Maths Grade 10

ii
Everything Maths
Grade 10 Mathematics
Version 1 – CAPS
by Siyavula and volunteers

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Authors List
This book is based upon the original Free High School Science Text which was entirely written by
volunteer academics, educators and industry professionals. Their vision was to see a curriculum aligned
set of mathematics and physical science textbooks which are freely available to anybody and exist under
an open copyright license.
Siyavula core team

Neels van der Westhuizen; Alison Jenkin; Leonard Gumani Mudau; Marina van Zyl; Helen Robert-
son; Carl Scheffler; Nicola du Toit; Josephine Mamaroke Phatlane; William Buthane Chauke; Thomas
Masango
Original Free High School Science Texts core team

Mark Horner; Samuel Halliday; Sarah Blyth; Rory Adams; Spencer Wheaton
Original Free High School Science Texts editors

Jaynie Padayachee; Joanne Boulle; Diana Mulcahy; Annette Nell; René Toerien; Donovan Whitfield
Siyavula and Free High School Science Texts contributors

Sarah Abel; Dr. Rory Adams; Andrea Africa; Matthew Amundsen; Ben Anhalt; Prashant Arora; Amos
Baloyi; Bongani Baloyi; Raymond Barbour; Caro-Joy Barendse; Richard Baxter; Tara Beckerling; Tim van
Beek; Jennifer de Beyer; Dr. Sarah Blyth; Sebastian Bodenstein; Martin Bongers; Gareth Boxall; Stephan
Brandt; Hannes Breytenbach; Alex Briell; Wilbur Britz; Graeme Broster; Craig Brown; Deanne de Bude;
Richard Burge; Bianca Böhmer; George Calder-Potts; Eleanor Cameron; Richard Case; Sithembile Cele;
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Daniels; Gareth Davies; Sean Dobbs; Buhle Donga; William Donkin; Esmi Dreyer; Matthew Duddy;
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frey; Terence Goldberg; Dr. Johan Gonzalez; Saaligha Gool; Hemant Gopal; Dr. Stephanie Gould;
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sirai Magunje; Dr. Komal Maheshwari; Michael Malahe; Masoabi Malunga; Kosma von Maltitz; Masilo
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Joseph Raimondo; Sanya Rajani; Prof. Sergey Rakityansky; Alastair Ramlakan; Dr. Matina J. Rassias;
Dr. Jocelyn Read; Jonathan Reader; Jane Reddick; Dr. Matthew Reece; Razvan Remsing; Laura Richter;
Max Richter; Sean Riddle; Dr. David Roberts; Christopher Roberts; Helen Robertson; Evan Robinson;
Raoul Rontsch; Dr. Andrew Rose; Katie Ross; Jeanne-Marié Roux; Mark Roux; Bianca Ruddy; Nitin
Rughoonauth; Katie Russell; Steven Sam; Dr. Carl Scheffler; Cho Hee Shrader; Nathaniel Schwartz;
Duncan Scott; Helen Seals; Relebohile Sefako; Sandra Serumaga-Zake; Paul Shangase; Cameron Sharp;
Ian Sherratt; Dr. James Short; Roger Sieloff; Brandon Sim; Bonga Skozana; Clare Slotow; Bradley Smith;
Greg Solomon; Nicholas Spaull; Dr. Andrew Stacey; Dr. Jim Stasheff; Mike Stay; Mike Stringer; Masixole
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iv
Everything Maths
Mathematics is commonly thought of as being about numbers but mathematics is actually a language!
Mathematics is the language that nature speaks to us in. As we learn to understand and speak this lan-
guage, we can discover many of nature’s secrets. Just as understanding someone’s language is necessary
to learn more about them, mathematics is required to learn about all aspects of the world – whether it
is physical sciences, life sciences or even finance and economics.
The great writers and poets of the world have the ability to draw on words and put them together in ways
that can tell beautiful or inspiring stories. In a similar way, one can draw on mathematics to explain and
create new things. Many of the modern technologies that have enriched our lives are greatly dependent
on mathematics. DVDs, Google searches, bank cards with PIN numbers are just some examples. And
just as words were not created specifically to tell a story but their existence enabled stories to be told, so
the mathematics used to create these technologies was not developed for its own sake, but was available
to be drawn on when the time for its application was right.
There is in fact not an area of life that is not affected by mathematics. Many of the most sought after
careers depend on the use of mathematics. Civil engineers use mathematics to determine how to best
design new structures; economists use mathematics to describe and predict how the economy will react
to certain changes; investors use mathematics to price certain types of shares or calculate how risky
particular investments are; software developers use mathematics for many of the algorithms (such as
Google searches and data security) that make programmes useful.
But, even in our daily lives mathematics is everywhere – in our use of distance, time and money.
Mathematics is even present in art, design and music as it informs proportions and musical tones. The
greater our ability to understand mathematics, the greater our ability to appreciate beauty and everything
in nature. Far from being just a cold and abstract discipline, mathematics embodies logic, symmetry,
harmony and technological progress. More than any other language, mathematics is everywhere and
universal in its application.
See introductory video by Dr. Mark Horner: VMiwd at www.everythingmaths.co.za

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CONTENTS CONTENTS
Contents
1 Algebraic expressions 1
1.1 The real number system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Rational and irrational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Rounding off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Estimating surds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Factorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7 Simplification of fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2 Equations and inequalities 42

2.1 Solving linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2 Solving quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3 Solving simultaneous equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4 Word problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5 Literal equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.6 Solving linear inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3 Exponents 81
3.1 Laws of exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2 Rational exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3 Exponential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4 Number patterns 96
4.1 Describing sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2 Patterns and conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5 Functions 108
5.1 Functions in the real world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2 Linear functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3 Quadratic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.4 Hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.5 Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
xi
CONTENTS CONTENTS
5.7 Interpretation of graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6 Finance and growth 192

6.1 Being interested in interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2 Simple interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.3 Compound interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7 Trigonometry 218
7.1 Trigonometry is useful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.2 Similarity of triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.3 Defining the trigonometric ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.4 Reciprocal functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.5 Special angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.6 Solving trigonometric equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.7 Finding an angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.8 Two-dimensional problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.9 Defining ratios in the Cartesian plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8 Analytical geometry 251

8.1 Drawing figures on the Cartesian plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.2 Distance between two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.3 Gradient of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.4 Mid-point of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
9 Statistics 284
9.1 Collecting data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.2 Measures of central tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.3 Grouping data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
9.4 Measures of dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
9.5 Five number summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
10 Probability 321
10.1 Theoretical probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
10.2 Relative frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
10.3 Venn diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
10.4 Union and intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
10.5 Probability identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
10.6 Mutually exclusive events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
10.7 Complementary events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
11 Euclidean geometry 349

11.1 Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
xii
CONTENTS CONTENTS
11.2 The mid-point theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

11.3 Proofs and conjectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
12 Measurements 394
12.1 Area of a polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
12.2 Right prisms and cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
12.3 Right pyramids, right cones and spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
12.4 The effect of multiplying a dimension by a factor of k . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
13 Exercise Solutions 439
xiii
CONTENTS CONTENTS
xiv
Algebraic expressions 1
CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
1.1 The real number system EMAA
Real R
Rational Q
Integer Z
Irrational Q′
Whole N0
Natural N
We use the following definitions:
• N: natural numbers are {1; 2; 3; . . .}
• N0 : whole numbers are {0; 1; 2; 3; . . .}
• Z: integers are {. . . ; − 3; − 2; − 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; . . .}
Video: VMabo at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Focus Area: Mathematics 1

1.2 CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
1.2 Rational and irrational numbers EMAB
DEFINITION: Rational number
A rational number (Q) is any number which can be written as:
a
b
where a and b are integers and b 6= 0.
The following numbers are all rational numbers:
10 21 −1 10 −3
; ; ; ;
1 7 −3 20 6
We see that all numerators and all denominators are integers. This means that all integers
are rational numbers, because they can be written with a denominator of 1.
DEFINITION: Irrational numbers
Irrational numbers (Q0 ) are numbers that cannot be written as a fraction with
the numerator and denominator as integers.
Examples of irrational numbers:
√
√ √ √3 1+ 5
2; 3; 4; π;
2
These are not rational numbers, because either the numerator or the denominator is not
an integer.
2 Focus Area: Mathematics

CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS 1.2
Decimal numbers EMAC
All integers and fractions with integer numerators and denominators are rational num-
bers.
You can write any rational number as a decimal number but not all decimal numbers are
rational numbers. These types of decimal numbers are rational numbers:
4
• Decimal numbers that end (or terminate). For example, the fraction 10 can be
written as 0,4.
1
• Decimal numbers that have a repeating single digit. For example, the fraction 3
can be written as 0,3̇ or as 0,3̄. The dot and bar notations are equivalent and both
represent recurring 3’s, i.e. 0,3̇ = 0,3̄ = 0,333 . . ..
• Decimal numbers that have a recurring pattern of multiple digits. For example, the
2
fraction 11 can also be written as 0,18. The bar represents a recurring pattern of 1
and 8’s i.e. 0,18 = 0,181818 . . ..
Notation: You can use a dot or a bar over the repeated numbers to indicate that the
decimal is a recurring decimal. If the bar covers more than one number, then all numbers
beneath the bar are recurring.
If you are asked to identify whether a number is rational or irrational, first write the
number in decimal form. If the number terminates then it is rational. If it goes on forever,
then look for a repeated pattern of digits. If there is no repeated pattern, then the number
is irrational.
When you write irrational numbers in decimal form, you may continue writing them for
many, many decimal places. However, this is not convenient and it is often necessary to
round off.

Example 1: Rational and irrational numbers
QUESTION
Which of the following are not rational numbers?
1. π = 3,14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510 . . .
2. 1,4
3. 1,618033989 . . .
4. 100
5. 1,7373737373 . . .
6. 0,02
SOLUTION
1. Irrational, decimal does not terminate and has no repeated pattern.
2. Rational, decimal terminates.
3. Irrational, decimal does not terminate and has no repeated pattern.
4. Rational, all integers are rational.
5. Rational, decimal has repeated pattern.
6. Rational, decimal has repeated pattern.

Converting terminating decimals into rational EMAD

numbers
A decimal number has an integer part and a fractional part. For example, 10,589 has an
integer part of 10 and a fractional part of 0,589 because 10 + 0,589 = 10,589. The frac-
tional part can be written as a rational number, i.e. with a numerator and denominator
that are integers.
Each digit after the decimal point is a fraction with a denominator in increasing pow-
ers of 10.
For example,
1
• 0,1 is
10
1
• 0,01 is
100
1
• 0,001 is
1 000
This means that
5 8 9
10,589 = 10 + + +
10 100 1 000
10 000 500 80 9
= + + +
1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000
10 589
=
1 000
Converting recurring decimals into rational EMAE

numbers
When the decimal is a recurring decimal, a bit more work is needed to write the fractional
part of the decimal number as a fraction.

Example 2: Converting decimal numbers to fractions
QUESTION
a
Write 0,3̇ in the form (where a and b are integers).
b
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Define an equation
Let x = 0,33333 . . .
Step 2 : Multiply by 10 on both sides
10x = 3,33333 . . .
Step 3 : Subtract the first equation from the second equation
9x = 3
Step 4 : Simplify
3 1
x= =
9 3

Example 3: Converting decimal numbers to fractions
QUESTION
Write 5,4̇3̇2̇ as a rational fraction.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Define an equation
x = 5,432432432 . . .
Step 2 : Multiply by 1000 on both sides
1 000x = 5 432,432432432 . . .
Step 3 : Subtract the first equation from the second equation
999x = 5 427
Step 4 : Simplify
5 427 201 16
x= = =5
999 37 37
In the first example, the decimal was multiplied by 10 and in the second example, the
decimal was multiplied by 1 000. This is because there was only one digit recurring (i.e.
3) in the first example, while there were three digits recurring (i.e. 432) in the second
example.
In general, if you have one digit recurring, then multiply by 10. If you have two digits
recurring, then multiply by 100. If you have three digits recurring, then multiply by 1 000
and so on.

Not all decimal numbers can be written as rational numbers. Why? Irrational deci-
√
mal numbers like 2 = 1,4142135 . . . cannot be written with an integer numerator and
denominator, because they do not have a pattern of recurring digits and they do not ter-
minate. However, when possible, you should try to use rational numbers or fractions
instead of decimals.
Exercise 1 - 1
1. State whether the following numbers are rational or irrational. If the

number is rational, state whether it is a natural number, whole number
or an integer:
1
(a) −
3
(b) 0,651268962154862 . . .
√
9
(c)
3
(d) π 2
2. If a is an integer, b is an integer and c is irrational, which of the following

are rational numbers?
5
(a)
6
a
(b)
3
−2
(c)
b
1
(d)
c
a
3. For which of the following values of a is 14 rational or irrational?
(a) 1
(b) −10
√
(c) 2
(d) 2,1
4. Write the following as fractions:

(a) 0,1
(b) 0,12
(c) 0,58
(d) 0,2589
5. Write the following using the recurring decimal notation:

(a) 0,11111111 . . .

(b) 0,1212121212 . . .
(c) 0,123123123123 . . .
(d) 0,11414541454145 . . .
6. Write the following in decimal form, using the recurring decimal nota-
tion:
2
(a)
3
3
(b) 1
11
5
(c) 4
6
1
(d) 2
9
7. Write the following decimals in fractional form:
(a) 0,5̇
(b) 0,63̇
(c) 5,31
More practice video solutions or help at www.everythingmaths.co.za
(1.) 023j (2.) 00bb (3.) 00bc (4.) 00bd (5.) 00be
(6.) 00bf (7.) 00bg
1.3 Rounding off EMAF
Rounding off a decimal number to a given number of decimal places is the quickest way
to approximate a number. For example, if you wanted to round off 2,6525272 to three
decimal places, you would:
• count three places after the decimal and place a | between the third and fourth
numbers
• round up the third digit if the fourth digit is greater than or equal to 5
• leave the third digit unchanged if the fourth digit is less than 5
• if the third digit is 9 and needs to be round up, then the 9 becomes a 0 and the
second digit rounded up

So, since the first digit after the | is a 5, we must round up the digit in the third decimal
place to a 3 and the final answer of 2,6525272 rounded to three decimal places is 2,653.
Example 4: Rounding off
QUESTION
Round off the following numbers to the indicated number of decimal places:
120
1. 99 = 1,1̇2̇ to 3 decimal places.
2. π = 3,141592653 . . . to 4 decimal places.

√
3. 3 = 1,7320508 . . . to 4 decimal places.
4. 2,78974526 to 3 decimal places.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Mark off the required number of decimal places

120
1. 99 = 1,212|121212 . . .
2. π = 3,1415|92653 . . .
√
3. 3 = 1,7320|508 . . .
4. 2,789|74526
Step 2 : Check the next digit to see if you must round up or round down
120
1. The last digit of 99 = 1,212|1212121̇2̇ must be rounded
down.
2. The last digit of π = 3,1415|92653 . . . must be rounded up.

√
3. The last digit of 3 = 1,7320|508 . . . must be rounded up.
4. The last digit of 2,789|74526 must be rounded up.

Since this is a 9, we replace it with a 0 and round up
the second last digit.

Step 3 : Write the final answer

120
1. 99 = 1,212 rounded to 3 decimal places.
2. π = 3,1416 rounded to 4 decimal places.

√
3. 3 = 1,7321 rounded to 4 decimal places.
4. 2,790.
Exercise 1 - 2
Round off the following to 3 decimal places:
1. 12,56637061 . . .
2. 3,31662479 . . .
3. 0,26666666 . . .
4. 1,912931183 . . .
5. 6,32455532 . . .
6. 0,05555555 . . .
(1.-6.) 00bh
1.4 Estimating surds EMAG
If the nth root of a number cannot be simplified to a rational number, we call it a surd.
√ √ √
For example, 2 and 3 6 are surds, but 4 is not a surd because it can be simplified to
the rational number 2.
√
In this chapter we will look at surds of the form n
a where a is any positive number, for

√ √
3 √
example, 7 or5. It is very common for n to be 2, so we usually do not write 2
a.
√
Instead we write the surd as just a.
It is sometimes useful to know the approximate value of a surd without having to use a
√
calculator. For example, we want to be able to estimate where a surd like 3 is on the
√
number line. From a calculator we know that 3 is equal to 1,73205 . . .. It is easy to see
√ √
that 3 is above 1 and below 2. But to see this for other surds like 18 without using a
calculator, you must first understand the following:
√ √
n
If a and b are positive whole numbers, and a < b, then n
a< b.
A perfect square is the number obtained when an integer is squared. For example, 9 is a
perfect square since 32 = 9.
Similarly, a perfect cube is a number which is the cube of an integer. For example, 27 is
a perfect cube, because 33 = 27.
√ √
Consider the surd 3 52. It lies somewhere between 3 and 4, because 3 27 = 3 and
√
3
64 = 4 and 52 is between 27 and 64.
Example 5: Estimating surds
QUESTION
√
Find the two consecutive integers such that 26 lies between them. (Remember
that consecutive integers are two integers that follow one another on the number
line, for example, 5 and 6 or 8 and 9).
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use perfect squares to estimate the lower integer

√
52 = 25. Therefore 5 < 26.
Step 2 : Use perfect squares to estimate the upper integer

√
62 = 36. Therefore 26 < 6.

√
5 < 26 < 6.

Example 6: Estimating surds
QUESTION
√
3
Find the two consecutive integers such that 49 lies between them.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use perfect cubes to estimate the lower integer

√
33 = 27, therefore 3 < 3 49.
Step 2 : Use perfect cubes to estimate the upper integer

√
43 = 64, therefore 3 49 < 4.
Step 3 : Write the answer

√
3 < 3 49 < 4
Step 4 : Check the answer by cubing all terms in the inequality and then
simplify
√
3
27 < 49 < 64. This is true, so 49 lies between 3 and 4.
Exercise 1 - 3
Determine between which two consecutive integers the following numbers
lie, without using a calculator:
√
1. 18
√
2. 29
√
3. 3 5
√
4. 3 79
(1.-4.) 00bi

1.5 Products EMAH
Mathematical expressions are just like sentences and their parts have special names. You
should be familiar with the following words used to describe the parts of mathematical
expressions.
3x2 + 7xy − 53 = 0
Name Examples
term 3x2 ; 7xy; − 53
expression 3x2 + 7xy − 53
coefficient 3; 7
exponent 2; 1; 3
base x; y; 5
constant 3; 7; 5
variable x; y
equation 3x2 + 7xy − 53 = 0
Multiplying a monomial and a binomial EMAI
A monomial is an expression with one term, for example, 3x or y 2 . A binomial is an

expression with two terms, for example, ax + b or cx + d.

Example 7: Simplifying brackets
QUESTION
Simplify: 2a(a − 1) − 3(a2 − 1).
SOLUTION
2a(a − 1) − 3(a2 − 1) = 2a(a) + 2a(−1) + (−3)(a2 ) + (−3)(−1)

= 2a2 − 2a − 3a2 + 3
= −a2 − 2a + 3
Multiplying two binomials EMAJ
Here we multiply (or expand) two linear binomials:
(ax + b)(cx + d)
(ax + b)(cx + d) = (ax)(cx) + (ax)d + b(cx) + bd

= acx2 + adx + bcx + bd
= acx2 + x(ad + bc) + bd

Example 8: Multiplying two binomials
QUESTION
Find the product: (3x − 2)(5x + 8).
SOLUTION
(3x − 2)(5x + 8) = (3x)(5x) + (3x)(8) + (−2)(5x) + (−2)(8)

= 15x2 + 24x − 10x − 16
= 15x2 + 14x − 16
The product of two identical binomials is known as the square of the binomial and is
written as:
(ax + b)2 = a2 x2 + 2abx + b2
If the two terms are of the form ax + b, and ax − b then their product is:
(ax + b)(ax − b) = a2 x2 − b2
This product yields the difference of two squares.
Multiplying a binomial and a trinomial EMAK
A trinomial is an expression with three terms, for example, ax2 + bx + c. Now we learn
how to multiply a binomial and a trinomial.
To find the product of a binomial and a trinomial, multiply out the brackets:
(A + B)(C + D + E) = A(C + D + E) + B(C + D + E)

Video: MG10062 at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 9: Multiplying a binomial and a trinomial
QUESTION
Find the product: (x − 1)(x2 − 2x + 1).
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Expand the bracket

(x − 1)(x2 − 2x + 1) = x(x2 − 2x + 1) − 1(x2 − 2x + 1)
= x3 − 2x2 + x − x2 + 2x − 1
Step 2 : Simplify
= x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1
Exercise 1 - 4
Expand the following products:
1. 2y(y + 4) 11. (1 − 4x)2
2. (y + 5)(y + 2) 12. (−3 − y)(5 − y)
3. (2 − t)(1 − 2t) 13. (8 − x)(8 + x)
4. (x − 4)(x + 4) 14. (9 + x)2
5. (2p + 9)(3p + 1) 15. (−2y 2 − 4y + 11)(5y − 12)
6. (3k − 2)(k + 6) 16. (7y 2 − 6y − 8)(−2y + 2)
7. (s + 6)2 17. (10y + 3)(−2y 2 − 11y + 2)
8. −(7 − x)(7 + x) 18. (−12y − 3)(12y 2 − 11y + 3)
9. (3x − 1)(3x + 1) 19. (−10)(2y 2 + 8y + 3)
10. (7k + 2)(3 − 2k) 20. (2y 6 + 3y 5 )(−5y − 12)

21. (−7y + 11)(−12y + 3) 23. 9(8y 2 − 2y + 3)
22. (7y + 3)(7y 2 + 3y + 10) 24. (−6y 4 + 11y 2 + 3y)(y + 4)(y − 4)
(1.-6.) 00bj (7.-12.) 00bk (13.-18.) 00bm (19.-24.) 00bn
1.6 Factorisation EMAL
Factorisation is the opposite process of expanding brackets. For example, expanding

brackets would require 2(x + 1) to be written as 2x + 2. Factorisation would be to start
with 2x + 2 and to end up with 2(x + 1).
factorising
2(x + 1) 2x + 2
expanding
The two expressions 2(x + 1) and 2x + 2 are equivalent; they have the same value for all
values of x.
In previous grades, we factorised by taking out a common factor and using difference of
squares.
Video: VMabz at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Common factors EMAM
Factorising based on common factors relies on there being factors common to all the
terms.

