialization and Norms:
Social institutions play a crucial role in socializing individuals, instilling in them the values, norms, and
beliefs of their culture.
By internalizing these cultural norms, individuals are more likely to conform to societal expectations,
reducing the likelihood of deviant behavior and promoting social order.
Strengths of the Functionalism:
1. Emphasis on Order and Stability: Functionalism provides a clear and positive view of society,
emphasizing its stability and order. This perspective is valuable for understanding the essential roles that
institutions play in maintaining social cohesion.
2. Comprehensive Perspective: Functionalism takes a holistic approach to understanding society,
examining how various parts of the social system work together. This comprehensive view helps explain
the interconnectedness of institutions.
3. Historical Influence: Functionalism has had a significant influence on the development of sociology
and has provided valuable insights into the functions of institutions in society.
Weaknesses of the Functionalism:
1. Conservatism and Resistance to Change: Functionalism can be criticized for its conservative stance,
as it tends to emphasize the importance of maintaining the status quo. This perspective may not
adequately address issues of social inequality, injustice, or the need for social change.
2. Simplistic Assumptions: Critics argue that functionalism oversimplifies the complexities of society by
assuming that all social institutions are inherently beneficial and that they always contribute positively to
social order.
3. Neglect of Conflict and Inequality: Functionalism may downplay the role of conflict and power
struggles in society, especially when addressing issues related to inequality, discrimination, and social
injustices. It may not provide a robust framework for understanding social change driven by conflict.
4. Lack of Attention to Individual Agency: Functionalism often focuses more on the roles of institutions
than on individual agency and choice. It may not fully account for how individuals can challenge or
reshape institutions.
In conclusion, the functionalist viewpoint emphasizes how crucial social institutions are to upholding social
order and stability. Despite the fact that it offers a useful framework for comprehending how societies work, it
has certain drawbacks, particularly in terms of its conservatism, oversimplified premise, and propensity to
ignore concerns of inequality and conflict. In order to develop a more thorough knowledge of complicated
social processes, many modern sociologists combine functionalism with other viewpoints.
https://www.thoughtco.com/functionalist-perspective-3026625
6. Structural-Functionalism in Contemporary Society:
Sociological theorists like Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton helped popularize structural-
functionalism, which was developed in the middle of the 20th century. It contends that society is a
complex system of interconnected elements, each of which performs a particular purpose, and that
stability and balance are necessary for societal cohesion. Even though this theory has faced criticism and
difficulties over the years, it still has some use in comprehending contemporary, complex societies.
However, it has also changed in reaction to current societal issues and challenges.
An evaluation of the usefulness of structural-functionalism and its development in tackling contemporary
societal complexity is given below:
1. Relevance:
Macro-level Analysis: Understanding how various institutions and structures interact to sustain stability
can be made easier with the help of structural-functionalism, which offers a macro-level study of
society. This viewpoint can be helpful in analyzing major systems like the government, education
system, and economy in contemporary, complex society.
Functional Analysis: It emphasizes the virtues and defects of social organizations. It is still possible to
use this to examine the ways in which different institutions in modern society either support or
undermine social order.
Durkheim's Ideas: Émile Durkheim, a pioneering structural-functionalist, coined the term "anomie" to
explain how social standards break down in civilizations that are undergoing fast change. The
difficulties faced by today's rapid societal transformation can still be understood using this paradigm.
2. Evolution to Address Contemporary Issues:
Critique and Revision: For its conservative outlook and disregard for conflict and change, structural-
functionalism has come under heavy fire throughout the years. Because of this, modern sociologists
have updated the theory to include concepts from conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. This
hybrid strategy recognizes that conflict and change are a natural part of society and that it does not
always exist in an equilibrium.
Functionalism in Education: The function of education has substantially changed in contemporary
civilizations. While structural-functionalism initially saw education as a tool for socializing and
upholding order in society, modern researchers have come to see that education also serves to sustain
inequality. In order to solve these problems, the theory has developed, and it now takes into account the
fact that social integration and social separation can both be facilitated by education.
Incorporating Diversity: Modern societies are becoming more and more diverse, and structural-
functionalism has evolved to take this into account when analyzing how variety affects social
cohesiveness. It currently looks at how various groups and subcultures affect society as a whole while
identifying potential causes of friction and conflict.
Globalization: To address the problems of globalization, such as the interconnectedness of
contemporary societies, structural-functionalism has developed. It investigates the effects of global
systems on local institutions and vice versa, including the economy and communication networks.
Overall, structural-functionalism has evolved to handle current social difficulties and challenges
while still being relevant for analyzing some features of modern societies. The theory has evolved
to be more inclusive and complex, taking into account the fact that society is not constantly in a
state of equilibrium and that social dynamics are greatly influenced by conflict, change, and
diversity. To shed light on the complexity of modern civilizations, researchers are constantly
modifying and improving this framework. A combination of ideas is frequently used by academics
to acquire a more complete understanding because no one theory can adequately describe the
complex nature of contemporary society.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/structural-functionalism
Complex Communities and Knowledge:
7. Knowledge Transfer in Complex Communities
The sharing of knowledge, skills, and insights among individuals or organizations is just one part of the
complicated process known as knowledge flow within and between complex communities. Complex
communities can be made up of businesses, universities, internet networks, and several other social
systems. It is important to take into account the processes and difficulties involved in sharing and
transferring knowledge in order to comprehend how it moves within and between these communities.
Mechanisms of Knowledge Flow:
1. Communication Channels:
Face-to-Face Interaction: Direct, in-person communication is frequently used to exchange knowledge because
it enables rich, context-rich information exchanges.
Digital Communication: Digital platforms like email, instant messaging, video conferencing, and social media
have been indispensable since the advent of technology for information sharing within and between
communities, particularly where physical distance is an obstacle.