For example, 2x − 6x2 can be factorised as follows:
2x − 6x2 = 2x(1 − 3x)
Example 10: Factorising using a switch around in brackets
QUESTION
Factorise: 5(a − 2) − b(2 − a).
SOLUTION
Use a “switch around” strategy to find the common factor.

Notice that 2 − a = −(a − 2)
5(a − 2) − b(2 − a) = 5(a − 2) − [−b(a − 2)]

= 5(a − 2) + b(a − 2)
= (a − 2)(5 + b)
Difference of two squares EMAN
We have seen that
(ax + b)(ax − b) can be expanded to a2 x2 − b2
Therefore
a2 x2 − b2 can be factorised as (ax + b)(ax − b)

For example, x2 − 16 can be written as x2 − 42 which is a difference of two squares.

Therefore, the factors of x2 − 16 are (x − 4) and (x + 4).
To spot a difference of two squares, look for expressions:
• consisting of two terms;
• with terms that have different signs (one positive, one negative);
• with each term a perfect square.
For example: a2 − 1; 4x2 − y 2 ; −49 + p4 .
Example 11: The difference of two squares
QUESTION
Factorise: 3a(a2 − 4) − 7(a2 − 4).
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Take out the common factor (a2 − 4)
3a(a2 − 4) − 7(a2 − 4) = (a2 − 4)(3a − 7)
Step 2 : Factorise the difference of two squares (a2 − 4)
(a2 − 4)(3a − 7) = (a − 2)(a + 2)(3a − 7)

Exercise 1 - 5
Factorise:
1. 2l + 2w 13. −2ab − 8a
2. 12x + 32y 14. 24kj − 16k 2 j

3. 6x2 + 2x + 10x3 15. −a2 b − b2 a
4. 2xy 2 + xy 2 z + 3xy
16. 12k 2 j + 24k 2 j 2
5. −2ab2 − 4a2 b
17. 72b2 q − 18b3 q 2
6. 7a + 4
18. 4(y − 3) + k(3 − y)
7. 20a − 10
19. a2 (a − 1) − 25(a − 1)
8. 18ab − 3bc
20. bm(b + 4) − 6m(b + 4)
9. 12kj + 18kq
10. 16k 2 − 4 21. a2 (a + 7) + 9(a + 7)
11. 3a2 + 6a − 18 22. 3b(b − 4) − 7(4 − b)
12. −12a + 24a3 23. a2 b2 c2 − 1
(1.-7.) 00br (8.-12.) 00bs (13.-18.) 00bt (19.-23.) 00bu
Factorising by grouping in pairs EMAO
The taking out of common factors is the starting point in all factorisation problems. We
know that the factors of 3x + 3 are 3 and (x + 1). Similarly, the factors of 2x2 + 2x are 2x
and (x + 1). Therefore, if we have an expression
2x2 + 2x + 3x + 3

there is no common factor to all four terms, but we can factorise as follows:
(2x2 + 2x) + (3x + 3) = 2x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1)
We can see that there is another common factor (x + 1). Therefore, we can now write:
(x + 1)(2x + 3)
We get this by taking out the (x + 1) and seeing what is left over. We have 2x from the
first group and +3 from the second group. This is called factorising by grouping.
Example 12: Factorising by grouping in pairs
QUESTION
Find the factors of 7x + 14y + bx + 2by.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : There are no factors common to all terms
Step 2 : Group terms with common factors together

7 is a common factor of the first two terms and b is a common factor
of the second two terms. We see that the ratio of the coefficients
7 : 14 is the same as b : 2b.
7x + 14y + bx + 2by = (7x + 14y) + (bx + 2by)

= 7(x + 2y) + b(x + 2y)
Step 3 : Take out the common factor (x + 2y)
7(x + 2y) + b(x + 2y) = (x + 2y)(7 + b)
OR
Step 1 : Group terms with common factors together

x is a common factor of the first and third terms and 2y is a
common factor of the second and fourth terms

(7 : b = 14 : 2b).
Step 2 : Rearrange the equation with grouped terms together
7x + 14y + bx + 2by = (7x + bx) + (14y + 2by)

= x(7 + b) + 2y(7 + b)
Step 3 : Take out the common factor (7 + b)
x(7 + b) + 2y(7 + b) = (7 + b)(x + 2y)

The factors of 7x + 14y + bx + 2by are (7 + b) and (x + 2y).
Exercise 1 - 6
Factorise the following:
1. 6x + a + 2ax + 3 4. a2 − 2a − ax + 2x
2. x2 − 6x + 5x − 30 5. 5xy − 3y + 10x − 6
3. 5x + 10y − ax − 2ay 6. ab − a2 − a + b
(1.) 00bz (2.) 00c0 (3.) 00c1 (4.) 00c2 (5.) 00c3
(6.) 00c4
Factorising a quadratic trinomial EMAP
Factorising is the reverse of calculating the product of factors. In order to factorise a

quadratic, we need to find the factors which, when multiplied together, equal the original

quadratic.
Consider a quadratic expression of the form ax2 + bx. We see here that x is a common
factor in both terms. Therefore, ax2 + bx factorises as x(ax + b). For example, 8y 2 + 4y
factorises as 4y(2y +1). Another type of quadratic is made up of the difference of squares.
We know that:
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2
So a2 − b2 can be written in factorised form as (a + b)(a − b).
This means that if we ever come across a quadratic that is made up of a difference of
squares, we can immediately write down the factors. These types of quadratics are very
simple to factorise. However, many quadratics do not fall into these categories and we
need a more general method to factorise quadratics. We can learn about factorising
quadratics by looking at the opposite process, where two binomials are multiplied to get
a quadratic. For example,
(x + 2)(x + 3) = x2 + 3x + 2x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
We see that the x2 term in the quadratic is the product of the x-terms in each bracket.
Similarly, the 6 in the quadratic is the product of the 2 and 3 in the brackets. Finally, the
middle term is the sum of two terms.
So, how do we use this information to factorise the quadratic?
Let us start with factorising x2 + 5x + 6 and see if we can decide upon some general rules.
Firstly, write down two brackets with an x in each bracket and space for the remaining
terms.
(x )(x )
Next, decide upon the factors of 6. Since the 6 is positive, possible combinations are:
Factors of 6
1 6
2 3
−1 −6
−2 −3

Therefore, we have four possibilities:
Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4
(x + 1)(x + 6) (x − 1)(x − 6) (x + 2)(x + 3) (x − 2)(x − 3)
Next, we expand each set of brackets to see which option gives us the correct middle
term.
Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4
(x + 1)(x + 6) (x − 1)(x − 6) (x + 2)(x + 3) (x − 2)(x − 3)
x2 + 7x + 6 x2 − 7x + 6 x2 + 5x + 6 x2 − 5x + 6
We see that Option 3, (x + 2)(x + 3), is the correct solution.
The process of factorising a quadratic is mostly trial and error but there are some strategies
that can be used to ease the process.
General procedure for factorising a trinomial EMAQ
1. Divide the entire equation by any common factor of the coefficients so as to obtain
an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c have no common factors and
a is positive.
2. Write down two brackets with an x in each bracket and space for the remaining
terms:
(x )( x )
3. Write down a set of factors for a and c.
4. Write down a set of options for the possible factors for the quadratic using the
factors of a and c.
5. Expand all options to see which one gives you the correct middle term bx.

Note: If c is positive, then the factors of c must be either both positive or both negative.
If c is negative, it means only one of the factors of c is negative, the other one being
positive. Once you get an answer, always multiply out your brackets again just to make
sure it really works.
Example 13: Factorising a quadratic trinomial
QUESTION
Factorise: 3x2 + 2x − 1.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Check that the quadratic is in required form ax2 + bx + c
Step 2 : Write down a set of factors for a and c
(x )( x )
The possible factors for a are: (1; 3).

The possible factors for c are: (−1; 1) or (1; − 1).
Write down a set of options for the possible factors of the quadratic
using the factors of a and c. Therefore, there are two possible options.
Option 1 Option 2
(x − 1)(3x + 1) (x + 1)(3x − 1)
3x2 − 2x − 1 3x2 + 2x − 1
Step 3 : Check that the solution is correct by multiplying the factors
(x + 1)(3x − 1) = 3x2 − x + 3x − 1
= 3x2 + 2x − 1


The factors of 3x2 + 2x − 1 are (x + 1) and (3x − 1).
Exercise 1 - 7
1. Factorise the following:
(a) x2 + 8x + 15 (d) x2 + 9x + 14
(b) x2 + 10x + 24 (e) x2 + 15x + 36
(c) x2 + 9x + 8 (f) x2 + 12x + 36
2. Write the following expressions in factorised form:
(a) x2 − 2x − 15 (d) x2 + x − 20
(b) x2 + 2x − 3 (e) x2 − x − 20
(c) x2 + 2x − 8 (f) 2x2 + 22x + 20
3. Find the factors of the following trinomial expressions:
(a) 3x2 + 19x + 6 (c) 12x2 + 8x + 1

(b) 6x2 + 7x + 1 (d) 8x2 + 6x + 1
4. Factorise:
(a) 3x2 + 17x − 6 (c) 8x2 − 6x + 1

(b) 7x2 − 6x − 1 (d) 6x2 − 15x − 9
(1.) 00bv (2.) 00bw (3.) 00bx (4.) 00by

Sum and difference of two cubes EMAR
We now look at two special results obtained from multiplying a binomial and a trinomial:
Sum of two cubes:
(x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 ) = x(x2 − xy + y 2 ) + y(x2 − xy + y 2 )

= x(x2 ) + x(−xy) + x(y 2 ) + y(x2 ) + y(−xy) + y(y 2 )

= x3 − x2 y + xy 2 + x2 y − xy 2 + y 3
= x3 + y 3
Difference of two cubes:
(x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) = x(x2 + xy + y 2 ) − y(x2 + xy + y 2 )

= x(x2 ) + x(xy) + x(y 2 ) − y(x2 ) + y(xy) + y(y 2 )

= x3 + x2 y + xy 2 − x2 y − xy 2 − y 3
= x3 − y 3
So we have seen that:
x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 )
x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 )
We use these two basic equations to factorise more complex examples.

Example 14: Factorising a difference of two cubes
QUESTION
Factorise: x3 − 1.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Take the cube root of terms that are perfect cubes
√
3
√
Notice that x3 = x and 3 1 = 1. These give the terms in the first
bracket.
Step 2 : Use inspection to find the three terms in the second bracket
(x3 − 1) = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)
Step 3 : Expand the brackets to check that the expression has been correctly
factorised
(x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) = x(x2 + x + 1) − 1(x2 + x + 1)

= x3 + x2 + x − x2 − x − 1
= x3 − 1
Example 15: Factorising a sum of two cubes
QUESTION
Factorise: x3 + 8.
SOLUTION

√
3
√
3
Notice that x3 = x and 8 = 2. These give the terms in the first
bracket.
(x3 + 8) = (x + 2)(x2 − 2x + 4)
factorised
(x + 2)(x2 − 2x + 4) = x(x2 − 2x + 4) + 2(x2 − 2x + 4)

= x3 − 2x2 + 4x + 2x2 − 4x + 8
= x3 + 8
Example 16: Factorising a difference of two cubes
QUESTION
Factorise: 16y 3 − 432.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Take out the common factor 16
16y 3 − 432 = 16(y 3 − 27)
p √
Notice that 3 y 3 = y and 3 27 = 3. These give the terms in the first
bracket.
16(y 3 − 27) = 16(y − 3)(y 2 + 3y + 9)

factorised
16(y − 3)(y 2 + 3y + 9) = 16[(y(y 2 + 3y + 9) − 3(y 2 + 3y + 9)]

= 16[y 3 + 3y 2 + 9y − 3y 2 − 9y − 27]
= 16y 3 − 432
Example 17: Factorising a sum of two cubes
QUESTION
Factorise: 8t3 + 125p3 .
SOLUTION
Step 1 : There is no common factor
Step 2 : Take the cube roots

√
3
p
Notice that 8t3 = 2t and 3 125p3 = 5p. These give the terms in
the first bracket.
Step 3 : Use inspection to find the three terms in second bracket
(8t3 + 125p3 ) = (2t + 5p) (2t)2 − (2t)(5p) + (5p)2

= (2t + 5p)(4t2 − 10tp + 25p2 )
Step 4 : Expand the brackets to check that expression has been correctly
factorised
(2t + 5p)(4t2 − 10tp + 25p2 ) = 2t(4t2 − 10tp + 25p2 ) + 5p(4t2 − 10tp + 25p2 )

= 8t3 − 20pt2 + 50p2 t + 20pt2 − 50p2 t + 125p3

= 8t3 + 125p3
Exercise 1 - 8
Factorise:
1. x3 + 8 7. 125x3 + 1
2. 27 − m3 8. 25x2 + 1
3. 2x3 − 2y 3 9. z − 125z 4
4. 3k 3 + 27q 3 10. 8m6 + n9
5. 64t3 − 1 11. p15 − 81 y 12
6. 64x2 − 1 12. 1 − (x − y)3
(1.-5.) 00c5 (6.-10.) 00c6 (11.-12.) 022k
1.7 Simplification of fractions EMAS
We have studied procedures for working with fractions in earlier grades.
a c ac
1. × = (b 6= 0; d 6= 0)
b d bd
a c a+c
2. + = (b 6= 0)
b b b
a c a d ad
3. ÷ = × = (b 6= 0; c 6= 0; d 6= 0)
b d b c bc

Note: dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by the reciprocal of the fraction.
In some cases of simplifying an algebraic expression, the expression will be a fraction.

For example,
x2 + 3x
x+3
has a quadratic binomial in the numerator and a linear binomial in the denominator. We
have to apply the different factorisation methods in order to factorise the numerator and
the denominator before we can simplify the expression.
x2 + 3x x(x + 3)
=
x+3 x+3
=x (x 6= −3)
If x = −3 then the denominator, x + 3 = 0, and the fraction is undefined.
Video: VMacc at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 18: Simplifying fractions
QUESTION
ax − b + x − ab
Simplify: , (x 6= 0; x 6= b).
ax2 − abx
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use grouping to factorise the numerator and take out the common
factor ax in the denominator
(ax − ab) + (x − b) a(x − b) + (x − b)

2
=
ax − abx ax(x − b)
Step 2 : Take out common factor (x − b) in the numerator
(x − b)(a + 1)
=
ax(x − b)
Step 3 : Cancel the common factor in the numerator and the denominator to
give the final answer

a+1
=
ax
QUESTION
x2 − x − 2 x2 + x
Simplify: ÷ , (x 6= 0; x 6= ±2).
x2 − 4 x2 + 2x
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Factorise the numerator and denominator
(x + 1)(x − 2) x(x + 1)
= ÷
(x + 2)(x − 2) x(x + 2)
Step 2 : Change the division sign and multiply by the reciprocal
(x + 1)(x − 2) x(x + 2)
= ×
(x + 2)(x − 2) x(x + 1)
=1

QUESTION
x−2 x2 x3 + x − 4
Simplify: + − , (x 6= ±2).
x2 − 4 x − 2 x2 − 4
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Factorise the denominators
x−2 x2 x3 + x − 4
+ −
(x + 2)(x − 2) x − 2 (x + 2)(x − 2)
Step 2 : Make all denominators the same so that we can add or subtract the
fractions
The lowest common denominator is (x − 2)(x + 2).
x−2 (x2 )(x + 2) x3 + x − 4

+ −
(x + 2)(x − 2) (x + 2)(x − 2) (x + 2)(x − 2)
Step 3 : Write as one fraction
x − 2 + (x2 )(x + 2) − (x3 + x − 4)

(x + 2)(x − 2)
Step 4 : Simplify
x − 2 + x3 + 2x2 − x3 − x + 4 2x2 + 2
=
(x + 2)(x − 2) (x + 2)(x − 2)
Step 5 : Take out the common factor and write the final answer
2(x2 + 1)
(x + 2)(x − 2)

QUESTION
2 x2 + x + 1 x
Simplify: + − 2 , (x 6= 0; x 6= ±1).
x2 − x x3 − 1 x −1
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Factorise the numerator and denominator
2 (x2 + x + 1) x
+ 2
−
x(x − 1) (x − 1)(x + x + 1) (x − 1)(x + 1)
Step 2 : Simplify and find the common denominator
2(x + 1) + x(x + 1) − x2
x(x − 1)(x + 1)
2x + 2 + x2 + x − x2 3x + 2
=
x(x − 1)(x + 1) x(x − 1)(x + 1)
Exercise 1 - 9
Simplify (assume all denominators are non-zero):
3a 9a + 27
1. 6.
15 9a + 18
2a + 10 6ab + 2a
2. 7.
4 2b
5a + 20 16x2 y − 8xy
3. 8.
a+4 12x − 6
a2 − 4a 4xyp − 8xp
4. 9.
a−4 12xy
3a2 − 9a 3a + 9 7a + 21
5. 10. ÷
2a − 6 14 a+3

a2 − 5a 4a 3 2
11. × 22. +
2a + 10 3a + 15 p2 − 4 (p − 2)2
3xp + 4p 12p2 x x2
12. ÷ 23. + 2
8p 3x + 4 x + y y − x2
24a − 8 9a − 3
13. ÷ 1 3mn
12 6 24. +
m + n m3 + n3
a2 + 2a 2a + 4
14. ÷ h 1
5 20 25. − 2
2
p + pq 21q h3 −f 3 h + hf + f 2
15. ×
7p 8p + 8q x2 − 1 1 1
26. × −
5ab − 15b 6b2 3 x−1 2
16. ÷
4a − 12 a+b
x2 − 2x + 1 x2 + x + 1
f 2a − f a2 27. −
17. (x − 1)3 x3 − 1
f −a
1 2x
2 4 3 28. −
18. + + (x − 1)2 x3 − 1
xy xz yz
5 1 p3 + q 3 3p − 3q
19. − 29. × 2
t−2 t−3 p2 p − q2
k+2 1
20. − 1 a2 + 2ab + b2
k2 + 2 k + 2 30. + −
a2 − 4ab + 4b2 a3 − 8b3
t+2 t+1 1
21. +
3q 2q a − 4b2
2
(1.-7.) 00c7 (8.-13.) 00c8 (14.-20.) 00c9 (21.-26.) 00ca (27.-30.) 022m
Chapter 1 | Summary
Summary presentation: VMcyl at www.everythingmaths.co.za
a
• A rational number is any number that can be written as where a and b are integers
b
and b 6= 0.
• The following are rational numbers:
· Fractions with both numerator and denominator as integers

· Integers

· Decimal numbers that terminate

· Decimal numbers that recur (repeat)
• Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be written as a fraction with the numer-
ator and denominator as integers.
• If the nth root of a number cannot be simplified to a rational number, it is called a

surd.
√ √
n
• If a and b are positive whole numbers, and a < b, then n
a< b.
• A binomial is an expression with two terms.
• The product of two identical binomials is known as the square of the binomial.
• We get the difference of two squares when we multiply (ax + b)(ax − b).
• Factorising is the opposite process of expanding the brackets.
• The product of a binomial and a trinomial is:
(A + B)(C + D + E) = A(C + D + E) + B(C + D + E)
• Taking out a common factor is the basic factorisation method.
• We often need to use grouping to factorise polynomials.
• To factorise a quadratic we find the two binomials that were multiplied together to
give the quadratic.
• The sum of two cubes can be factorised as: x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 ).
• The difference of two cubes can be factorised as: x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ).
• We can simplify fractions by incorporating the methods we have learnt to factorise

expressions.
• Only factors can be cancelled out in fractions, never terms.
• To add or subtract fractions, the denominators of all the fractions must be the same.

Chapter 1 End of Chapter Exercises
1. If a is an integer, b is an integer and c is irrational, which of the following

are rational numbers?
−b
(a)
a
(b) c ÷ c
a
(c)
c
1
(d)
c
2. Write each decimal as a simple fraction.
(a) 0,12
(b) 0,006
(c) 1,59
(d) 12,277̇
3. Show that the decimal 3,211̇8̇ is a rational number.

a
4. Express 0,78̇ as a fraction where a,b ∈ Z (show all working).
b
5. Write the following rational numbers to 2 decimal places.
1
(a)
2
(b) 1
(c) 0,111111
(d) 0,999991
6. Round off the following irrational numbers to 3 decimal places.
(a) 3,141592654 . . . (c) 1,41421356 . . .

(b) 1,618033989 . . . (d) 2,71828182845904523536 . . .
7. Use your calculator and write the following irrational numbers to 3 dec-
imal places.
√ √
(a) 2 (c) 5
√ √
(b) 3 (d) 6
8. Use your calculator (where necessary) and write the following numbers
to 5 decimal places. State whether the numbers are irrational or rational.

√ √
(a) 8 (f) 36
√ √
(b) 768 (g) 1960
√ √
(c) 0,49 (h) 0,0036
√ √
(d) 0,0016 (i) −8 0,04
√ √
(e) 0,25 (j) 5 80
9. Write the following irrational numbers to 3 decimal places and then

write each one as a rational number to get an approximation to the
irrational number.
(a) 3,141592654 . . . (c) 1,41421356 . . .

(b) 1,618033989 . . . (d) 2,71828182845904523536 . . .
10. Determine between which two consecutive integers the following irra-
tional numbers lie, without using a calculator.
√ √
3
(a) 5 (e) 5
√ √
(b) 10 (f) 3 10
√ √
(c) 20 (g) 3 20
√ √
(d) 30 (h) 3 30
√
11. Find two consecutive integers such that 7 lies between them.
√
12. Find two consecutive integers such that 15 lies between them.
13. Factorise:
(a) a2 − 9 (l) (16 − x4 )

(b) m2 − 36 (m) 7x2 − 14x + 7xy − 14y
(c) 9b2 − 81 (n) y 2 − 7y − 30
(d) 16b6 − 25a2 (o) 1 − x − x2 + x3
1
(e) m2 − 9 (p) −3(1 − p2 ) + p + 1
(f) 5 − 5a2 b6 (q) x − x3 + y − y 3
(g) 16ba4 − 81b (r) x2 − 2x + 1 − y 4
(h) a2 − 10a + 25 (s) 4b(x3 − 1) + x(1 − x3 )
1
(i) 16b2 + 56b + 49 (t) 3p3 − 9
(j) 2a2 − 12ab + 18b2 (u) 8x6 − 125y 9

(k) −4b2 − 144b8 + 48b5 (v) (2 + p)3 − 8(p + 1)3

14. Simplify the following:

(a) (a − 2)2 − a(a + 4)
(b) (5a − 4b)(25a2 + 20ab + 16b2 )
(c) (2m − 3)(4m2 + 9)(2m + 3)
(d) (a + 2b − c)(a + 2b + c)
p2 − q 2 p+q
(e) ÷ 2
p p − pq
2 x 2x
(f) + −
x 2 3
1 a+7
(g) − 2
a + 7 a − 49
x+2
(h) + 16
2x3
1 − 2a a−1 1
(i) − −
4a2 − 1 2a2 − 3a + 1 1 − a
x2 + 2x x2 + 2x + 1
(j) ×
x2 + x + 6 x2 + 3x + 2
15. Show that (2x − 1)2 − (x − 3)2 can be simplified to (x + 2)(3x − 4).
16. What must be added to x2 − x + 4 to make it equal to (x + 2)2 ?

x3 + 1
17. Evaluate if x = 7,85 without using a calculator. Show your
x2 − x + 1
work.
18. With what expression must (a − 2b) be multiplied to get a product of

a3 − 8b3 ?
19. With what expression must 27x3 + 1 be divided to get a quotient of

3x + 1?
(1.) 00cb (2.) 00cc (3.) 00cd (4.) 00ce (5.) 00cf
(6.) 00cg (7.) 00ch (8.) 00ci (9.) 00cj (10.) 00ck
(11.) 00cm (12.) 00cn (13a-k.) 00cp (13l-p.) 00cq (13q-t.) 00cr
(13u-v.) 022n (14a-d.) 00cs (14e-f.) 00ct (14g-j.) 00cu (15.) 00cv
(16.) 00cw (17.) 00cx (18.) 022p (19.) 022q

Equations and inequalities 2
CHAPTER 2. EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
2.1 Solving linear equations EMAT
The simplest equation to solve is a linear equation. A linear equation is an equation

where the highest exponent of the variable is 1. The following are examples of linear
equations:
2x + 2 = 1
2−x
=2
3x + 1
4(2x − 9) − 4x = 4 − 6x
2a − 3 a
− 3a =
3 3
Solving an equation means finding the value of the variable that makes the equation true.
For example, to solve the simple equation x + 1 = 1, we need to determine the value of
x that will make the left hand side equal to the right hand side. The solution is x = 0.
The solution, also called the root of an equation, is the value of the variable that satisfies
the equation. For linear equations, there is at most one solution for the equation.
To solve equations we use algebraic methods that include expanding expressions, group-
ing terms, and factorising.
For example,
2x + 2 = 1
2x = 1 − 2 (rearrange)
2x = −1 (simplify)
x = − 21 (divide both sides by 2)

CHAPTER 2. EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 2.1
Check the answer by substituting x = − 12 back into the original equation.
LHS = 2x + 2
1
= 2(− ) + 2
2
= −1 + 2
=1
RHS = 1
Therefore x = − 12 is a valid solution.
Video: VMacw at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Method for solving linear equations EMAU
The general steps for solving linear equations are:
1. Expand all brackets.

2. Rearrange the terms so that all terms containing the variable are on one side of the
equation and all constant terms are on the other side.
3. Group like terms together and simplify.
4. Factorise if necessary.
5. Find the solution and write down the answer.
6. Check the answer by substituting the solution back into the original equation.
Remember: an equation must always be balanced, whatever you do to the left-hand side,
you must also do to the right-hand side.

2.1 CHAPTER 2. EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
Example 1: Solving linear equations
QUESTION
Solve for x: 4(2x − 9) − 4x = 4 − 6x.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Expand the brackets and simplify
4(2x − 9) − 4x = 4 − 6x
8x − 36 − 4x = 4 − 6x
8x − 4x + 6x = 4 + 36
10x = 40
Step 2 : Divide both sides by 10
x=4
Step 3 : Check the answer by substituting the solution back into the original
equation
LHS = 4 [2(4) − 9] − 4(4)

= 4(8 − 9) − 16
= 4(−1) − 16
= −4 − 16
= −20
RHS = 4 − 6(4)
= 4 − 24
= −20
∴ LHS = RHS
Since both sides are equal, the answer is correct.

QUESTION
2−x
Solve for x: = 2.
3x + 1
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Multiply both sides of the equation by (3x + 1)

Division by 0 is not permitted so there must be a restriction
(x 6= − 31 ).
2−x
=2
3x + 1
(2 − x) = 2(3x + 1)
Step 2 : Expand the brackets and simplify
2 − x = 6x + 2
−x − 6x = 2 − 2
−7x = 0
Step 3 : Divide both sides by −7
0
x=
−7
x=0
equation

2 − (0)
LHS =
3(0) + 1
=2
= RHS
QUESTION
2a − 3 a
Solve for a: − 3a = .
3 3
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Multiply the equation by the common denominator 3 and simplify
2a − 3 − 9a = a
−7a − 3 = a
Step 2 : Rearrange the terms and simplify
−7a − a = 3
−8a = 3
Step 3 : Divide both sides by −8
3
a=−
8

equation
2(− 38 ) − 3 3
LHS = − 3(− )
3 8
(− 34 ) − 12
4 9
= +
3 8
15 1 9
= − × +
4 3 8
5 9
=− +
4 8
10 9
=− +
8 8
1
=−
8
− 38
RHS =
3
−3
= 8
3
3 1
=− ×
8 3
1
=−
8
∴ LHS = RHS
Exercise 2 - 1
Solve the following equations (assume all denominators are non-zero):
1. 2y − 3 = 7 7. 5x = 2x + 45
2. −3y = 0
8. 23x − 12 = 6 + 3x
3. 16y + 4 = −10
9. 12 − 6x + 34x = 2x − 24 − 64
4. 12y + 0 = 144
5. 7 + 5y = 62 10. 6x + 3x = 4 − 5(2x − 3)
3
6. 55 = 5x + 11. 18 − 2p = p + 9
4

4 16 x+2 x−6 1
12. = 22. − =
p 24 4 3 2
13. −(−16 − p) = 13p − 1 y−2
23. 3 − =4
4
14. 3f − 10 = 10
a+1 a−3
24. =
15. 3f + 16 = 4f − 10 a+2 a+1
25. (x − 3)(x + 2) = x(x − 4)
16. 10f + 5 = −2f − 3f + 80
17. 8(f − 4) = 5(f − 4) 26. 1,5x + 3,125 = 1,25x
1
18. 6 = 6(f + 7) + 5f 27. 3P + 21 P − 10 = 0
19. (a − 1)2 − 2a = (a + 3)(a − 2) − 3 28. 1 14 (x − 1) − 1 12 (3x + 2) = 0
20. −7x = x + 8(1 − x) 29. 5

+ 1
− 3
=2
2a 6a a
7 2(b + 4)
21. 5 − = 30. 3
+ 4
− 5
=0
b b 2x2 3x 6x
(1.-5.) 00dn (6.-10.) 00dp (11.-15.) 00dq (16.-20.) 00dr (21.-24.) 00md
(25.-30.) 022t
2.2 Solving quadratic equations EMAV
A quadratic equation is an equation where the exponent of the variable is at most 2. The
following are examples of quadratic equations:
2x2 + 2x = 1
3x2 + 2x − 1 = 0
0 = −2x2 + 4x − 2
Quadratic equations differ from linear equations in that a linear equation has only one
solution, while a quadratic equation has at most two solutions. There are some special
situations, however, in which a quadratic equation has either one solution or no solutions.
We solve quadratic equations using factorisation. For example, in order to solve 2x2 −

x − 3 = 0, we need to write it in its equivalent factorised form as (x + 1)(2x − 3) = 0.

Note that if a × b = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0.
Video: VMaec at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Method for solving quadratic equations EMAW
1. Rewrite the equation in the required form, ax2 + bx + c = 0.

2. Divide the entire equation by any common factor of the coefficients to obtain an
equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c have no common factors.
For example, 2x2 + 4x + 2 = 0 can be written as x2 + 2x + 1 = 0, by dividing by 2.
3. Factorise ax2 + bx + c = 0 to be of the form (rx + s)(ux + v) = 0.
s v
4. The two solutions are (rx + s) = 0 or (ux + v) = 0, so x = − or x = − ,
r u
respectively.
5. Check the answer by substituting it back into the original equation.
Example 4: Solving quadratic equations
QUESTION
Solve for x: 3x2 + 2x − 1 = 0.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : The equation is already in the required form, ax2 + bx + c = 0
Step 2 : Factorise
(x + 1)(3x − 1) = 0
Step 3 : Solve for both factors

We have
x+1=0
∴ x = −1
OR
3x − 1 = 0
1
∴x=
3
Step 4 : Check both answers by substituting back into the original equation

The solution to 3x2 + 2x − 1 = 0 is x = −1 or x = 13 .
Example 5: Solving quadratic equations
QUESTION
Find the roots: 0 = −2x2 + 4x − 2.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Divide the equation by common factor −2
−2x2 + 4x − 2 = 0
x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
Step 2 : The equation is already in the required form, ax2 + bx + c = 0
Step 3 : Factorise

(x − 1)(x − 1) = 0
(x − 1)2 = 0
Step 4 : The quadratic is a perfect square

This is an example of a special situation in which there is only one
solution to the quadratic equation because both factors are the same.
x−1=0
∴x=1
Step 5 : Check the answer by substituting back into the original equation
Step 6 : Write final answer

The solution to 0 = −2x2 + 4x − 2 is x = 1.
Exercise 2 - 2
Solve the following equations:
1. 9x2 − 6x − 8 = 0 12. t2 = 3t
2. 5x2 − 21x − 54 = 0 13. x2 − 10x = −25

3. 4y 2 − 9 = 0 14. x2 = 18
4. 4x2 − 16x − 9 = 0
15. p2 − 6p = 7
5. 4x2 − 12x = −9
16. 4x2 − 17x − 77 = 0
6. 20m + 25m2 = 0
17. 14x2 + 5x = 6
7. 2x2 − 5x − 12 = 0
18. 2x2 − 2x = 12
8. −75x2 + 290x = 240 a+1 9 2a + 3
19. + + =0
3a − 4 2a + 5 2a + 5
9. 2x = 31 x2 − 3x + 14 23
3 3a + 4
10. x2 − 4x = −4 20. −
9a2
− 3a + 1 27a3 + 1
1
11. −x2 + 4x − 6 = 4x2 − 14x + 3 = 2
9a − 1

(1.-5.) 00ds (6.-11.) 00dt (12.-18.) 00du (19.-20.) 022u
2.3 Solving simultaneous equations EMAX
Up to now we have solved equations with only one unknown variable. When solving
for two unknown variables, two equations are required and these equations are known
as simultaneous equations. The solutions are the values of the unknown variables which
satisfy both equations simultaneously. In general, if there are n unknown variables, then
n independent equations are required to obtain a value for each of the n variables.
An example of a system of simultaneous equations is
x + y = −1
3 = y − 2x
We have two independent equations to solve for two unknown variables. We can solve
simultaneous equations algebraically using substitution and elimination methods. We
will also show that a system of simultaneous equations can be solved graphically.
Video: VMaex at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Solving by substitution EMAY
• Use the simplest of the two given equations to express one of the variables in terms
of the other.
• Substitute into the second equation. By doing this we reduce the number of equa-
tions and the number of variables by one.
• We now have one equation with one unknown variable which can be solved.

• Use the solution to substitute back into the first equation to find the value of the
other unknown variable.
Example 6: Simultaneous equations
QUESTION
Solve for x and y:
x − y = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
3 = y − 2x . . . . . . . . . (2)
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use equation (1) to express x in terms of y
x=y+1
Step 2 : Substitute x into equation (2) and solve for y
3 = y − 2(y + 1)
3 = y − 2y − 2
5 = −y
∴ y = −5
Step 3 : Substitute y back into equation (1) and solve for x
x = (−5) + 1
∴ x = −4
Step 4 : Check the solution by substituting the answers back into both origi-
nal equations

x = −4
y = −5
QUESTION
Solve the following system of equations:
4y + 3x = 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
4y − 19x = 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use either equation to express x in terms of y
4y + 3x = 100
3x = 100 − 4y
100 − 4y
x=
3
Step 2 : Substitute x into equation (2) and solve for y

100 − 4y
4y − 19 = 12
3
12y − 19(100 − 4y) = 36

12y − 1 900 + 76y = 36

88y = 1 936
∴ y = 22
Step 3 : Substitute y back into equation (1) and solve for x
100 − 4(22)
x=
3
100 − 88
=
3
12
=
3
∴x=4
Step 4 : Check the solution by substituting the answers back into both origi-
nal equations
x=4
y = 22

Solving by elimination EMAZ
QUESTION
3x + y = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
6x − y = 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Make the coefficients of one of the variables the same in both equa-
tions
The coefficients of y in the given equations are 1 and −1. Eliminate
the variable y by adding equation (1) and equation (2) together:
3x + y = 2
+ 6x − y = 25
9x + 0 = 27
Step 2 : Simplify and solve for x
9x = 27
∴x=3
Step 3 : Substitute x back into either original equation and solve for y
3(3) + y = 2
y =2−9
∴ y = −7

Step 4 : Check that the solution x = 3 and y = −7 satisfies both original

equations
x=3
y = −7
QUESTION
2a − 3b = 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
3a − 2b = 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Make the coefficients of one of the variables the same in both equa-
tions
By multiplying equation (1) by 3 and equation (2) by 2, both coeffi-
cients of a will be 6.
6a − 9b = 15
− (6a − 4b = 40)
0 − 5b = −25
(When subtracting two equations, be careful of the signs.)

Step 2 : Simplify and solve for b
−25
b=
−5
∴b=5
Step 3 : Substitute value of b back into either original equation and solve for
a
2a − 3(5) = 5
2a − 15 = 5
2a = 20
∴ a = 10
Step 4 : Check that the solution a = 10 and b = 5 satisfies both original

equations
a = 10
b=5
Solving graphically EMAAA
Simultaneous equations can also be solved graphically. If the graphs of each linear equa-
tion are drawn, then the solution to the system of simultaneous equations is the coordi-
nate of the point at which the two graphs intersect.

For example:
x = 2y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
y = 2x − 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
The graphs of the two equations are shown below.
y = 2x − 3
y = 12 x
1 (2; 1) b
−2 −1 1 2 3
−1
The intersection of the two graphs is (2; 1). So the solution to the system of simultaneous
equations is x = 2 and y = 1. We can also check the solution using algebraic methods.
Substitute equation (1) into equation (2):
x = 2y
∴ y = 2(2y) − 3
Then solve for y:
y − 4y = −3
−3y = −3
∴y=1
Substitute the value of y back into equation (1):
x = 2(1)
∴x=2
Notice that both methods give the same solution.

QUESTION
Solve the following system of simultaneous equations graphically:
4y + 3x = 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
4y − 19x = 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Write both equations in form y = mx + c
4y + 3x = 100
4y = 100 − 3x
3
y = − x + 25
4
4y − 19x = 12
4y = 19x + 12
19
y = x+3
4
Step 2 : Sketch the graphs on the same set of axes
12
=
40 x
19
−
4y + 3x 4y
= 100 30
20
10
x
0
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

Step 3 : Find the coordinates of the point of intersection

The two graphs intersect at (4; 22).
x=4
y = 22
Exercise 2 - 3
1. Solve for x and y:

(a) 3x − 14y = 0 and x − 4y + 1 = 0
(b) x + y = 8 and 3x + 2y = 21
(c) y = 2x + 1 and x + 2y + 3 = 0
a a b
(d) 2 + b = 4 and 4 − 4 =1
1 1
(e) x + y =3 and x1 − y1 = 11
2. Solve graphically and check your answer algebraically:
x y
(a) x + 2y = 1 and 3 + 2 =1
(b) 5 = x + y and x = y − 2
(c) 3x − 2y = 0 and x − 4y + 1 = 0
x y y x
(d) 4 = 2 − 1 and 4 + 2 =1
(e) 2x + y = 5 and 3x − 2y = 4
(1a-e.) 00dv (2a-e.) 00dw

2.4 Word problems EMAAB
To solve word problems we need to write a set of equations that represent the problem
mathematically. The solution of the equations is then the solution to the problem.
Problem solving strategy EMAAC
1. Read the whole the question.

2. What are we asked to solve for?
3. Assign a variable to the unknown quantity, for example, x.
4. Translate the words into algebraic expressions by rewriting the given information in
terms of the variable.
5. Set up an equation or system of equations to solve for the variable.
6. Solve the equation algebraically using substitution.
7. Check the solution.
Video: VMafb at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 11: Solving word problems
QUESTION
A shop sells bicycles and tricycles. In total there are 7 cycles (cycles include both
bicycles and tricycles) and 19 wheels. Determine how many of each there are, if
a bicycle has two wheels and a tricycle has three wheels.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Assign variables to the unknown quantities

Let b be the number of bicycles and let t be the number of tricycles.

Step 2 : Set up the equations
b + t = 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
2b + 3t = 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Step 3 : Rearrange equation (1) and substitute into equation (2)
t=7−b
∴ 2b + 21 − 3b = 19
−b = −2
∴b=2
Step 4 : Calculate the number of tricycles t
t=7−b
=7−2
=5

There are 5 tricycles and 2 bicycles.

QUESTION
Bongani and Jane are friends. Bongani takes Jane’s physics test paper and will not
tell her what her mark is. He knows that Jane hates maths so he decides to tease
her. Bongani says: “I have 2 marks more than you do and the sum of both our
marks is equal to 14. What are our marks?”
SOLUTION

We have two unknown quantities, Bongani’s mark and Jane’s mark.
Let Bongani’s mark be b and Jane’s mark be j.
Step 2 : Set up a system of equations

Bongani has 2 more marks than Jane.
b = j + 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
Both marks add up to 14.
b + j = 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Step 3 : Use equation (1) to express b in terms of j
b=j+2
Step 4 : Substitute into equation (2)
b + j = 14
(j + 2) + j = 14

Step 5 : Rearrange and solve for j
2j = 14 − 2
= 12
∴j=6
Step 6 : Substitute the value for j back into equation (1) and solve for b
b=j+2
=6+2
=8
Step 7 : Check that the solution satisfies both original equations

Bongani got 8 for his test and Jane got 6.
QUESTION
A fruit shake costs R 2,00 more than a chocolate milk shake. If 3 fruit shakes and
5 chocolate milk shakes cost R 78,00, determine the individual prices.
SOLUTION

Let the price of a chocolate milkshake be x and let the price of a

fruitshake be y.
Step 2 : Set up a system of equations
y = x + 2 . . . . . . . . . (1)
3y + 5x = 78 . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Step 3 : Substitute equation (1) into equation (2)
3(x + 2) + 5x = 78
Step 4 : Rearrange and solve for x
3x + 6 + 5x = 78
8x = 72
∴x=9
Step 5 : Substitute the value of x back into equation (1) and solve for y
y =x+2
=9+2
= 11
Step 6 : Check that the solution satisfies both original equations

One chocolate milkshake costs R 9,00 and one fruitshake costs
R 11,00.

QUESTION
The product of two consecutive negative integers is 1 122. Find the two integers.
SOLUTION

Let the first integer be n and let the second integer be n + 1.
Step 2 : Set up an equation
n(n + 1) = 1 122
Step 3 : Expand and solve for n
n2 + n = 1 122
n2 + n − 1 122 = 0
(n + 34)(n − 33) = 0
∴ n = −34
or n = 33
Step 4 : Find the sign of the integers

It is given that both integers must be negative.
∴ n = −34
n + 1 = −34 + 1
= −33

The two consecutive negative integers are −34 and −33.