2. Formal Documentation:
Reports and Documentation: Organizations frequently produce official reports, manuals, and
documentation to methodically codify and distribute knowledge.
Academic Publications: Knowledge is shared in academic communities through scholarly publications,
conferences, and peer-reviewed journals.
3. Communities of Practice:
Communities and Forums: Communities of practice are places where people with related skills and
interests collaborate, talk, and share ideas.
Mentoring and Apprenticeships: Through informal mentoring partnerships, knowledgeable people
share their knowledge with less experienced people.
4. Knowledge Management Systems:
Databases and Intranets: Knowledge management systems are frequently used by organizations to
store and retrieve information so that workers may access it.
Content Management Systems: Knowledge repositories are created and managed using online
platforms, making them easier for community members to access.
Challenges of Knowledge Flow:
1. Silos and Barriers:
Silos: Many communities and organizations run in silos, where knowledge is restricted to particular
divisions or groups, making cross-functional sharing difficult.
Barriers to Entry: Access to information may be restricted for new members through exclusive or
restrictive practices in some communities.
2. Tacit Knowledge:
1. Tacit Nature: A lot of useful information is implicit, which makes it challenging to express and
transmit explicitly. It might be difficult to transmit tacit knowledge because it is frequently
acquired via experience.
3. Overload and Filtering:
1. Information Overload: Communities may experience information overload in the digital era,
making it difficult to sort through the noise and find the essential facts.
2. Filter Bubbles: Online communities have the potential to develop "filter bubbles" where people
are only exposed to material that supports their own opinions, so limiting their exposure to other
points of view.
4. Trust and Reliability:
1. Trust Issues: Sharing of knowledge frequently depends on trust. Building trust among
community members can be difficult, especially when exchanging confidential or private
information.
2. Reliability: It can be challenging to determine the validity of information sources, particularly in
online communities where false information is frequently spread.
5. Cultural and Language Barriers:
1. Cultural Differences: Cultural differences can affect how knowledge is communicated and
understood in global groups.
2. Language Barriers: Language barriers can make it difficult for knowledge to flow between
diverse cultures.
6. Security and Privacy:
1. Data Security: Communities and organizations must strike a balance between the necessity for
knowledge sharing and worries about data security and privacy, which may restrict the degree to
which knowledge is shared.
7. Lack of Incentives:
1. Incentive Structures: There may not always be incentives for people to share their expertise,
especially when it is seen as a source of power or job security.
In order to facilitate the flow of knowledge inside and between complex societies, these problems must be
solved while utilizing the right mechanisms. Promoting diversity and inclusion, investing in knowledge
management systems, encouraging openness and collaboration, and offering rewards for sharing knowledge are
all tactics for improving knowledge flow. Successful knowledge flow ultimately supports creativity, problem-
solving, and the general expansion and improvement of societies and organizations.
https://www.cairn.info/revue-management-2007-2-page-25.htm
8. Digital Communities and Knowledge Sharing:
The mechanics of information sharing have been significantly altered by digital communities in a number of
ways, with important ramifications for learning and collaboration in the digital age.
1. Access to Global Knowledge: Geographical barriers are removed by digital communities, allowing
people to access knowledge from all around the world. As a result, there are more diverse viewpoints and
areas of expertise available for learning and collaboration.
2. Real-Time Information Exchange: Instantaneous information and knowledge exchange enables
prompt updates and reactions. This is especially useful for remaining current in fields that change
quickly.
3. Democratization of Knowledge: Digital communities democratize expertise by enabling users to share
their knowledge and experiences. Publishers and other traditional gatekeepers, including academic
institutions, are no longer the only ones who decide what is worthwhile knowledge.
4. Collaborative Learning Environments: Members of digital communities can participate in discussions,
share materials, and offer feedback in collaborative learning settings. This promotes a more dynamic and
involved style of education.
5. Personalized Learning Experiences: Personalized learning opportunities are possible in the digital era.
By customizing their learning journeys, people can curate the content they consume based on their
interests and requirements.
6. Crowdsourced Knowledge Creation: Crowdsourced knowledge creation is made possible through
digital communities, where novel ideas can be generated or complex issues can be solved.
7. Increased Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Digital communities frequently include members from
different academic fields and business sectors, encouraging interdisciplinary cooperation and idea
sharing.
8. Challenges in Information Verification: The simplicity of information sharing in online communities
also makes it difficult to confirm the authenticity and dependability of knowledge. Fake news and
inaccurate information can spread swiftly.
9. Filter Bubbles and Echo Chambers: Online communities have the potential to unintentionally produce
filter bubbles and echo chambers where people are only exposed to opinions and information that
support their own ideas, so limiting the diversity of knowledge.
10. Privacy and Security Concerns: When personal data and sensitive information are involved,
knowledge sharing in digital communities poses privacy and security issues.
In conclusion, digital communities have changed the dynamics of knowledge exchange by democratizing,
facilitating, and making information more accessible. While they give a wealth of potential for learning and
cooperation, they also pose issues with information accuracy, personal data security, and the requirement for
fundamental digital literacy. Individuals and organizations must adapt and establish strategies for utilizing these
platforms for knowledge sharing and collaboration while limiting any downsides in order to successfully
navigate digital communities in the digital age.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666412722000137
Essentially, encouraging inclusivity is a key aspect of social justice. By removing structural barriers, combating
discrimination, and empowering vulnerable groups, inclusivity strives to lessen inequality and promote fairness
in society. We go closer to building a more just and equitable world where everyone has the chance to succeed
by actively promoting inclusion in policymaking, governance, and societal behaviors.
https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/egms/docs/2009/Ghana/inclusive-society.pdf