Exercise 2 - 4
1. Two jets are flying towards each other from airports that are 1 200 km
apart. One jet is flying at 250 km/h and the other jet at 350 km/h. If they
took off at the same time, how long will it take for the jets to pass each
other?
2. Kadesh bought 20 shirts at a total cost of R 980. If the large shirts cost
R 50 and the small shirts cost R 40. How many of each size did he buy?
3. The diagonal of a rectangle is 25 cm more than its width. The length of
the rectangle is 17 cm more than its width. What are the dimensions of
the rectangle?
4. The sum of 27 and 12 is equal to 73 more than an unknown number.
Find the unknown number.
5. The two smaller angles in a right-angled triangle are in the ratio of 1 : 2.
What are the sizes of the two angles?
6. The length of a rectangle is twice the breadth. If the area is 128 cm2 ,
determine the length and the breadth.
7. If 4 times a number is increased by 6, the result is 15 less than the square
of the number. Find the number.
8. The length of a rectangle is 2 cm more than the width of the rectangle.
The perimeter of the rectangle is 20 cm. Find the length and the width
of the rectangle.
9. Stephen has 1 ` of a mixture containing 69% salt. How much water
must Stephen add to make the mixture 50% salt? Write your answer as
a fraction of a litre.
10. The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 20 and their difference is
2. Find the two numbers.
11. The denominator of a fraction is 1 more than the numerator. The sum
of the fraction and its reciprocal is 25 . Find the fraction.
12. Masindi is 21 years older than her daughter, Mulivhu. The sum of their
ages is 37. How old is Mulivhu?
13. Tshamano is now five times as old as his son Murunwa. Seven years
from now, Tshamano will be three times as old as his son. Find their
ages now.

(1.) 00dz (2.) 00e0 (3.) 00e1 (4.) 00e2 (5.) 00e3
(6.) 00e4 (7.) 00e5 (8.) 00e6 (9.) 00e7 (10.) 022v
(11.) 022w (12.) 022x (13.) 02sm
2.5 Literal equations EMAAD
A literal equation is one that has several letters or variables. Examples include the area
D
of a circle (A = πr2 ) and the formula for speed (v = t ). In this section we solve literal
equations in terms of one variable. To do this, we use the principles we have learnt
about solving equations and apply them to rearranging literal equations. Solving literal
equations is also known as changing the subject of the formula. Keep the following in
mind when solving literal equations:
• We isolate the unknown variable by asking “what is it joined to?” and “how is it
joined?” We then perform the opposite operation to both sides as a whole.
• If the unknown variable is in two or more terms, then we take it out as a common
factor.
• If we have to take the square root of both sides, remember that there will be a
positive and a negative answer.
• If the unknown variable is in the denominator, we multiply both sides by the lowest
common denominator (LCD) and then continue to solve.
Video: VMajx at www.everythingmaths.co.za

Example 15: Solving literal equations
QUESTION
The area of a triangle is A = 12 bh. What is the height of the triangle in terms of the
base and area?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Isolate the required variable

We are asked to isolate the height, so we must rearrange the equation
with h on one side of the equals sign and the rest of the variables on
the other.
1
A = bh
2
2A = bh
2A
=h
b

2A
The height of a triangle is given by: h =
b
Example 16: Solving literal equations
QUESTION
H
Given the formula h = R × , make R the subject of the formula.
R + r2
SOLUTION

Step 1 : Isolate the required variable
h(R + r2 ) = R × H
hR + hr2 = HR
hr2 = HR − hR
hr2 = R(H − h)
hr2
∴R=
H −h
Exercise 2 - 5
1. Make a the subject of the formula: s = ut + 12 at2
2. Solve for n: pV = nRT

1 2b
3. Make x the subject of the formula: + =2
b x
4. Solve for r: V = πr2 h
hc
5. Solve for h: E =
λ
6. Solve for h: A = 2πrh + 2πr
D
7. Make λ the subject of the formula: t =
fλ
8. Solve for m: E = mgh + 12 mv 2
9. Solve for x: x2 + x(a + b) + ab = 0

√
10. Solve for b: c = a2 + b2
1 1 1
11. Make u the subject of the formula: v = u + w
12. Solve for r: A = πR2 − πr2
13. F = 9
5C + 32◦ is the formula for converting temperature in degrees
Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit. Derive a formula for converting degrees
Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
4 3
14. V = 3 πr is the formula for determining the volume of a soccer ball.
Express the radius in terms of the volume.

(1.-3.) 00e8 (4.-8.) 00e9 (9.-14.) 022y
2.6 Solving linear inequalities EMAAE
A linear inequality is similar to a linear equation in that the largest exponent of a variable
is 1. The following are examples of linear inequalities.
2x + 2 ≤ 1
2−x
≥2
3x + 1
4
x − 6 < 7x + 2
3
The methods used to solve linear inequalities are similar to those used to solve linear
equations. The only difference occurs when there is a multiplication or a division that
involves a minus sign. For example, we know that 8 > 6. If both sides of the inequality
are divided by −2, then we get −4 > −3, which is not true. Therefore, the inequality
sign must be switched around, giving −4 < −3.
In order to compare an inequality to a normal equation, we shall solve an equation first.
Solve 2x + 2 = 1:
2x + 2 = 1
2x = 1 − 2
2x = −1
1
x=−
2

If we represent this answer on a number line, we get:
x = − 12
b
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Now let us solve the inequality 2x + 2 ≤ 1:
2x + 2 ≤ 1
2x ≤ 1 − 2
2x ≤ −1
1
x≤−
2
If we represent this answer on a number line, we get:
x ≤ − 12
b
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
We see that for the equation there is only a single value of x for which the equation is
true. However, for the inequality, there is a range of values for which the inequality is
true. This is the main difference between an equation and an inequality.
Remember: when we divide or multiply both sides of an inequality by any number with a
minus sign, the direction of the inequality changes. For example, if x < 1, then −x > −1.
Also note that we cannot divide or multiply by a variable.
Video: VMakv at www.everythingmaths.co.za

Interval notation EMAAF
Examples:
(4; 12) Round brackets indicate that the number is not

included. This interval includes all real numbers
greater than but not equal to 4 and less than but
not equal to 12.
(−∞; −1) Round brackets are always used for positive and
negative infinity. This interval includes all real
numbers less than, but not equal to −1.
[1; 13) A square bracket indicates that the number is in-

cluded. This interval includes all real numbers
greater than or equal to 1 and less than but not
equal to 13.
It is important to note that this notation can only be used to represent an interval of real
numbers.
We represent the above answer in interval notation as (−∞; − 12 ].
Example 17: Solving linear inequalities
QUESTION
Solve for r: 6 − r > 2. Represent the answer on a number line and in interval
notation.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Rearrange and solve for r

−r > 2 − 6
−r > −4
Step 2 : Multiply by −1 and reverse inequality sign
r<4
Step 3 : Represent the answer on a number line
r<4 bc
0 1 2 3 4 5
Step 4 : Represent the answer in interval notation
(−∞ ; 4)
Example 18: Solving linear inequalities
QUESTION
Solve for q: 4q + 3 < 2(q + 3). Represent the answer on a number line and in
interval notation.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Expand the bracket
4q + 3 < 2(q + 3)
4q + 3 < 2q + 6

Step 2 : Rearrange and solve for q
4q + 3 < 2q + 6
4q − 2q < 6 − 3
2q < 3
Step 3 : Divide both sides by 2
2q < 3
3
q<
2
3
q< 2
bc
0 1 2 3 4 5

3
−∞ ;
2
Example 19: Solving compound linear inequalities
QUESTION
Solve for x: 5 ≤ x + 3 < 8. Represent the answer on a number line and in interval
notation.
SOLUTION

Step 1 : Subtract 3 from all the terms
5−3 ≤ x+3−3 < 8−3
2 ≤ x < 5
2≤x<5
b bc
0 1 2 3 4 5
[ 2 ; 5)
Exercise 2 - 6
Solve for x and represent the answer on a number line and in interval
notation:
1. 3x + 4 > 5x + 8
2. 3(x − 1) − 2 ≤ 6x + 4
x−7 2x − 3
3. >
3 2
4. −4(x − 1) < x + 2
1 1 5 1
5. x + (x − 1) ≥ x −
2 3 6 3
6. −2 ≤ x − 1 < 3
7. −5 < 2x − 3 ≤ 7
8. 7(3x + 2) − 5(2x − 3) > 7

5x − 1 1 − 2x
9. ≤
−6 3
10. 3 ≤ 4 − x ≤ 16
−7y
11. − 5 > −7
3

12. 1 ≤ 1 − 2y < 9
x−1
13. −2 < <7
−3
(1.) 00ea (2.) 00eb (3.) 00ec (4.) 00ed (5.) 00ee
(6.) 00ef (7.) 00eg (8.) 00eh (9.) 022z (10.) 0230
(11.) 0231 (12.) 0232 (13.) 0233
Chapter 2 | Summary
Summary presentation: VMjkd at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• A linear equation is an equation where the exponent of the variable is 1. A linear

equation has at most one solution.
• A quadratic equation is an equation where the exponent of the variable is at most
2. A quadratic equation has at most two solutions.
• A linear inequality is similar to a linear equation and has the exponent of the vari-
able equal to 1.
• If we divide or multiply both sides of an inequality by any number with a minus
sign, the direction of the inequality changes.
• To solve for two unknown variables, two equations are required. These equations
are known as a system of simultaneous equations. There are two ways to solve lin-
ear simultaneous equations: algebraic solutions and graphical solutions. To solve
algebraically we use substitution or elimination methods. To solve graphically we
draw the graph of each equation and the solution will be the coordinates of the
point of intersection.
• Literal equations are equations that have several letters and variables.
• Word problems require a set of equations that represent the problem mathemati-
cally.

1. Solve:
(a) 2(p − 1) = 3(p + 2) (j) y 2 + y = 6
(b) 3 − 6k = 2k − 1 (k) 0 = 2x2 − 5x − 18
(c) m + 6(−m + 1) + 5m = 0 (l) (d + 4)(d − 3) − d

= (3d − 2)2 − 8d(d − 1)
(d) 2k + 3 = 2 − 3(k + 3)
(m) 5x + 2 ≤ 4(2x − 1)
(e) 5t − 1 = t2 − (t + 2)(t − 2)
q q 4x − 2
(f) 3 + = (n) > 2x + 1
5 2 6
x x
2(m + 4) 7 (o) − 14 > 14 −
(g) 5 − = 3 7
m m
1−a 2−a
(p) − ≥1

2 1 1 2
(h) − 2 − = 1+ 2 3
t 2 2 t
(q) −5 ≤ 2k + 1 < 5
(i) x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 42
(r) x−1=
x
2. Consider the following literal equations:

(a) Solve for I: P = V I
(b) Make m the subject of the formula: E = mc2
(c) Solve for t: v = u + at

1 1 1
(d) Make f the subject of the formula: + =
u v f
(e) Make C the subject of the formula: F = 59 C + 32
y−c
(f) Solve for y: m =
x
3. Solve the following simultaneous equations:
(a) 7x + 3y = 13
2x − 3y = −4
(b) 10 = 2x + y
y =x−2
(c) 7x − 41 = 3y
17 = 3x − y
(d) 2y = x + 8
4y = 2x − 44

4. Find the solutions to the following word problems:

7 1
(a) 8 of a certain number is 5 more than of 3 of the number. Find the
number.
(b) Three rulers and two pens have a total cost of R 21,00. One ruler
and one pen have a total cost of R 8,00. How much does a ruler
cost and how much does a pen cost?
(c) A man runs to the bus stop and back in 15 minutes. His speed on
the way to the bus stop is 5 km/h and his speed on the way back is
4 km/h. Find the distance to the bus stop.
(d) Zanele and Piet skate towards each other on a straight path. They
set off 20 km apart. Zanele skates at 15 km/h and Piet at 10 km/h.
How far will Piet have skated when they reach each other?
(e) When the price of chocolates is increased by R 10, we can buy five
fewer chocolates for R 300. What was the price of each chocolate
before the price was increased?
(1a-f.) 00ei (1g-l.) 00ej (1m-r.) 00ek (2a-f.) 00em (3a-d.) 00en
(4a-e.) 00ep

Exponents 3
CHAPTER 3. EXPONENTS
Exponential notation is a short way of writing the same number multiplied by itself many
times. We will now have a closer look at writing numbers using exponential notation.
Exponents can also be called indices.
exponent/index
base an
For any real number a and natural number n, we can write a multiplied by itself n times
as an .
1. an = a × a × a × · · · × a (n times) (a ∈ R, n ∈ N)
2. a0 = 1 (a 6= 0 because 00 is undefined)
3. a−n = 1
an (a 6= 0 because 1
0 is undefined)
Examples:
1. 3 × 3 = 32
2. 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 54
3. p × p × p = p3
4. (3x )0 = 1
1 1
5. 2−4 = =
24 16
1
6. = 5x
5−x
Notice that we always write the final answer with positive exponents.
Video: VMald at www.everythingmaths.co.za

3.1 CHAPTER 3. EXPONENTS
3.1 Laws of exponents EMAAG
There are several laws we can use to make working with exponential numbers easier.
Some of these laws might have been done in earlier grades, but we list all the laws here
for easy reference:
• am × an = am+n
am
• an = am−n
• (ab)n = an bn
a n an

• b = bn
• (am )n = amn
where a > 0, b > 0 and m, n ∈ Z.
Example 1: Applying the exponential laws
QUESTION
Simplify:
1. 23x × 24x
12p2 t5
2.
3pt3
3. (3x)2
4. (34 52 )3

CHAPTER 3. EXPONENTS 3.1
SOLUTION
1. 23x × 24x = 23x+4x = 27x

12p2 t5
2. = 4p(2−1) t(5−3) = 4pt2
3pt3
3. (3x)2 = 32 x2 = 9x2
4. (34 × 52 )3 = 3(4×3) × 5(2×3) = 312 × 56
Example 2: Exponential expressions
QUESTION
22n × 4n × 2
Simplify:
16n
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Change the bases to prime numbers
22n × 4n × 2 22n × (22 )n × 21

=
16n (24 )n
Step 2 : Simplify the exponents
22n × 22n × 21
=
24n
2 2n+2n+1
=
24n
2 4n+1
= 4n
2
4n+1−(4n)
=2
=2

Example 3: Exponential expressions
QUESTION
52x−1 9x−2
Simplify:
152x−3
SOLUTION
x−2
52x−1 9x−2 52x−1 (32 )
=
152x−3 (5 × 3)2x−3
52x−1 32x−4
=
52x−3 32x−3
Step 2 : Subtract the exponents (same base)
= 5(2x−1)−(2x−3) × 3(2x−4)−(2x−3)
= 52x−1−2x+3 × 32x−4−2x+3
= 52 × 3−1
Step 3 : Write the answer as a fraction
25
=
3
1
=8
3

Important: when working with exponents, all the laws of operation for algebra apply.
Example 4: Simplifying by taking out a common factor
QUESTION
2t − 2t−2
Simplify:
3 × 2t − 2t
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Simplify to a form that can be factorised
2t − 2t−2 2t − (2t × 2−2 )

=
3 × 2t − 2t 3 × 2t − 2t
Step 2 : Take out a common factor
2t (1 − 2−2 )
=
2t (3 − 1)
Step 3 : Cancel the common factor and simplify
1
1− 4
=
2
3
4
=
2
3
=
8

Example 5: Simplifying using difference of two squares
QUESTION
9x − 1
Simplify:
3x + 1
SOLUTION
9x − 1 (32 )x − 1
=
3x + 1 3x + 1
(3x )2 − 1
=
3x + 1
Step 2 : Factorise using the difference of squares
(3x − 1)(3x + 1)
=
3x + 1
Step 3 : Simplify
= 3x − 1

Exercise 3 - 1
Simplify without using a calculator:
1. 160 7. 3 × 32a × 32
2. 16a0 a3x
8.
ax
2−2
3. 32p2
32 9.
5 4p8
4. −3
2 10. (2t4 )3
−3
2 11. (3n+3 )2
5.
3
3n 9n−3
6. x2 x3t+1 12.
27n−1
(1.-12.) 00f0
3.2 Rational exponents EMAAH
We can also apply the exponential laws to expressions with rational exponents.
Video: VMaln at www.everythingmaths.co.za

Example 6: Simplifying rational exponents
QUESTION
1 1
Simplify: 2x 2 × 4x− 2
SOLUTION
1 1 1 1
2x 2 × 4x− 2 = 8x 2 − 2
= 8x0
= 8(1)
= 8
Example 7: Simplifying rational exponents
QUESTION
1
Simplify: (0,008) 3
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Write as a fraction and change the bases to prime numbers

8
0,008 =
1 000
23
=
103
3
2
=
10
Step 2 : Therefore
" 3 # 13
1 2
(0,008) 3 =
10
2
=
10
1
=
5
Exercise 3 - 2
Simplify without using a calculator:
1 7 1
1. t 4 × 3t 4 3. (0,25) 2
1
4. (27)− 3
16x2
2. 1 1
1
(4x2 ) 2 5. (3p2 ) 2 × (3p4 ) 2
(1.-5.) 00f1

3.3 Exponential equations EMAAI
Exponential equations have the unknown variable in the exponent. Here are some ex-
amples:
3x+1 = 9
5t + 3 × 5t−1 = 400
Solving exponential equations is simple: we need to apply the laws of exponents. This
means that if we can write a single term with the same base on each side of the equation,
we can equate the exponents.
Important: if a > 0 and a 6= 1
ax = ay
then x = y (same base)
Also notice that if a = 1, then x and y can be different.
Example 8: Equating exponents
QUESTION
Solve for x: 3x+1 = 9.
SOLUTION
3x+1 = 32
Step 2 : The bases are the same so we can equate exponents

x+1 = 2
∴x = 1
Note: to solve exponential equations, we use all the strategies for solving linear and
quadratic equations.
Example 9: Solving equations by taking out a common factor
QUESTION
Solve for t: 5t + 3 × 5t+1 = 400.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Rewrite the expression
5t + 3(5t × 5) = 400
Step 2 : Take out a common factor
5t (1 + 15) = 400
Step 3 : Simplify
5t (16) = 400
5t = 25
5t = 52

Step 5 : The bases are the same so we can equate exponents
∴t=2
Example 10: Solving equations by factorising a trinomial
QUESTION
1
Solve: p − 13p 2 + 36 = 0.
SOLUTION
1
Step 1 : We notice that (p 2 )2 = p so we can rewrite the equation as
1 1
(p 2 )2 − 13p 2 + 36 = 0
Step 2 : Factorise as a trinomial
1 1
(p 2 − 9)(p 2 − 4) = 0
Step 3 : Solve to find both roots
1 1
p2 − 9 = 0 p2 − 4 = 0
1 1
p2 = 9 p2 = 4
1 1
(p 2 )2 = (9)2 (p 2 )2 = (4)2
p = 81 p = 16
Therefore p = 81 or p = 16.

Exercise 3 - 3
1. Solve for the variable:
(a) 2x+5 = 32 (i) 2 × 52−x = 5 + 5x

1
(b) 52x+2 = 125 (j) 9m + 33−2m = 28
1
(c) 64y+1 = 162y+5 (k) y − 2y 2 + 1 = 0
(d) 39x−2 = 27 (l) 4x+3 = 0,5
(e) 81k+2 = 27k+4 (m) 2a = 0,125
(f) 25(1−2x) − 54 = 0 (n) 10x = 0,001
2 −2x−3
(g) 27x × 9x−2 = 1 (o) 2x =1
(h) 2t + 2t+2 = 40
2. The growth of algae can be modelled by the function f (t) = 2t . Find

the value of t such that f (t) = 128.
(1a-m.) 00f2 (2.) 0234
Chapter 3 | Summary
Summary presentation: VMdgh at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• Exponential notation means writing a number as an where n is an integer and a

can be any real number.
• a is the base and n is the exponent or index.
• Definition:
· an = a × a × · · · × a (n times)
· a0 = 1, if a 6= 0
· a−n = 1
an , if a 6= 0

• The laws of exponents:

· am × an = am+n
am
· = am−n
an
· (ab)n = an bn
a n a n
· = n
b b
n
· (a ) = amn
m
1. Simplify:
(a) t3 × 2t0 23x−1 8x+1

(k)
42x−2
(b) 52x+y 53(x+z)
62x 112x
(l)
(c) (bk+1 )k 222x−1 32x
65p (−3)−3 (−3)2
(d) p (m)
9 (−3)−4
(e) m−2t × (3mt )3 (n) (3−1 + 2−1 )
−1
3x−3 9n−1 273−2n

(f) (o)
(3x)2 812−n
5b−3 23n+2 8n−3
(g) (p)
5b+1 43n−2
2a−2 3a+3 3t+3 + 3t
(h) (q)
6a 2 × 3t
3n 9n−3 23p + 1
(i) (r)
27n−1 2p + 1
2a 3
2x
(j)
y −b
2. Solve:
1 (e) 3y+1 = 5y+1

(a) 3x =
27 3
(b) 5t−1 = 1 (f) z 2 = 64

1
(c) 2 × 73x = 98 (g) 16x 2 − 4 = 0
(d) 2m+1 = (0,5)m−2 (h) m0 + m−1 = 0

1 1 1
(i) t 2 − 3t 4 + 2 = 0 (k) k −1 − 7k − 2 − 18 = 0
1 1
(j) 3p + 3p + 3p = 27 (l) x 2 + 3x 4 − 18 = 0
(1.) 00f3 (2.) 00f4

Number patterns 4
CHAPTER 4. NUMBER PATTERNS
In earlier grades you saw patterns in the form of pictures and numbers. In this chapter,
we learn more about the mathematics of patterns. Patterns are repetitive sequences and
can be found in nature, shapes, events, sets of numbers and almost everywhere you care
to look. For example, seeds in a sunflower, snowflakes, geometric designs on quilts or
tiles, the number sequence 0; 4; 8; 12; 16; . . ..
See if you can spot any patterns in the following sequences:
1. 2; 4; 6; 8; 10; . . .
2. 1; 2; 4; 7; 11; . . .
3. 1; 4; 9; 16; 25; . . .
4. 5; 10; 20; 40; 80; . . .
Video: VMcyv at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Numbers can have interesting patterns. Here we examine some types of patterns and
how they are formed.
Examples:
1. 1; 4; 7; 10; 13; 16; 19; 22; 25; . . .

There is difference of 3 between successive terms.
The pattern is continued by adding 3 to the last term.
2. 3; 8; 13; 18; 23; 28; 33; 38; . . .
There is a difference of 5 between successive terms.
The pattern is continued by adding 5 to the last term.
3. 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64; 128; 256; . . .
This sequence has a factor of 2 between successive terms.
The pattern is continued by multiplying the last term by 2.
4. 3; 9; 27; 81; 243; 729; 2187; . . .
This sequence has a factor of 3 between successive terms.
The pattern is continued by multiplying the last term by 3.

CHAPTER 4. NUMBER PATTERNS
Example 1: Study table
QUESTION
You and 3 friends decide to study for Maths and are sitting together at a square
table. A few minutes later, 2 other friends arrive and would like to sit at your table.
You move another table next to yours so that 6 people can sit at the table. Another
2 friends also want to join your group, so you take a third table and add it to the
existing tables. Now 8 people can sit together.
Examine how the number of people sitting is related to the number of tables.
Is there a pattern?
Two more people can be seated for each table added.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Make a table to see if a pattern forms
Number of Tables, n Number of people seated
1 4=4
2 4+2=6
3 4+2+2=8
4 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 10
.. ..
. .
n 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ··· + 2
Step 2 : Describe the pattern

We can see that for 3 tables we can seat 8 people, for 4 tables we
can seat 10 people and so on. We started out with 4 people and

4.1 CHAPTER 4. NUMBER PATTERNS
added two each time. So for each table added, the number of people
increased by 2.
4.1 Describing sequences EMAAJ
To describe terms in a number pattern we use the following notation:
The 1st term of a sequence is T1 .

The 4th term of a sequence is T4 .
The 10th term of a sequence is T10 .
The general term is often expressed as the nth term and is written as Tn .
A sequence does not have to follow a pattern but, when it does, we can write down
the general formula to calculate any term. For example, consider the following linear
sequence:
1; 3; 5; 7; 9; . . .
The nth term is given by the general formula
Tn = 2n − 1
You can check this by substituting values into the formula:
T1 = 2(1) − 1 = 1
T2 = 2(2) − 1 = 3
T3 = 2(3) − 1 = 5
T4 = 2(4) − 1 = 7
T5 = 2(5) − 1 = 9
If we find the relationship between the position of a term and its value, we can describe
the pattern and find any term in the sequence.

CHAPTER 4. NUMBER PATTERNS 4.1
Common difference EMAAK
In some sequences, there is a constant difference between any two successive terms. This
is called a common difference.
DEFINITION: Common difference
The common difference is the difference between any term and the term
before it and is denoted by d.
For example, consider the sequence 10; 7; 4; 1; . . .

To calculate the common difference, we find the difference between any term and the
previous term:
d = T2 − T1
= 7 − 10
= −3
Let us check another two terms:
d = T4 − T3
= 1−4
= −3
We see that d is constant.
Important: d = T2 − T1 , not T1 − T2 .

Example 2: Study table, continued
QUESTION
As before, you and 3 friends are studying for Maths and are sitting together at a
square table. A few minutes later 2 other friends arrive so you move another table
next to yours. Now 6 people can sit at the table. Another 2 friends also join your
group, so you take a third table and add it to the existing tables. Now 8 people
can sit together as shown below.
1. Find the expression for the number of people seated at n tables.

2. Use the general formula to determine how many people can sit around 12
tables.
3. How many tables are needed to seat 20 people?
Two more people can be seated for each table added.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Make a table to see the pattern
Number of Tables, n Number of people seated Pattern
1 4=4 = 4 + 2(0)
2 4+2=6 = 4 + 2(1)
3 4+2+2=8 = 4 + 2(2)
4 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 10 = 4 + 2(3)
.. .. ..
. . .
n 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ··· + 2 = 4 + 2(n − 1)
Step 2 : Describe the pattern

The number of people seated at n tables is Tn = 4 + 2(n − 1).
Step 3 : Calculate the 12th term, in other words, find Tn if n = 12
T12 = 4 + 2(12 − 1)
= 4 + 2(11)
= 4 + 22
= 26
Therefore 26 people can be seated at 12 tables.
Step 4 : Calculate the number of tables needed to seat 20 people, in other

words, find n if Tn = 20
Tn = 4 + 2(n − 1)
20 = 4 + 2(n − 1)
20 − 4 = 2(n − 1)
16
= n−1
2
8+1 = n
n = 9
Therefore 9 tables are needed to seat 20 people.
It is important to note the difference between n and Tn . n can be compared to a place

holder indicating the position of the term in the sequence, while Tn is the value of the
place held by n. From the example above, the first table holds 4 people. So for n = 1,
the value of T1 = 4 and so on:
n 1 2 3 4 ...
Tn 4 6 8 10 ...

Exercise 4 - 1
1. Write down the next three terms in each of the following sequences:
(a) 5; 15; 25; . . .
(b) −8; −3; 2 : ‘ . . .
(c) 30; 27; 24; . . .
2. The general term is given for each sequence below. Calculate the miss-
ing terms.
(a) 0; 3; . . . ; 15; 24 Tn = n2 − 1
(b) 3; 2; 1; 0; . . . ; − 2 Tn = −n + 4
(c) −11; . . . ; − 7; . . . ; − 3 Tn = −13 + 2n
3. Find the general formula for the following sequences and then find T10 ,
T50 and T100
(a) 2; 5; 8; 11; 14; . . .
(b) 0; 4; 8; 12; 16; . . .
(c) 2; − 1; − 4; − 7; − 10; . . .
(1.) 00i0 (2.) 00i1 (3.) 00i2
4.2 Patterns and conjecture EMAAL
In mathematics, a conjecture is a mathematical statement which appears to be true, but

has not been formally proven. A conjecture can be thought of as the mathematicians way
of saying “I believe that this is true, but I have no proof yet”. A conjecture is a good guess
or an idea about a pattern.
For example, make a conjecture about the next number in the pattern 2; 6; 11; 17; . . .
The terms increase by 4, then 5, and then 6. Conjecture: the next term will increase by
7, so it will be 17 + 7 = 24.

Example 3: Adding even and odd numbers
QUESTION
1. Investigate the type of number you get if you find the sum of an odd number
and an even number.
2. Express your answer in words as a conjecture.
3. Use algebra to prove this conjecture.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : First try some examples
23 + 12 = 35
148 + 31 = 179
11 + 200 = 211
Step 2 : Make a conjecture

The sum of any odd number and any even number is always odd.
Step 3 : Express algebraically

Express the even number as 2x.
Express the odd number as 2y − 1.
Sum = 2x + (2y − 1)
= 2x + 2y − 1
= (2x + 2y) − 1
= 2(x + y) − 1
From this we can see that 2(x + y) is an even number. So then 2(x +
y) − 1 is an odd number. Therefore our conjecture is true.

Example 4: Multiplying a two-digit number by 11
QUESTION
1. Consider the following examples of multiplying any two-digit number by 11.

What pattern can you see?
11 × 42 = 462
11 × 71 = 781
11 × 45 = 495
2. Express your answer as a conjecture.

3. Can you find an example that disproves your initial conjecture? If so, recon-
sider your conjecture.
4. Use algebra to prove your conjecture.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Find the pattern

We notice in the answer that the middle digit is the sum of the two
digits in the original two-digit number.
Step 2 : Make a conjecture

The middle digit of the product is the sum of the two digits of the
original number that is multiplied by 11.
Step 3 : Reconsidering the conjecture

We notice that
11 × 67 = 737
11 × 56 = 616
Therefore our conjecture only holds true if the sum of the two digits
is less than 10.
Step 4 : Express algebraically

Any two-digit number can be written as 10a + b. For example, 34 =
10(3) + 4. Any three-digit number can be written as 100a + 10b + c.

For example, 582 = 100(5) + 10(8) + 2.
11 × (10x + y) = 110x + 11y
= (100x + 10x) + 10y + y
= 100x + (10x + 10y) + y
= 100x + 10(x + y) + y
From this equation we can see that the middle digit of the three-digit
number is equal to the sum of the two digits x and y.
Chapter 4 | Summary
Summary presentation: VMcyz at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• There are several special sequences of numbers.

· Triangular numbers: 1; 3; 6; 10; 15; 21; 28; 36; 45; . . .
· Square numbers: 1; 4; 9; 16; 25; 36; 49; 64; 81; . . .
· Cube numbers: 1; 8; 27; 64; 125; 216; 343; 512; 729; . . .
• The general term is expressed as the nth term and written as Tn .
• We define the common difference d of a sequence as the difference between any
two successive terms.
• We can work out a general formula for each number pattern and use it to determine
any term in the pattern.
• A conjecture is something that you believe to be true but have not yet proven.
1. Find the 6th term in each of the following sequences:

(a) 4; 13; 22; 31; . . .
(b) 5; 2; − 1; − 4; . . .

(c) 7,4; 9,7; 12; 14,3; . . .

2. Find the general term of the following sequences:
(a) 3; 7; 11; 15; . . .
(b) −2; 1; 4; 7; . . .
(c) 11; 15; 19; 23; . . .
1 2
(d) 3; 3; 1; 1 31 ; . . .
3. The seating of a sports stadium is arranged so that the first row has 15
seats, the second row has 19 seats, the third row has 23 seats and so on.
Calculate how many seats are in the twenty-fifth row.
4. A single square is made from 4 matchsticks. Two squares in a row need
7 matchsticks and three squares in a row need 10 matchsticks. For this
sequence determine:
(a) the first term;
(b) the common difference;
(c) the general formula;
(d) how many matchsticks there are in a row of twenty-five squares.
5. You would like to start saving some money, but because you have never
tried to save money before, you decide to start slowly. At the end of the
first week you deposit R 5 into your bank account. Then at the end of
the second week you deposit R 10 and at the end of the third week, R 15.
After how many weeks will you deposit R 50 into your bank account?
6. A horizontal line intersects a piece of string at 4 points and divides it
into five parts, as shown below.
1 3 5
b b b b
2 4
If the piece of string is intersected in this way by 19 parallel lines, each

of which intersects it at 4 points, determine the number of parts into
which the string will be divided.

7. Consider what happens when you add 9 to a two-digit number:
9 + 16 = 25
9 + 28 = 37
9 + 43 = 52
(a) What pattern do you see?

(b) Make a conjecture and express it in words.
(c) Generalise your conjecture algebraically.
(d) Prove that your conjecture is true.
(1a-c.) 00i3 (2a.) 00i4 (2b.) 00i5 (2c.) 00i6 (2d.) 00i7
(3.) 00i8 (4a-d.) 00i9 (5.) 00ia (6.) 00ib (7.) 00ic

Functions CHAPTER 5. FUNCTIONS
5
5.1 Functions in the real world EMAAM
Functions are mathematical building blocks for designing machines, predicting natural
disasters, curing diseases, understanding world economies and for keeping aeroplanes in
the air. Functions can take input from many variables, but always give the same output,
unique to that function.
Functions also allow us to visualise relationships in terms of graphs, which are much
easier to read and interpret than lists of numbers.
Some examples of functions include:
• Money as a function of time. You never have more than one amount of money
at any time because you can always add everything to give one total amount. By
understanding how your money changes over time, you can plan to spend your
money sensibly. Businesses find it very useful to plot the graph of their money over
time so that they can see when they are spending too much.
• Temperature as a function of various factors. Temperature is a very complicated

function because it has so many inputs, including: the time of day, the season, the
amount of clouds in the sky, the strength of the wind, where you are and many
more. But the important thing is that there is only one temperature output when
you measure it in a specific place.
• Location as a function of time. You can never be in two places at the same time.
If you were to plot the graphs of where two people are as a function of time, the
place where the lines cross means that the two people meet each other at that time.
This idea is used in logistics, an area of mathematics that tries to plan where people
and items are for businesses.
Video: VMawb at www.everythingmaths.co.za

CHAPTER 5. FUNCTIONS 5.1
DEFINITION: Function
A function is a mathematical relationship between two variables, where

every input variable has one output variable.
Dependent and independent variables EMAAN
In functions, the x-variable is known as the input or independent variable, because its
value can be chosen freely. The calculated y-variable is known as the output or depen-
dent variable, because its value depends on the chosen input value.
Set notation EMAAO
Examples:
{x : x ∈ R, x > 0} The set of all x-values such that x is an element

of the set of real numbers and is greater than 0.
{y : y ∈ N, 3 < y ≤ 5} The set of all y-values such that y is a natural num-

ber, is greater than 3 and is less than or equal to
5.
{z : z ∈ Z, z ≤ 100} The set of all z-values such that z is an integer and

is less than or equal to 100.

5.1 CHAPTER 5. FUNCTIONS
Interval notation EMAAP
It is important to note that this notation can only be used to represent an interval of real
numbers.
Examples:
(3; 11) Round brackets indicate that the number is not

included. This interval includes all real numbers
greater than but not equal to 3 and less than but
not equal to 11.
(−∞; −2) Round brackets are always used for positive and
negative infinity. This interval includes all real
numbers less than, but not equal to −2.
[1; 9) A square bracket indicates that the number is in-

cluded. This interval includes all real numbers
greater than or equal to 1 and less than but not
equal to 9.
Function notation EMAAQ
This is a very useful way to express a function. Another way of writing y = 2x + 1 is

f (x) = 2x + 1. We say “f of x is equal to 2x + 1”. Any letter can be used, for example,
g(x), h(x), p(x), etc.
1. Determine the output value:

“Find the value of the function for x = −3” can be written as: “find f (−3)”.
Replace x with −3:
f (−3) = 2(−3) + 1 = −5
∴ f (−3) = −5

This means that when x = −3, the value of the function is −5.
2. Determine the input value:
“Find the value of x that will give a y-value of 27” can be written as: “find x if
f (x) = 27”.
We write the following equation and solve for x:
2x + 1 = 27
∴ x = 13
This means that when x = 13 the value of the function is 27.
Representations of functions EMAAR
Functions can be expressed in many different ways for different purposes.
1. Words: “The relationship between two variables is such that one is always 5 less
than the other.”
2. Mapping diagram:
Input: Function: Output:

−3 −8
0 x−5 −5
5 0
3. Table:
Input variable (x) −3 0 5
Output variable (y) −8 −5 0
4. Set of ordered number pairs: (−3; −8), (0; −5), (5; 0)

5. Algebraic formula: f (x) = x − 5

6. Graph:
f (x)
5b x
0
b
−5
Domain and range EMAAS
The domain of a function is the set of all independent x-values for which there is one
dependent y-value according to that function. The range is the set of all dependent y-
values which can be obtained using an independent x-value.
Exercise 5 - 1
1. Write the following in set notation:

(a) (−∞; 7]
(b) [13; 4)
(c) (35; ∞)
(d) [ 34 ; 21)
(e) [− 21 ; 21 ]
√
(f) (− 3; ∞)
2. Write the following in interval notation:
(a) {p : p ∈ R, p ≤ 6}
(b) {k : k ∈ R, − 5 < k < 5}
(c) {x : x ∈ R, x > 15 }
(d) {z : z ∈ R, 21 ≤ z < 41}

(1a-f.) 00f9 (2a-d.) 00fa
5.2 Linear functions EMAAT
Functions of the form y = x EMAAU
Functions of the form y = mx + c are called straight line functions. In the equation,
y = mx + c, m and c are constants and have different effects on the graph of the function.
Video: VMjlm at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 1: Plotting a straight line graph
QUESTION
y = f (x) = x
Complete the following table for f (x) = x and plot the points on a set of axes.
x −2 −1 0 1 2
f (x) −2
1. Join the points with a straight line.

2. Determine the domain and range.
3. About which line is f symmetrical?
4. Using the graph, determine the value of x for which f (x) = 4. Confirm your
answer graphically.
5. Where does the graph cut the axes?

SOLUTION
Step 1 : Substitute values into the equation
x −2 −1 0 1 2
f (x) −2 −1 0 1 2
Step 2 : Plot the points and join with a straight line curve
From the table, we get the following points and the graph:
(−2; −2), (−1; −1), (0; 0), (1; 1), (2; 2)
2 b
f (x) = x
1 b
b x
0
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
b
−1
b
−2
−3
Step 3 : Determine the domain and range

Domain: x ∈ R
Range: f (x) ∈ R
Step 4 : Determine the value of x for which f (x) = 4

From the graph we see that when f (x) = 4, x = 4. This gives the
point (4; 4).

Step 5 : Determine the intercept

The function f intercepts the axes at the origin (0; 0).
Functions of the form y = mx + c EMAAV
Investigation: The effects of m and c on a straight line graph
On the same set of axes, plot the following graphs:

1. y = x − 2
2. y = x − 1
3. y = x
4. y = x + 1
5. y = x + 2
Use your results to deduce the effect of different values of c on the graph. On the
same set of axes, plot the following graphs:
6. y = −2x
7. y = −x
8. y = x
9. y = 2x
Use your results to deduce the effect of different values of m on the graph.
The effect of m
We notice that the value of m affects the slope of the graph. As m increases, the gradient
of the graph increases.
If m > 0 then the graph increases from left to right (slopes upwards).
If m < 0 then the graph increases from right to left (slopes downwards). For this reason,
m is referred to as the gradient of a straight-line graph.
The effect of c
We also notice that the value of c affects where the graph cuts the y-axis. For this reason,
c is known as the y-intercept.
If c > 0 the graph shifts vertically upwards.
If c < 0, the graph shifts vertically downwards.
Video: VMaxf at www.everythingmaths.co.za

m<0 m=0 m>0
c>0
c=0
c<0
Discovering the characteristics EMAAW
The standard form of a straight line graph is the equation y = mx + c.
Domain and range
The domain is {x : x ∈ R} because there is no value of x for which f (x) is undefined.

The range of f (x) = mx + c is also {f (x) : f (x) ∈ R} because f (x) can take on any real
value.
Intercepts
The y-intercept:
Every point on the y-axis has an x-coordinate of 0. Therefore to calculate the y-intercept,
let x = 0.
For example, the y-intercept of g(x) = x − 1 is given by setting x = 0:

g(x) = x − 1
g(0) = 0 − 1
= −1
This gives the point (0; −1).
The x-intercept:
Every point on the x-axis has a y-coordinate of 0. Therefore to calculate the x-intercept,
let y = 0. For example, the x-intercept of g(x) = x − 1 is given by setting y = 0:
g(x) = x − 1
0 = x−1
∴x = 1
This gives the point (1; 0).
Sketching graphs of the form y = mx + c EMAAX
In order to sketch graphs of the form, f (x) = mx + c, we need to determine three

characteristics:
1. sign of m
2. y-intercept
3. x-intercept
Dual intercept method EMAAY
Only two points are needed to plot a straight line graph. The easiest points to use are the
x-intercept and the y-intercept.

Example 2: Sketching a straight line graph using the dual intercept method
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of g(x) = x − 1 using the dual intercept method.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Examine the standard form of the equation

m > 0. This means that the graph increases as x increases.
Step 2 : Calculate the intercepts

For y-intercept, let x = 0; therefore g(0) = −1. This gives the point
(0; −1). For x-intercept, let y = 0; therefore x = 1. This gives the
point (1; 0).
Step 3 : Plot the points and draw the graph
3 g(x) = x − 1
2
1
(1; 0) x
b
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 b
(0; −1)
−2
−3
−4

Gradient and y -intercept method EMAAZ
We can draw a straight line graph of the form y = mx + c using the gradient m and the
y-intercept c.
We calculate the y-intercept by letting x = 0. This gives us one point (0; c) for drawing
the graph and we use the gradient (m) to calculate the second.
The gradient of a line is the measure of steepness. Steepness is determined by the ratio
of vertical change to horizontal change:
change in y vertical change

m= =
change in x horizontal change
For example, y = 32 x − 1, therefore m > 0 and the graph slopes upwards.
change in y 3↑ −3 ↓
m= = =
change in x 2→ −2 ←
3 +2 →
(2; 2)
2
+3 ↑ 1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 b (0; 1)
−2
−3 ↓
−3
(−2; −4) −4
−2 ←

Example 3: Sketching a straight line graph using the gradient–intercept

method
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of p(x) = 21 x − 3 using the gradient–intercept method.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use the intercept

c = −3, which gives the point (0; −3).
Step 2 : Use the gradient
change in y 1↑ −1 ↓
m= = =
change in x 2→ −2 ←
Start at (0; −3). Move 1 unit up and 2 units to the right. This gives the
second point (2; −2).
Or start at (0; −3), move 1 unit down and 2 units to the left. This
gives the second point (−2; −4).
Step 3 : Plot the points and draw the graph
p(x)
3
2
1
x
0
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
2→
−2 b
(2; −2)
1↑
−3 b
(0; −3)
(−2; −4) b
−4
−5

Always write the function in the form y = mx + c and take note of m. After plotting the
graph, make sure that the graph increases if m > 0 and that the graph decreases if m < 0.
Exercise 5 - 2
1. List the x and y-intercepts for the following straight line graphs. Indicate
whether the graph is increasing or decreasing:
(a) y = x + 1
(b) y = x − 1
(c) h(x) = 2x − 1
(d) y + 3x = 1
(e) 3y − 2x = 6
(f) k(x) = −3
(g) x = 3y
x y
(h) 2 − 3 =1
2. For the functions in the diagram below, give the equation of the line:
(a) a(x)
(b) b(x)
(c) p(x)
(d) d(x)
b(x)
(0; 3) p(x)
(4; 0) x
0
a(x)
d(x)
(0; −6)

3. Sketch the following functions on the same set of axes, using the dual
intercept method. Clearly indicate the intercepts and the point of inter-
section of the two graphs: x + 2y − 5 = 0 and 3x − y − 1 = 0
4. On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of f (x) = 3 − 3x and g(x) =
1
3x + 1 using the gradient–intercept method.
(1a-h.) 00fh (2a-d.) 00fi (3.) 00fj (4.) 00fk
5.3 Quadratic functions EMABA
Functions of the form y = x2 EMABB
Functions of the general form y = ax2 + q are called parabolic functions. In the equation
y = ax2 + q, a and q are constants and have different effects on the parabola.
Video: VMaxl at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 4: Plotting a quadratic function
QUESTION
y = f (x) = x2
Complete the following table for f (x) = x2 and plot the points on a system of axes.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
f (x) 9

1. Join the points with a smooth curve.

2. The domain of f is x ∈ R. Determine the range.
3. About which line is f symmetrical?
4. Determine the value of x for which f (x) = 6 14 .
Confirm your answer graphically.
5. where does the graph cut the axes?
SOLUTION
f (x) = x2
f (−3) = (−3)2 = 9
f (−2) = (−2)2 = 4
f (−1) = (−1)2 = 1
f (0) = (0)2 = 0
f (1) = (1)2 = 1
f (2) = (2)2 = 4
f (3) = (3)2 = 9
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
f (x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
Step 2 : Plot the points and join with a smooth curve

From the table, we get the following points:
(−3; 9), (−2; 4), (−1; 1), (0; 0), (1; 1), (2; 4), (3; 9)

y
b
9 b
8
7 f (x) = x2
b
B 6 A b
5
b
4 b
3
2
b
1 b
b x
0
−4 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4
Step 3 : Determine the domain and range

Domain: x ∈ R.
From the graph we see that for all values of x, y ≥ 0.
Range: {y : y ∈ R, y ≥ 0}.
Step 4 : Find the axis of symmetry

f is symmetrical about the y-axis. Therefore the axis of symmetry of
f is the line x = 0.
Step 5 : Determine the x-value
25
f (x) = 4
25
∴ 4 = x2
x = ± 25
= ±2 12
See points A and B on the graph.
Step 6 : Determine the intercept

The function f intercepts the axes at the origin (0; 0).
We notice that as the value of x increases from −∞ to 0, f (x) de-
creases.
At the turning point (0; 0), f (x) = 0.
As the value of x increases from 0 to ∞, f (x) increases.

Functions of the form y = ax2 + q EMABC
Investigation: The effects of a and q on a parabola
Complete the table and plot the following graphs on the same system of axes:
1. y1 = x2 − 2
2. y2 = x2 − 1
3. y3 = x2
4. y4 = x2 + 1
5. y5 = x2 + 2
x −2 −1 0 1 2
y1
y2
y3
y4
y5
Use your results to deduce the effect of q. Complete the table and plot the follow-
ing graphs on the same system of axes:
6. y6 = −2x2
7. y7 = −x2
8. y8 = x2
9. y9 = 2x2
x −2 −1 0 1 2
y6
y7
y8
y9

Use your results to deduce the effect of a.
a<0 a>0
q>0
q=0
q<0
The effect of q
The effect of q is called a vertical shift because all points are moved the same distance in
the same direction (it slides the entire graph up or down).
• For q > 0, the graph of f (x) is shifted vertically upwards by q units. The turning
point of f (x) is above the y-axis.
• For q < 0, the graph of f (x) is shifted vertically downwards by q units. The turning
point of f (x) is below the y-axis.
The effect of a
The sign of a determines the shape of the graph.
• For a > 0, the graph of f (x) is a “smile” and has a minimum turning point at (0; q).
The graph of f (x) is stretched vertically upwards; as a gets larger, the graph gets
narrower.
For 0 < a < 1, as a gets closer to 0, the graph of f (x) get wider.
• For a < 0, the graph of f (x) is a “frown” and has a maximum turning point at (0; q).
The graph of f (x) is stretched vertically downwards; as a gets smaller, the graph
gets narrower.
For −1 < a < 0, as a gets closer to 0, the graph of f (x) get wider.
Simulation: MG10018 at www.everythingmaths.co.za

b b b b
a > 0 (a positive smile) a < 0 (a negative frown)
Discovering the characteristics EMABD
The standard form of a parabola is the equation y = ax2 + q.
Domain and range
The domain is {x : x ∈ R} because there is no value for which f (x) is undefined.
If a > 0 then we have:
x2 ≥ 0 (Perfect square is always positive)
ax2 ≥ 0 (since a > 0)
ax2 + q ≥ q (add q to both sides)
∴ f (x) ≥ q
Therefore if a > 0, the range is [q; ∞). Similarly, if a < 0 then the range is (−∞; q].
Example 5: Domain and range of a parabola
QUESTION
If g(x) = x2 + 2, determine the domain and range of the function.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Determine the domain

The domain is {x : x ∈ R} because there is no value for which g(x)
is undefined.

Step 2 : Determine the range

The range of g(x) can be calculated as follows:
x2 ≥ 0
x2 + 2 ≥ 2
g(x) ≥ 2
Therefore the range is {g(x) : g(x) ≥ 2}.
Intercepts
The y-intercept:
Every point on the y-axis has an x-coordinate of 0, therefore to calculate the y-intercept
let x = 0.
For example, the y-intercept of g(x) = x2 + 2 is given by setting x = 0:
g(x) = x2 + 2
g(0) = 02 + 2
= 2
The x-intercepts:
Every point on the x-axis has a y-coordinate of 0, therefore to calculate the x-intercepts
let y = 0.
For example, the x-intercepts of g(x) = x2 + 2 are given by setting y = 0:
g(x) = x2 + 2
0 = x2 + 2
−2 = x2
There is no real solution, therefore the graph of g(x) = x2 + 2 does not have any x-
intercepts.

Turning points
The turning point of the function of the form f (x) = ax2 + q is determined by examining
the range of the function.
• If a > 0, the graph of f (x) is a “smile” and has a minimum turning point at (0; q).
• If a < 0, the graph of f (x) is a “frown” and has a maximum turning point at (0; q).
Axes of symmetry
The axis of symmetry for functions of the form f (x) = ax2 + q is the y-axis, which is the
line x = 0.
Sketching graphs of the form y = ax2 + q EMABE
In order to sketch graphs of the form f (x) = ax2 + q, we need to determine the following
characteristics:
1. sign of a
2. y-intercept
3. x-intercept
4. turning point
Example 6: Sketching a parabola
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 − 4. Mark the intercepts and the turning point.
SOLUTION

We notice that a > 0. Therefore the graph of the function is a

“smile” and has a minimum turning point.

For the y-intercept, let x = 0:
y = 2x2 − 4
= 2(0)2 − 4
= −4

For x-intercept, let y = 0:
y = 2x2 − 4
0 = 2x2 − 4
x2 = 2
√
∴x = ± 2
√ √
This gives the points (− 2; 0) and ( 2; 0).
Step 3 : Determine the turning point

From the standard form of the equation we see that the turning point
is (0; −4).
Step 4 : Plot the points and sketch the graph

y
3
y = 2x2 − 4
2
1
√ √
(− 2; 0) ( 2; 0) x
b b
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3
−4 (0; −4)
b

Domain: {x : x ∈ R}
Range: {y : y ≥ −4, y ∈ R}
The axis of symmetry is the line x = 0.
Example 7: Sketching a parabola
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of g(x) = − 21 x2 − 3. Mark the intercepts and the turning point.
SOLUTION

We notice that a < 0. Therefore the graph is a “frown” and has a
maximum turning point.

g(x) = − 12 x2 − 3
g(0) = − 12 (0)2 − 3
= −3
For the x-intercept let y = 0:
0 = − 12 x2 − 3
3 = − 12 x2
−2(3) = x2
−6 = x2
There is no real solution, therefore there are no x-intercepts.

Step 3 : Determine the turning point

From the standard form of the equation we see that the turning point
is (0; −3).
y
x
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
(0; −3)
−3 b
−4
g(x) = − 12 x2 − 3
−5
−6
Domain: x ∈ R.
Range: y ∈ (−∞; −3].
The axis of symmetry is the line x = 0.
Exercise 5 - 3
1. Show that if a < 0 the range of f (x) = ax2 + q is {f (x) : f (x) ≤ q}.
2. Draw the graph of the function y = −x2 + 4 showing all intercepts with
the axes.
3. Two parabolas are drawn: g : y = ax2 + p and h : y = bx2 + q.

23
(−4; 7) (4; 7)
x
0 3
h
−9
(a) Find the values of a and p.

(b) Find the values of b and q.
(c) Find the values of x for which g(x) ≥ h(x).
(d) For what values of x is g increasing?
(1.) 00fm (2.) 00fn (3a-d.) 00fp
5.4 Hyperbolic functions EMABF
Video: VMaxw at www.everythingmaths.co.za
1
Functions of the form y = x
EMABG
a
Functions of the general form y = x + q are called hyperbolic functions.

Example 8: Plotting a hyperbolic function
QUESTION
1
y = h(x) =
x
1
Complete the following table for h(x) = x and plot the points on a system of axes.
x −3 −2 −1 − 12 − 14 0 1
4
1
2 1 2 3
h(x) − 31
1. Join the points with smooth curves.

2. What happens if x = 0?
3. Explain why the graph consists of two separate curves.
4. What happens to h(x) as the value of x becomes very small or very large?
5. The domain of h(x) is {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0}. Determine the range.
6. About which two lines is the graph symmetrical?
SOLUTION
1
h(x) = x
1
h(−3) = −3 = − 13
1
h(−2) = −2 = − 12
1
h(−1) = −1 = −1
1
h(− 12 ) = = −2
− 12
1
h(− 41 ) = = −4
− 14
1
h(0) = 0 = undefined

1
h( 14 ) = 1 = 4
4
1
h( 12 ) = 1 = 2
2
1
h(1) = 1 = 1
1 1
h(2) = 2 = 2
1 1
h(3) = 3 = 3
x −3 −2 −1 − 12 − 14 0 1
4
1
2 1 2 3
h(x) − 13 − 21 −1 −2 −4 undefined 4 2 1 1
2
1
3
Step 2 : Plot the points and join with two smooth curves
From the table we get the following points: (−3; − 13 ), (−2; − 12 ),
(−1; −1), (− 12 ; −2), (− 14 ; −4), ( 41 ; 4), ( 12 ; 2), (1; 1), (2; 12 ), (3; 13 ).
y
4 b
2 b
1
h(x) = x
1 b
b
b
x
−1 0
b
−4 −3 −2 b
1 2 3 4
−1
b
−2
b
−3
−4 b
For x = 0 the function h is undefined. This is called a discontinuity

at x = 0.
1
y = h(x) = x therefore we can write that x×y = 1. Since the product

of two positive numbers and the product of two negative numbers can
be equal to 1, the graph lies in the first and third quadrants.
Step 3 : Determine the asymptotes

As the value of x gets larger, the value of h(x) gets closer to, but does
not equal 0. This is a horizontal asymptote, the line y = 0. The same
happens in the third quadrant; as x gets smaller, h(x) also approaches
the negative x-axis asymptotically.
We also notice that there is a vertical asymptote, the line x = 0; as x

gets closer to 0, h(x) approaches the y-axis asymptotically.

Domain: {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0}
From the graph, we see that y is defined for all values except 0.
Range: {y : y ∈ R, y 6= 0}
Step 5 : Determine the lines of symmetry

The graph of h(x) has two axes of symmetry: the lines y = x and
y = −x. About these two lines, one half of the hyperbola is a mirror
image of the other half.
Functions of the form y = xa + q EMABH
Investigation: The effects of a and q on a hyperbola

1
1. y1 = − 2
x
1
2. y2 = − 1
x
1
3. y3 =
x
1
4. y4 = + 1
x
1
5. y5 = + 2
x

Use your results to deduce the effect of q.

−2
6. y6 =
x
−1
7. y7 =
x
1
8. y8 =
x
2
9. y9 =
x
a<0 a>0
q>0
q=0
q<0
The effect of q
• For q > 0, the graph of f (x) is shifted vertically upwards by q units.
• For q < 0, the graph of f (x) is shifted vertically downwards by q units.
The horizontal asymptote is the line y = q and the vertical asymptote is always the y-axis,
the line x = 0.

The effect of a
The sign of a determines the shape of the graph.
• If a > 0, the graph of f (x) lies in the first and third quadrants.
For a > 1, the graph of f (x) will be further away from the axes than y = x1 .
For 0 < a < 1, as a tends to 0, the graph moves closer to the axes than y = x1 .
• If a < 0, the graph of f (x) lies in the second and fourth quadrants.
For a < −1, the graph of f (x) will be further away from the axes than y = − x1 .
For −1 < a < 0, as a tends to 0, the graph moves closer to the axes than y = − x1 .
Discovering the characteristics EMABI
a
The standard form of a hyperbola is the equation y = x + q.
Domain and range
a
For y = x + q, the function is undefined for x = 0. The domain is therefore {x : x ∈
R, x 6= 0}.
a
We see that y = x + q can be re-written as:
a
y = +q
x
a
y−q =
x
If x 6= 0 then : (y − q)x = a
a
x =
y−q
This shows that the function is undefined only at y = q.
Therefore the range is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ R, f (x) 6= q}.

Example 9: Domain and range of a hyperbola
QUESTION
2
If g(x) = x + 2, determine the domain and range of the function.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Determine the domain

The domain is {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0} because g(x) is undefined only at
x = 0.

We see that g(x) is undefined only at y = 2. Therefore the range is
{g(x) : g(x) ∈ R, g(x) 6= 2}.
Intercepts
The y-intercept:
Every point on the y-axis has an x-coordinate of 0, therefore to calculate the y-intercept,
let x = 0.
2
For example, the y-intercept of g(x) = x + 2 is given by setting x = 0:
2
y = +2
x
2
y = +2
0
which is undefined, therefore there is no y-intercept.
The x-intercept:
Every point on the x-axis has a y-coordinate of 0, therefore to calculate the x-intercept,
let y = 0.

2
For example, the x-intercept of g(x) = x + 2 is given by setting y = 0:
2
y = +2
x
2
0 = +2
x
2
= −2
x
2
x =
−2
= −1
This gives the point (−1; 0).
Asymptotes
a
There are two asymptotes for functions of the form y = x + q.
The horizontal asymptote is the line y = q and the vertical asymptote is always the y-axis,
the line x = 0.
Axes of symmetry
There are two lines about which a hyperbola is symmetrical: y = x + q and y = −x + q.
Sketching graphs of the form y = xa + q EMABJ
a
In order to sketch graphs of functions of the form, y = f (x) = x + q, we need to deter-
mine four characteristics:
1. sign of a
2. y-intercept
3. x-intercept
4. asymptotes

Example 10: Sketching a hyperbola
QUESTION
2
Sketch the graph of g(x) = x + 2. Mark the intercepts and the asymptotes.
SOLUTION

We notice that a > 0 therefore the graph of g(x) lies in the first and
third quadrant.

2
g(x) = +2
x
2
g(0) = +2
0
This is undefined, therefore there is no y-intercept.
For the x-intercept, let y = 0:
2
g(x) = +2
x
2
0 = +2
x
2
= −2
x
∴ x = −1
This gives the point (−1; 0).

The horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2. The vertical asymptote
is the line x = 0.
Step 4 : Sketch the graph

6
5
4
2
g(x) = x +2
3
2
1
x
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−3
Domain: {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0}.
Range: {y : y ∈ R, y 6= 2}.
Example 11: Sketching a hyperbola
QUESTION
−4
Sketch the graph of y = x + 7.
SOLUTION

We see that a < 0 therefore the graph lies in the second and fourth
quadrants.

−4
y = +7
x
−4
= +7
0
This is undefined, therefore there is no y-intercept.
−4
y = +7
x
−4
0 = +7
x
−4
= −7
x
4
∴x =
7
4

This gives the point 7; 0 .

The horizontal asymptote is the line y = 7. The vertical asymptote
is the line x = 0.
Step 4 : Sketch the graph

14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7 y=7
6
5 y= −4
+7
x
4
3
2
1
x
0
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
−2
Domain: {x : x ∈ R, x 6= 0}
Range: {y : y ∈ R, y 6= 7}
Axis of symmetry: y = x + 7 and y = −x + 7
Exercise 5 - 4
1. Draw the graph of xy = −6.

(a) Does the point (−2; 3) lie on the graph? Give a reason for your
answer.
(b) If the x-value of a point on the drawn graph is 0,25 what is the
corresponding y-value?
(c) What happens to the y-values as the x-values become very large?
(d) Give the equations of the asymptotes.
(e) With the line y = −x as line of symmetry, what is the point sym-
metrical to (−2; 3)?

2. Draw the graph of h(x) = x8 .

8
(a) How would the graph g(x) = x + 3 compare with that of h(x) = x8 ?
Explain your answer fully.
8
(b) Draw the graph of y = x + 3 on the same set of axes, showing
asymptotes, axes of symmetry and the coordinates of one point on
the graph.
(1a-e.) 00fq (2a-b.) 00fr
5.5 Exponential functions EMABK
Functions of the form y = bx EMABL
Functions of the general form y = abx + q are called exponential functions. In the
equation a and q are constants and have different effects on the function.
Video: VMaxx at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 12: Plotting an exponential function
QUESTION
y = f (x) = bx for b > 0 and b 6= 1
Complete the following table for each of the functions and draw the graphs on the
same system of axes: f (x) = 2x , g(x) = 3x , h(x) = 5x .

−2 −1 0 1 2
f (x) = 2x
g(x) = 3x
h(x) = 5x
1. At what point do these graphs intersect?

2. Explain why they do not cut the x-axis.
3. Give the domain and range of h(x).
4. As x increases, does h(x) increase or decrease?
5. Which of these graphs increases at the slowest rate?
6. For y = k x and k > 1, the greater the value of k, the steeper
the curve of the graph. True or false?
Complete the following table for each of the functions and draw the graphs on the
same system of axes: F (x) = ( 21 )x , G(x) = ( 13 )x , H(x) = ( 15 )x .
−2 −1 0 1 2
F (x) = ( 12 )x
G(x) = ( 13 )x
H(x) = ( 15 )x
7. Give the y-intercept for each function.

8. Describe the relationship between the graphs f (x) and
F (x).
9. Describe the relationship between the graphs g(x) and
G(x).
10. Give the domain and range of H(x).
11. For y = ( k1 )x and k > 1, the greater the value of k, the
steeper the curve of the graph. True or false?
12. Give the equation of the asymptote for the functions.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Substitute values into the equations

−2 −1 0 1 2
1 1
f (x) = 2x 4 2 1 2 4
1 1
g(x) = 3x 9 3 1 3 9
1 1
g(x) = 5x 25 5 1 5 25
−2 −1 0 1 2
F (x) = ( 12 )x 4 2 1 1
2
1
4
G(x) = ( 13 )x 9 3 1 1
3
1
9
H(x) = ( 15 )x 25 5 1 1
5
1
25
h(x) g(x)
f (x)
4
1
x
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
1. We notice that all graphs pass through the point (0; 1). Any number with
exponent 0 is equal to 1.
2. The graphs do not cut the x-axis because 00 is undefined.
3. Domain: {x : x ∈ R}.
Range: {y : y ∈ R, y > 0}.
4. As x increases, h(x) increases.
5. f (x) = 2x increases at the slowest rate because it has the smallest base.
6. True: the greater the value of k (k > 1), the steeper the graph of y = k x .

G(x)H(x)
F (x)
4
1
x
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
1. The y-intercept is the point (0; 1) for all graphs. For any real number z, z 0 = 1.
2. F (x) is the reflection of f (x) about the y-axis.
3. G(x) is the reflection of g(x) about the y-axis.
4. Domain: {x : x ∈ R}.
Range: {y : y ∈ R, y > 0}.
5. True: the greater the value of k (k > 1), the steeper the graph of y = ( k1 )x .
6. The equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = 0, the x-axis.
Functions of the form y = abx + q EMABM
Investigation: The effects of a and q on an exponential graph
On the same set of axes, plot the following graphs (b = 2, a = 1 and q changes):
1. y1 = 2x − 2
2. y2 = 2x − 1
3. y3 = 2x
4. y4 = 2x + 1
5. y5 = 2x + 2

−2 −1 0 1 2
y1 = 2x − 2
y2 = 2x − 1
y3 = 2x
y4 = 2x + 1
y5 = 2x + 2
On the same set of axes, plot the following graphs (b = 2, q = 0 and a changes):
6. y6 = 2x
7. y7 = 2 × 2x
8. y8 = −2x
9. y9 = −2 × 2x
−2 −1 0 1 2
y6 = 2x
y7 = 2 × 2x
y8 = −2x
y9 = −2 × 2x

b>1 a<0 a>0
q>0
q<0
0<b<1 a<0 a>0
q>0
q<0
The effect of q
• For q > 0, the graph is shifted vertically upwards by q units.
• For q < 0, the graph is shifted vertically downwards by q units.
The horizontal asymptote is shifted by q units and is the line y = q.
The effect of a
The sign of a determines whether the graph curves upwards or downwards.
• For a > 0, the graph curves upwards.
• For a < 0, the graph curves downwards. It reflects the graph about the horizontal
asymptote.

Discovering the characteristics EMABN
The standard form of an exponential function is y = abx + q.
Domain and range
For y = abx + q, the function is defined for all real values of x. Therefore, the domain is
{x : x ∈ R}.
The range of y = abx + q is dependent on the sign of a.
For a > 0:
bx > 0
abx > 0
abx + q > q
f (x) > q
Therefore, for a > 0 the range is {f (x) : f (x) > q}.
For a < 0:
bx > 0
abx < 0
abx + q < q
f (x) < q
Therefore, for a < 0 the range is {f (x) : f (x) < q}.

Example 13: Domain and range of an exponential function
QUESTION
Find the domain and range of g(x) = 5.2x + 1
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Find the domain

The domain of g(x) = 5 × 2x + 1 is {x : x ∈ R}.
Step 2 : Find the range
2x > 0
5 × 2x > 0
5 × 2x + 1 > 1
Therefore the range is {g(x) : g(x) > 1}.
Intercepts
The y-intercept:
y = abx + q
= ab0 + q
= a(1) + q
= a+q
For example, the y-intercept of g(x) = 5 × 2x + 1 is given by setting x = 0:

y = 5 × 2x + 1
= 5 × 20 + 1
= 5+1
= 6
The x-intercept:
For the x-intercept, let y = 0.
For example, the x-intercept of g(x) = 5 × 2x + 1 is given by setting y = 0:
y = 5 × 2x + 1
0 = 5 × 2x + 1
−1 = 5 × 2x
1
2x = −
5
There is no real solution. Therefore, the graph of g(x) does not have any x-intercepts.
Asymptotes
Exponential functions of the form y = abx + q have a single horizontal asymptote, the
line x = q.
Sketching graphs of the form y = abx + q EMABO
In order to sketch graphs of functions of the form, y = abx + q, we need to determine four
characteristics:
1. sign of a
2. y-intercept
3. x-intercept
4. asymptote

Example 14: Sketching an exponential function
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of g(x) = 3 × 2x + 2. Mark the intercept and the asymptote.
SOLUTION

From the equation we see that a > 1, therefore the graph curves
upwards. q > 0 therefore the graph is shifted vertically upwards by 2
units.

y = 3 × 2x + 2
= 3 × 20 + 2
= 3+2
= 5

y = 3 × 2x + 2
0 = 3 × 2x + 2
−2 = 3 × 2x
2
2x = −
3
There is no real solution, therefore there is no x-intercept.
Step 3 : Determine the asymptote

The horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2.

6
5
4
y = 3 × 2x + 2 3
2 y=2
1
x
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
Range: {g(x) : g(x) > 2}
Note that there is no axis of symmetry for exponential functions.
Example 15: Sketching an exponential graph
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of y = −2 × 3x + 6.
SOLUTION

From the equation we see that a < 0 therefore the graph curves
downwards. q > 0 therefore the graph is shifted vertically upwards
by 6 units.

y = −2 × 3x + 6
= −2 × 30 + 6
= 4


y = −2 × 3x + 6
0 = −2 × 3x + 6
−6 = −2 × 3x
31 = 3x
∴x = 1
Step 3 : Determine the asymptote

The horizontal asymptote is the line y = 6.
6 y=6
y= −2.3x +6
5
4 b
(0; 4)
3
2
1
(1; 0)
b
x
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
Range: {g(x) : g(x) < 6}

Exercise 5 - 5
1. Draw the graphs of y = 2x and y = ( 12 )x on the same set of axes.

(a) Is the x-axis an asymptote or an axis of symmetry to both graphs?
Explain your answer.
(b) Which graph is represented by the equation y = 2−x ? Explain your
answer.
(c) Solve the equation 2x = ( 21 )x graphically and check that your an-
swer is correct by using substitution.
2. The curve of the exponential function f in the accompanying diagram
cuts the y-axis at the point A(0; 1) and passes through the point B(2; 9).
y
9 b
B(2; 9)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 b
A(0; 1)
x
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
(a) Determine the equation of the function f .

(b) Determine the equation of h, the reflection of f in the x-axis.
(c) Determine the range of h.
(d) Determine the equation of g, the reflection of f in the y-axis.
(e) Determine the equation of j if j is a vertical stretch of f by +2 units.
(f) Determine the equation of k if k is a vertical shift of f by −3 units.

(1a-c.) 00fs (2a-f.) 00ft
5.6 Trigonometric functions EMABP
This section describes the graphs of trigonometric functions.
Video: VMazc at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Sine function EMABQ
Functions of the form y = sin θ EMABR
Example 16: Plotting a sine graph
QUESTION
y = f (θ) = sin θ [ 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ ]
Use your calculator to complete the following table.

Choose an appropriate scale and plot the values of θ on the x-axis and of sin θ on
the y-axis. (Round answers to 2 decimal places).
θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
sin θ

SOLUTION
Step 1 : Substitute values for θ
θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
sin θ 0 0,5 0,87 1 0,87 0,5 0 −0,5 −0,87 −1 −0,87 −0,5 0
y
1 b
b
b
b b
0 b b
θ
30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210
b ◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330
b ◦ 360◦
b b
−1 b
Notice the wave shape of the graph. Each complete wave takes 360◦
to complete. This is called the period. The height of the wave above
and below the x-axis is called the graph’s amplitude. The maximum
value of y = sin θ is 1 and the minimum value is −1.
Domain: [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ]
Range: [−1; 1]
x-intercepts: (0◦ ; 0), (180◦ ; 0), (360◦ ; 0)
y-intercept: (0◦ ; 0)
Maximum turning point: (90◦ ; 1)
Minimum turning point: (270◦ ; −1)

Functions of the form y = a sin θ + q EMABS
Investigation: The effects of a and q on a sine graph
In the equation, y = a sin θ + q, a and q are constants and have different effects on
the graph. On the same set of axes, plot the following graphs for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ :
1. y1 = sin θ − 2
2. y2 = sin θ − 1
3. y3 = sin θ
4. y4 = sin θ + 1
5. y5 = sin θ + 2
On the same set of axes, plot the following graphs for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ :
6. y6 = −2 sin θ
7. y7 = −sin θ
8. y8 = sin θ
9. y9 = 2 sin θ
Effect of a
y
a > 1: vertical stretch, amplitude in-
creases
a = 1: basic sine graph a>1

a=1
0 < a < 1: vertical contraction, ampli- θ
0<a<1
tude decreases −1 < a < 0
a < −1
−1 < a < 0: reflection about x-axis of
0<a<1
a < −1: reflection about x-axis of a > 1

Effect of q
y
q > 0: vertical shift upwards by q units
q = 0: basic sine graph
q < 0: vertical shift downwards by q

q>0
units θ
q=0
q<0
The effect of q
The effect of q is called a vertical shift because the whole sine graph shifts up or down
by q units.
The effect of a
The value of a affects the amplitude of the graph; the height of the peaks and the depth
of the troughs.
• For a > 1, there is a vertical stretch and the amplitude increases.

For 0 < a < 1, the amplitude decreases.
• For a < 0, there is a reflection about the x-axis.

For −1 < a < 0, there is a reflection about the x-axis and the amplitude decreases.
For a < −1, there is a reflection about the x-axis and the amplitude increases.
Note that amplitude is always positive.

Discovering the characteristics EMABT
Domain and range
For f (θ) = a sin θ + q, the domain is [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ].
The range of f (θ) = a sin θ + q depends on the values for a and q:
For a > 0:
−1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1
−a ≤ a sin θ ≤ a
−a + q ≤ a sin θ + q ≤ a + q
−a + q ≤ f (θ) ≤ a+q
For all values of θ, f (θ) is always between −a + q and a + q.

Therefore for a > 0, the range of f (θ) = a sin θ + q is {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ [−a + q, a + q]}.
Similarly, for a < 0, the range of f (θ) = a sin θ + q is {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ [a + q, −a + q]}.
Period
The period of y = a sin θ + q is 360◦ . This means that one sine wave is completed in
360◦ .
Intercepts
The y-intercept of f (θ) = a sin θ + q is simply the value of f (θ) at θ = 0◦ .
y = f (0◦ )
= a sin 0◦ + q
= a(0) + q
= q
This gives the point (0; q).

Important: when sketching trigonometric graphs, always start with the basic graph and
then consider the effects of a and q.
Example 17: Sketching a sine graph
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of f (θ) = 2 sin θ + 3 for θ ∈ [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ].
SOLUTION

From the equation we see that a > 1 so the graph is stretched
vertically. We also see that q > 0 so the graph is shifted vertically
upwards by 3 units.
θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
f (θ) 3 4 4,73 5 4,73 4 3 2 1,27 1 1,27 2 3
f (θ)
5 b
b
4 b b
f (θ) = 2 sin θ + 3
3 b b b
2 b b
b b
1 b
0 θ
0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦

Domain: [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ]
Range: [1; 5]
x-intercepts: none
Maximum turning point: (90◦ ; 5)
Minimum turning point: (270◦ ; 1)
Cosine function EMABU
Functions of the form y = cos θ EMABV
Example 18: Plotting a cosine graph
QUESTION
y = f (θ) = cos θ [ 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ ]

Choose an appropriate scale and plot the values of θ on the x-axis and cos θ on
the y-axis. (Round answers to 2 decimal places.)
θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
cos θ
SOLUTION

θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
cos θ 1 0.87 0,5 0 −0,5 −0,87 −1 −0,87 −0,5 0 0,5 0,87 1
1 b
b b
b
b b
0 b b
θ
30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
b b
b b
−1 b
Notice the similar wave shape of the graph. The period is also 360◦
and the amplitude is 1. The maximum value of y = cos θ is 1 and the
minimum value is −1. Domain: [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ]
Range: [−1; 1]
x-intercepts: (90◦ ; 0), (270◦ ; 0)
Maximum turning points: (0◦ ; 1), (360◦ ; 1)
Minimum turning point: (180◦ ; −1)
Functions of the form y = a cos θ + q EMABW
Investigation: The effects of a and q on a cosine graph
In the equation, y = a cos θ + q, a and q are constants and have different effects on
the graph. On the same set of axes, plot the following graphs for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ :
1. y1 = cos θ − 2
2. y2 = cos θ − 1

3. y3 = cos θ
4. y4 = cos θ + 1
5. y5 = cos θ + 2
6. y6 = −2cos θ
7. y7 = −cos θ
8. y8 = cos θ
9. y9 = 2cos θ
Effect of a
a > 1: vertical stretch, amplitude in-

creases a>1
a=1
a = 1: basic cosine graph θ
0<a<1
−1 < a < 0
0 < a < 1: amplitude decreases
a < −1
−1 < a < 0: reflection about x-axis,
amplitude decreases
a < −1: reflection about x-axis, ampli-

tude increases

Effect of q
q > 0: vertical shift upwards by q units
q = 0: basic cosine graph q>0

θ
q=0
q < 0: vertical shift downwards by q
q<0
units
The effect of q
The effect of q is called a vertical shift because the whole cosine graph shifts up or down
by q units.
The effect of a
The value of a affects the amplitude of the graph; the height of the peaks and the depth
of the troughs.
• For a > 0, there is a vertical stretch and the amplitude increases.

For 0 < a < 1, the amplitude decreases.
• For a < 0, there is a reflection about the x-axis.

For −1 < a < 0, there is a reflection about the x-axis and the amplitude decreases.
For a < −1, there is reflection about the x-axis and the amplitude increases.
Note that amplitude is always positive.

Discovering the characteristics EMABX
Domain and range
For f (θ) = a cos θ + q, the domain is [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ].
It is easy to see that the range of f (θ) will be the same as the range of a sin θ + q. This
is because the maximum and minimum values of a cos (θ) + q will be the same as the
maximum and minimum values of a sin θ + q.
For a > 0 the range of f (θ) = a cos θ + q is {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ [−a + q; a + q]}.
For a < 0 the range of f (θ) = a cos θ + q is {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ [a + q; −a + q]}.
Period
The period of y = a cos θ + q is 360◦ . This means that one cosine wave is completed in
360◦ .
Intercepts
The y-intercept of f (θ) = a cos θ + q is calculated in the same way as for sine.
y = f (0◦ )
= a cos 0◦ + q
= a(1) + q
= a+q
This gives the point (0◦ ; a + q).

Example 19: Sketching a cosine graph
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of f (θ) = 2 cos θ + 3 for θ ∈ [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ].
SOLUTION

From the equation we see that a > 1 so the graph is stretched
vertically. We also see that q > 0 so the graph is shifted vertically
upwards by 3 units.
θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
f (θ) 5 4,73 4 3 2 1,27 1 1,27 2 3 4 4,73 5
f (θ)
f (θ) = 2 cos θ + 3
5 b
b b
b
4 b b
3 b b
2 b b
b b
1 b
0 θ
0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
Domain: [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ]
Range: [1; 5]

x-intercepts: none
Maximum turning points: (0◦ ; 5), (360◦ ; 5)
Minimum turning point: (180◦ ; 1)
Comparison of graphs of y = sin θ and EMABY

y = cos θ
y
y = cos θ
1
y = sin θ
0
θ
30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
−1
Notice that the two graphs look very similar. Both waves move up and down along the
x-axis. The distances between the peaks for each graph is the same. The height of the
peaks and the depths of the troughs are also the same.
If you shift the whole cosine graph to the right by 90◦ it will overlap perfectly with the
sine graph. If you shift the sine graph by 90◦ to the left and it would overlap perfectly
with the cosine graph. This means that:
sin θ = cos (θ − 90◦ ) (shift the cosine graph to the right)
cos θ = sin (θ + 90◦ ) (shift the sine graph to the left)

Tangent function EMABZ
Functions of the form y = tan θ EMACA
Example 20: Plotting a tangent graph
QUESTION
y = f (θ) = tan θ [ 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ ]

Choose an appropriate scale and plot the values with θ on the x-axis and tan θ on
the y-axis. (Round answers to 2 decimal places).
θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
tan θ
SOLUTION
θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
tan θ 0 0,58 1,73 undf −1,73 −0,58 0 0,58 1,73 undf −1,73 −0,58 0

f (θ)
2 b b
1
b b
θ
0 b b b
90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦

b b
−1
b b
−2
There is an easy way to visualise the tangent graph. Consider our

definitions of sin θ and cos θ for right-angled triangles.
opposite
sin θ hypotenuse opposite
= = = tan θ
cos θ adjacent adjacent
hypotenuse
So for any value of θ:
sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ
So we know that for values of θ for which sin θ = 0, we must also

have tan θ = 0. Also, if cos θ = 0 the value of tan θ is undefined as
we cannot divide by 0. The dashed vertical lines are at the values of
θ where tan θ is not defined and are called the asymptotes.
Asymptotes: the lines θ = 90◦ and θ = 270◦

Period: 180◦
Domain: {θ : 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ , θ 6= 90◦ ; 270◦ }
Range: {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ R}
x-intercepts: (0◦ ; 0), (180◦ ; 0), (360◦ ; 0)

Functions of the form y = a tan θ + q EMACB
Investigation: The effects of a and q on a tangent graph
1. y1 = tan θ − 2
2. y2 = tan θ − 1
3. y3 = tan θ
4. y4 = tan θ + 1
5. y5 = tan θ + 2
6. y6 = −2 tan θ
7. y7 = −tan θ
8. y8 = tan θ
9. y9 = 2 tan θ

a<0 a>0
b b
q>0
0 0
b b
q=0 0 0
0 0
b b
q<0
The effect of q
The effect of q is called a vertical shift because the whole tangent graph shifts up or down
by q units.

The effect of a
The value of a affects the steepness of each of the branches of the graph. The greater the
value of a, the quicker the branches of the graph approach the asymptotes.
Discovering the characteristics EMACC
Domain and range
From the graph we see that tan θ is undefined at θ = 90◦ and θ = 270◦ .
Therefore the domain is {θ : 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ , θ 6= 90◦ ; 270◦ }.
The range is {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ R}.
Period
The period of y = a tan θ + q is 180◦ . This means that one tangent cycle is completed in
180◦ .
Intercepts
The y-intercept of f (θ) = a tan θ + q is simply the value of f (θ) at θ = 0◦ .
y = f (0◦ )
= a tan 0◦ + q
= a(0) + q
= q
This gives the point (0◦ ; q).
Asymptotes
The graph has asymptotes at θ = 90◦ and θ = 270◦ .

Example 21: Sketching a tangent graph
QUESTION
Sketch the graph of y = 2 tan θ + 1 for θ ∈ [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ].
SOLUTION

We see that a > 1 so the branches of the curve will be steeper. We
also see that q > 0 so the graph is shifted vertically upwards by 1 unit.
θ 0◦ 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
y 1 2,15 4,46 – −2,46 −0,15 1 2,15 4,46 – −2,46 −0,15 1
5 b b
4
3
b b
2
1 b b b
0 b b
θ
−1 180◦ 360◦
−2 b b
−3
−4
−5
Domain: {θ : 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ , θ 6= 90◦ ; 270◦ }.

Range: {f (θ) : f (θ) ∈ R}.

Exercise 5 - 6
1. Using your knowledge of the effects of a and q, sketch each of the fol-
lowing graphs, without using a table of values, for θ ∈ [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ].
(a) y = 2 sin θ
(b) y = −4 cos θ
(c) y = −2 cos θ + 1
(d) y = sin θ − 3
(e) y = tan θ − 2
(f) y = 2 cos θ − 1
2. Give the equations of each of the following graphs:
y
2
0 x
90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
(a) −2
y
2
0 x
90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
(b) −2
(1a-f.) 00fu (2a-b.) 00fv

5.7 Interpretation of graphs EMACD
Example 22: Determining the equation of a parabola
QUESTION
Use the sketch below to determine the values of a and q for the parabola of the
form y = ax2 + q.
y
b (0; 1)
b
x
(−1; 0) 0
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Examine the sketch

From the sketch we see that the shape of the graph is a “frown”,
therefore a < 0. We also see that the graph has been shifted vertically
upwards, therefore q > 0.
Step 2 : Determine q using the y-intercept

The y-intercept is the point (0; 1).
y = ax2 + q
1 = a(0)2 + q
∴q = 1
Step 3 : Use the other given point to determine a

Substitute point (−1; 0) into the equation:
y = ax2 + q
0 = a(−1)2 + 1
∴ a = −1

a = −1 and q = 1, so the equation of the parabola is y = −x2 + 1.
Example 23: Determining the equation of a hyperbola
QUESTION
Use the sketch below to determine the values of a and q for the hyperbola of the
a
form y = + q.
x
y
(−1; 2) b
b
x
0 (1; 0)
SOLUTION

The two curves of the hyperbola lie in the second and fourth quad-
rant, therefore a < 0. We also see that the graph has been shifted
vertically upwards, therefore q > 0.

Step 2 : Substitute the given points into the equation and solve
Substitute the point (−1; 2):
a
y = +q
x
a
2 = +q
−1
∴ 2 = −a + q
Substitute the point (1; 0):
a
y =+q
x
a
0 = +q
1
∴ a = −q
Step 3 : Solve the equations simultaneously using substitution
2 = −a + q
= q+q
= 2q
∴q = 1
∴ a = −q
= −1

−1
a = −1 and q = 1, the equation of the hyperbola is y = + 1.
x
Example 24: Interpreting graphs
QUESTION
The graphs of y = −x2 + 4 and y = x − 2 are given. Calculate the following:

1. coordinates of A, B, C, D
2. coordinates of E
3. distance CD
y
b
C
y = −x2 + 4
y =x−2
b b
x
A 0 B
b
E
SOLUTION

For the parabola, to calculate the y-intercept, let x = 0:
y = −x2 + 4
= −02 + 4
= 4
This gives the point C(0; 4).

To calculate the x-intercept, let y = 0:
y = −x2 + 4
0 = −x2 + 4
x2 − 4 = 0
(x + 2)(x − 2) = 0
∴ x = ±2
This gives the points A(−2; 0) and B(2; 0).
For the straight line, to calculate the y-intercept, let x = 0:
y = x−2
= 0−2
= −2
This gives the point D(0; −2). For the straight line, to calculate the
x-intercept, let y = 0:
y = x−2
0 = x−2
x = 2
This gives the point B(2; 0).
Step 2 : Calculate the point of intersection E

At E the two graphs intersect so we can equate the two expressions:
x − 2 = −x2 + 4
∴ x2 + x − 6 = 0
∴ (x − 2)(x + 3) = 0
∴ x = 2 or − 3
At E, x = −3, therefore y = x − 2 = −3 − 2 = −5. This gives the

point E(−3; −5).
Step 3 : Calculate distance CD

CD = CO + OD
= 4+2
= 6
Distance CD is 6 units.
Example 25: Interpreting trigonometric graphs
QUESTION
Use the sketch to determine the equation of the trigonometric function f of the
form y = a f (θ) + q.
y
M (90◦ ; 32 )
b
N (210◦ ; 0) θ
b
SOLUTION

From the sketch we see that the graph is a sine graph that has been
shifted vertically upwards. The general form of the equation is y =
a sin θ + q.
Step 2 : Substitute the given points into equation and solve

At N , θ = 210◦ and y = 0:
y = a sin θ + q
0 = a sin 210◦ + q

1
= a − +q
2
a
∴q =
2
3
At M , θ = 90◦ and y = :
2
3
= a sin 90◦ + q
2
= a+q
Step 3 : Solve the equations simultaneously using substitution
3
= a+q
2
a
= a+
2
3 = 2a + a
3a = 3
∴a = 1
a
∴q =
2
1
=
2
1
y = sin θ +
2
Chapter 5 | Summary

Summary presentation: VMdkf at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• Characteristics of functions:
· The given x-value is known as the independent variable, because its value can
be chosen freely. The calculated y-value is known as the dependent variable,
because its value depends on the x-value.
· The domain of a function is the set of all x-values for which there exists at
most one y-value according to that function. The range is the set of all y
values, which can be obtained using at least one x-value.
· An asymptote is a straight line, which the graph of a function will approach,
but never touch.
· A graph is said to be continuous if there are no breaks in the graph.
• Special functions and their properties:
· Linear functions of the form y = ax + q.
· Parabolic functions of the form y = ax2 + q.
a
· Hyperbolic functions of the form y = x + q.
· Exponential functions of the form y = abx + q.
· Trigonometric functions of the form
y = a sin θ + q
y = a cos θ + q
y = a tan θ + q
1. Sketch the graphs of the following:

(a) y = 2x + 4
(b) y − 3x = 0
(c) 2y = 4 − x
2. Sketch the following functions:

(a) y = x2 + 3
(b) y = 12 x2 + 4
(c) y = 2x2 − 4
3. Sketch the following functions and identify the asymptotes:

(a) y = 3x + 2
(b) y = −4 × 2x

x
1
(c) y = −2
3
4. Sketch the following functions and identify the asymptotes:

3
(a) y = x +4
1
(b) y = x
2
(c) y = x −2
5. Determine whether the following statements are true or false. If the

statement is false, give reasons why:
(a) The given or chosen y-value is known as the independent variable.
(b) A graph is said to be congruent if there are no breaks in the graph.
(c) Functions of the form y = ax + q are straight lines.
a
(d) Functions of the form y = x + q are exponential functions.
(e) An asymptote is a straight line which a graph will intersect at least
once.
(f) Given a function of the form y = ax + q, to find the y-intercept let
x = 0 and solve for y.
6. Given the functions f (x) = 2x2 − 6 and g(x) = −2x + 6:

(a) Draw f and g on the same set of axes.
(b) Calculate the points of intersection of f and g.
(c) Use your graphs and the points of intersection to solve for x when:
i. f (x) > 0
ii. g(x) < 0
iii. f (x) ≤ g(x)
(d) Give the equation of the reflection of f in the x-axis.
7. After a ball is dropped, the rebound height of each bounce decreases.

The equation y = 5(0,8)x shows the relationship between the number
of bounces x and the height of the bounce y for a certain ball. What
is the approximate height of the fifth bounce of this ball to the nearest
tenth of a unit?
8. Mark had 15 coins in R 5 and R 2 pieces. He had 3 more R 2 coins than

R 5 coins. He wrote a system of equations to represent this situation,
letting x represent the number of R 5 coins and y represent the number
of R 2 coins. Then he solved the system by graphing.
(a) Write down the system of equations.
(b) Draw their graphs on the same set of axes.
(c) Use your sketch to determine how many R 5 and R 2 pieces Mark
had.

9. Sketch graphs of the following trigonometric functions for θ ∈ [ 0◦ ; 360◦ ].

Show intercepts and asymptotes.
(a) y = −4 cos θ
(b) y = sin θ − 2
(c) y = −2 sin θ + 1
(d) y = tan θ + 2
cos θ
(e) y =
2
a
10. Given the general equations y = mx + c, y = ax2 + q, y = x + q,
y = a sin x + q, y = ax + q and y = a tan x, determine the specific
equations for each of the following graphs:
y
(a) y
(b)
b (0; 3)
(1; 1)
x b
0 x
0
(−2; −6) b
y
(c) y
(d)
b
(4; 6)
x
0
b
b
(0; 2)
(3; −1)
x
0

y
6 b
y
(e) (f)
b
(0; 3)
1 y=1
b b x
0 x
180◦ 360◦
0
−4 b
(g)
y
x
b 180◦ 360◦
(135◦ ; −1)
−2 b
11. y = 2x and y = −2x are sketched below. Answer the questions that
follow:
y
b
M
P
b
R x
0
b
Q b
N
(a) Calculate the coordinates of M and N .

(b) Calculate the length of M N .
(c) Calculate length P Q if OR = 1 unit.

(d) Give the equation of y = 2x reflected about the y-axis.

(e) Give the range of both graphs.
12. f (x) = 4x and g(x) = 4x2 + q are sketched below. The points A(0; 1),
B(1; 4) and C are given. Answer the questions that follow:
y f (x) = 4x
b
B
A b
x
0
b
C
g(x) = −4x2 + q
(a) Determine the value of q.

(b) Calculate the length of BC.
(c) Give the equation of f (x) reflected about the x-axis.
(d) Give the equation of f (x) shifted vertically upwards by 1 unit.
(e) Give the equation of the asymptote of f (x).
(f) Give the ranges of f (x) and g(x).
13. Sketch the graphs h(x) = x2 − 4 and k(x) = −x2 + 4 on the same set of
axes and answer the questions that follow:
(a) Describe the relationship between h and k.
(b) Give the equation of k(x) reflected about the line y = 4.
(c) Give the domain and range of h.
14. Sketch the graphs f (θ) = 2 sin θ and g(θ) = cos θ − 1 on the same set
of axes. Use your sketch to determine:
(a) f (180◦ )
(b) g(180◦ )
(c) g(270◦ ) − f (270◦ )
(d) The domain and range of g.
(e) The amplitude and period of f .

8
15. The graphs of y = x and y = x are shown in the following diagram.
y=x
A
b
CG x
0 D
b F
B
E
Calculate:
(a) the coordinates of points A and B.
(b) the length of CD.
(c) the length of AB.
(d) the length of EF , given G(−2; 0).
16. Given the diagram with y = −3x2 + 3 and y = − 18

x.
b
C
A b b
B x
0
y = − 18
x
y= −3x2 +3
D b
(a) Calculate the coordinates of A, B and C.

(b) Describe in words what happens at point D.
(c) Calculate the coordinates of D.
(d) Determine the equation of the straight line that would pass through
points C and D .

17. The diagram shows the graphs of f (θ) = 3 sin θ and g(θ) = −tan θ.
g
3 b
b
x
90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
f
−3 b
(a) Give the domain of g.

(b) What is the amplitude of f ?
(c) Determine for which values of θ:
i. f (θ) = 0 = g(θ)
ii. f (θ) × g(θ) < 0
g(θ)
iii. >0
f (θ)
iv. f (θ) is increasing?
(1a-c.) 00fw (2a-c.) 00fx (3a-c.) 00fy (4a-c.) 00fz (5a-f.) 00g0
(6a-d.) 00g1 (7.) 00g2 (8a-c.) 00g3 (9a-e.) 00g4 (10a-f.) 0241
(11a-e.) 00g5 (12a-f.) 00g6 (13a-c.) 00g7 (14a-e.) 00mi (15a-d.) 02si
(16a-d.) 02sh (17a-c.) 02sj

Finance and growth 6
CHAPTER 6. FINANCE AND GROWTH
6.1 Being interested in interest EMACE
In this chapter, we apply mathematics skills to everyday financial situations.
If you had R 1 000, you could either keep it in your piggy bank, or deposit it into a bank
account. If you deposit the money into a bank account, you are effectively lending money
to the bank and as a result, you can expect to receive interest in return. Similarly, if you
borrow money from a bank, then you can expect to pay interest on the loan. Interest is
charged at a percentage of the money owed over the period of time it takes to pay back
the loan, meaning the longer the loan exists, the more interest will have to be paid on it.
The concept is simple, yet it is core to the world of finance. Accountants, actuaries
and bankers can spend their entire working career dealing with the effects of interest on
financial matters.
Video: VMbal at www.everythingmaths.co.za
6.2 Simple interest EMACF
DEFINITION: Simple interest
Simple interest is interest calculated only on the initial amount that you
invested.
As an easy example of simple interest, consider how much we will get by investing
R 1 000 for 1 year with a bank that pays 5% p.a. simple interest.

CHAPTER 6. FINANCE AND GROWTH 6.2
At the end of the year we have
Interest = R 1 000 × 5%
5
= R 1 000 ×
100
= R 1 000 × 0,05
= R 50
With an opening balance of R 1 000 at the start of the year, the closing balance at the end
of the year will therefore be
So we can see that
I =P ×i
and
Closing balance = Opening balance + Interest

=P +I
=P +P ×i
= P (1 + i)
The above calculations give a good idea of what the simple interest formula looks like.
However, the example shows an investment that lasts for only one year. If the investment
or loan is over a longer period, we need to take this into account. We use the symbol n
to indicate time period, which must be given in years.
The general formula for calculating simple interest is
A = P (1 + in)
Where:
A = accumulated amount (final)
P = principal amount (initial)
i = interest written as decimal
n = number of years

6.2 CHAPTER 6. FINANCE AND GROWTH
Example 1: Calculating interest on a deposit
QUESTION
Carine deposits R 1 000 into a special bank account which pays a simple interest
rate of 7% p.a. for 3 years, how much will be in her account at the end of the
investment term?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Write down known values
P = 1 000
i = 0,07
n=3
Step 2 : Write down the formula
A = P (1 + in)
Step 3 : Substitute the values
A = 1 000(1 + 0,07 × 3)
= 1 210

At the end of 3 years, Carine will have R 1 210 in her bank account.

Example 2: Calculating interest on a loan
QUESTION
Sarah borrows R 5 000 from her neighbour at an agreed simple interest rate of
12,5% p.a. She will pay back the loan in one lump sum at the end of 2 years. How
much will she have to pay her neighbour?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Write down the known variables
P = 5 000
i = 0,125
n=2
A = P (1 + in)
A = 5 000(1 + 0,125 × 2)
= 6 250

At the end of 2 years, Sarah will pay her neighbour R 6 250.
We can use the simple interest formula to find pieces of missing information. For exam-
ple, if we have an amount of money that we want to invest for a set amount of time to
achieve a goal amount, we can rearrange the variables to solve for the required interest

rate. The same principles apply to finding the length of time we would need to invest the
money, if we knew the principal and accumulated amounts and the interest rate.
Important: to get a more accurate answer, try to do all your calculations on the calculator
in one go. This will prevent rounding off errors from influencing your final answer.
Example 3: Determining the investment period to achieve a goal amount
QUESTION
Prashant deposits R 30 000 into a bank account that pays a simple interest rate of
7,5% p.a., for how many years must he invest to generate R 45 000?
SOLUTION
A = 45 000
P = 30 000
i = 0,075
A = P (1 + in)
Step 3 : Substitute the values and solve for n

45 000 = 30 000(1 + 0,075 × n)

45 000
= 1 + 0,075 × n
30 000
45 000
− 1 = 0,075 × n
30 000
( 45 000
30 000 ) − 1
=n
0,075
2
n=6
3

It will take 6 years and 8 months to make R 45 000 from R 30 000 at
a simple interest rate of 7,5% p.a.
Example 4: Calculating the simple interest rate to achieve the desired

growth
QUESTION
At what simple interest rate should Fritha invest if she wants to grow R 2 500 to
R 4 000 in 5 years?
SOLUTION
A = 4 000
P = 2 500
n=5

A = P (1 + in)
Step 3 : Substitute the values and solve for i
4 000 = 2 500(1 + i × 5)
4 000
=1+i×5
2 500
4 000
−1=i×5
2 500
( 42 000
500 ) − 1
=i
5
i = 0,12

A simple interest rate of 12% p.a. will be needed when investing
R 2 500 for 5 years to become R 4 000.
Exercise 6 - 1
1. An amount of R 3 500 is invested in a savings account which pays simple

interest at a rate of 7,5% per annum. Calculate the balance accumulated
by the end of 2 years.
2. Calculate the accumulated amount in the following situations:

(a) A loan of R 300 at a rate of 8% for 1 year.
(b) An investment of R 2 250 at a rate of 12,5%p.a. for 6 years.
3. Sally wanted to calculate the number of years she needed to invest

R 1 000 for in order to accumulate R 2 500. She has been offered a
simple interest rate of 8,2% p.a. How many years will it take for the
money to grow to R 2 500?
4. Joseph made a deposit of R 5 000 in the bank for his 5 year old son’s 21st
birthday. He has given his son the amount of R 18 000 on his birthday.
At what rate was the money invested, if simple interest was calculated?

(1.) 00f5 (2.) 023y (3.) 023k (4.) 00me
6.3 Compound interest EMACG
Compound interest allows interest to be earned on interest. With simple interest, only the
original investment earns interest, but with compound interest, the original investment
and the interest earned on it, both earn interest. Compound interest is advantageous for
investing money but not for taking out a loan.
DEFINITION: Compound interest
Compound interest is the interest earned on the principal amount and on

its accumulated interest.
Consider the example of R 1 000 invested for 3 years with a bank that pays 5% compound
interest. At the end of the first year, the accumulated amount is
A1 = P (1 + i)
= 1 000(1 + 0,05)
= 1 050
The amount A1 becomes the new principal amount for calculating the accumulated
amount at the end of the second year.
A2 = P (1 + i)
= 1 050(1 + 0,05)
= 1 000(1 + 0,05)(1 + 0,05)
= 1 000(1 + 0,05)2

Similarly, we use the amount A2 as the new principal amount for calculating the accu-
mulated amount at the end of the third year.
A3 = P (1 + i)
= 1 000(1 + 0,05)2 (1 + 0,05)
= 1 000(1 + 0,05)3
Do you see a pattern? Using the formula for simple interest, we can develop a similar
formula for compound interest. With an opening balance P and an interest rate of i, the
closing balance at the end of the first year is:
Closing balance after 1 year = P (1 + i)
This is the same as simple interest because it only covers a single year. This closing
balance becomes the opening balance for the second year of investment.
Closing balance after 2 years = [P (1 + i)] × (1 + i)

= P (1 + i)2
And similarly, for the third year
Closing balance after 3 years = [P (1 + i)2 ] × (1 + i)

= P (1 + i)3
We see that the power of the term (1 + i) is the same as the number of years. Therefore
the general formula for calculating compound interest is:
A = P (1 + i)n
Where:
A = accumulated amount
P = principal amount
n = number of years

Example 5: Compound interest
QUESTION
Mpho wants to invest R 30 000 into an account that offers a compound interest
rate of 6% p.a. How much money will be in the account at the end of 4 years?
SOLUTION
P = 30 000
i = 0,06
n = 4
A = P (1 + i)n
A = 30 000(1 + 0,06)4
= 37 874,31

Mpho will have R 37 874,31 in the account at the end of 4 years.

Example 6: Calculating the compound interest rate to achieve the desired

growth
QUESTION
Charlie has been given R 5 000 for his sixteenth birthday. Rather than spending it,
he has decided to invest it so that he can put down a deposit of R 10 000 on a car
on his eighteenth birthday. What compound interest rate does he need to achieve
this growth? Comment on your answer.
SOLUTION
A = 10 000
P = 5 000
n = 2
A = P (1 + i)n
Step 3 : Substitute the values and solve for i
10 000 = 5 000(1 + i)2

10 000
= (1 + i)2
5 000
r
10 000
=1+i
5 000
r
10 000
−1=i
5 000
i = 0,4142

Step 4 : Write the final answer and comment

Charlie needs to find an account that offers a compound interest
rate of 41,42% p.a. to achieve the desired growth. A typical savings
account gives a return of approximately 2% p.a. and an aggressive
investment portfolio gives a return of approximately 13% p.a. It there-
fore seems unlikely that Charlie will be able to invest his money at an
interest rate of 41,42% p.a.
The power of compound interest EMACH
To illustrate how important “interest on interest” is, we compare the difference in closing
balances for an investment earning simple interest and an investment earning compound
interest. Consider an amount of R 10 000 invested for 10 years, at an interest rate of 9%
p.a. The closing balance for the investment earning simple interest is
A = P (1 + in)
= 10 000(1 + 0,09 × 10)
= R 19 000
The closing balance for the investment earning compound interest is
A = P (1 + i)n
= 10 000(1 + 0,09)10
= R 23 673,64
We plot the growth of the two investments on the same set of axes and note the significant
different in their rate of change: simple interest is a straight line graph and compound
interest is an exponential graph.

Rands
24000
22000
20000
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
Years
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
It is easier to see the vast difference in growth if we extend the time period to 50 years:
Rands
700000
650000
600000
550000
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
Years
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Keep in mind that this is good news and bad news. When earning interest on money
invested, compound interest helps that amount to grow exponentially. But if money is
borrowed the accumulated amount of money owed will increase exponentially too.
Exercise 6 - 2
1. An amount of R 3 500 is invested in a savings account which pays a

compound interest rate of 7,5% p.a. Calculate the balance accumulated
by the end of 2 years.
2. Morgan invests R 5 000 into an account which pays out a lump sum at
the end of 5 years. If he gets R 7 500 at the end of the period, what
compound interest rate did the bank offer him?
3. Nicola wants to invest some money at a compound interest rate of 11%
p.a. How much money (to the nearest Rand) should be invested if she
wants to reach a sum of R 100 000 in five years time?
(1.) 023m (2.) 00f6 (3.) 00mg
Hire purchase EMACI
As a general rule, it is not wise to buy items on credit. When buying on credit you have
to borrow money to pay for the object, meaning you will have to pay more for it due to
the interest on the loan. That being said, occasionally there are appliances, such as a
fridge, that are very difficult to live without. Most people don’t have the cash up front to
purchase such items, so they buy it on a hire purchase agreement.
A hire purchase agreement is a financial agreement between the shop and the customer
about how the customer will pay for the desired product. The interest on a hire purchase
loan is always charged at a simple interest rate and only charged on the amount owing.
Most agreements require that a deposit is paid before the product can be taken by the
customer. The principal amount of the loan is therefore the cash price minus the deposit.
The accumulated loan will be worked out using the number of years the loan is needed

for. The total loan amount is then divided into monthly payments over the period of the
loan.
Remember: hire purchase is charged at a simple interest rate. When you are asked a hire
purchase question in a test, don’t forget to always use the simple interest formula.
Example 7: Hire purchase
QUESTION
Troy is keen to buy an additional screen for his computer, advertised for R 2 500 on
the Internet. There is an option of paying a 10% deposit then making 24 monthly
payments using a hire purchase agreement, where interest is calculated at 7,5%
p.a. simple interest. Calculate what Troy’s monthly payments will be.
SOLUTION

A new opening balance is required, as the 10% deposit is paid in
cash.
10% of 2 500 = 250

∴ P = 2 500 − 250 = 2 250
i = 0,075
24
n= =2
12
A = P (1 + in)

A = 2 250(1 + 0,075 × 2)
= 2 587,50
Step 4 : Calculate the monthly repayments on the hire purchase agreement
2 587,50
Monthly payment =
24
= 107,81

Troy’s monthly payment is R 107,81.
A shop can also add a monthly insurance premium to the monthly instalments. This
insurance premium will be an amount of money paid monthly and gives the customer
more time between a missed payment and possible repossession of the product.
Example 8: Hire purchase with extra conditions
QUESTION
Cassidy desperately wants to buy a TV and decides to buy one on a hire purchase
agreement. The TV’s cash price is R 5 500. She will pay it off over 54 months at
an interest rate of 21% p.a. An insurance premium of R 12,50 is added to every
monthly payment. How much are her monthly payments?
SOLUTION

P = 5 500
i = 0,21
54
n = = 4,5
12
(The question does not mention a deposit, therefore we assume that

Cassidy did not pay one.)
A = P (1 + in)
A = 5 500(1 + 0,21 × 4,5)

= 10 697,50
Step 4 : Calculate the monthly repayments on the hire purchase agreement
10 697,50
Monthly payment =
54
= 198,10
Step 5 : Add the insurance premium
198,10 + 12,50 = 210,60

Cassidy will pay R 210,60 per month for 54 months until her TV is
paid off.

Exercise 6 - 3
1. Vanessa wants to buy a fridge on a hire purchase agreement. The cash

price of the fridge is R 4 500. She is required to pay a deposit of 15%
and pay the remaining loan amount off over 24 months at an interest
rate of 12% p.a.
(a) What is the principal loan amount?
(b) What is the accumulated loan amount?
(c) What are Vanessa’s monthly repayments?
(d) What is the total amount she has paid for the fridge?
2. Bongani buys a dining room table costing R 8 500 on a hire purchase
agreement. He is charged an interest rate of 17,5% p.a. over 3 years.
(a) How much will Bongani pay in total?
(b) How much interest does he pay?
(c) What is his monthly instalment?
3. A lounge suite is advertised on TV, to be paid off over 36 months at
R 150 per month.
(a) Assuming that no deposit is needed, how much will the buyer pay
for the lounge suite once it has been paid off?
(b) If the interest rate is 9% p.a., what is the cash price of the suite?
(1.) 023z (2.) 023n (3.) 00mf
Inflation EMACJ
There are many factors that influence the change in price of an item, one of them is
inflation. Inflation is the average increase in the price of goods each year and is given as
a percentage. Since the rate of inflation increases from year to year, it is calculated using
the compound interest formula.

Example 9: Calculating future cost based on inflation
QUESTION
Milk costs R 14 for two litres. How much will it cost in 4 years time if the inflation
rate is 9% p.a.?
SOLUTION
P = 14
i = 0,09
n = 4
A = P (1 + i)n
A = 14(1 + 0,09)4
= 19,76

In four years time, two litres of milk will cost R 19,76.

Example 10: Calculating past cost based on inflation
QUESTION
A box of chocolates costs R 55 today. How much did it cost 3 years ago if the
average rate of inflation was 11% p.a.?
SOLUTION
A = 55
i = 0,11
n = 3
A = P (1 + i)n
Step 3 : Substitute the values and solve for P
55 = P (1 + 0,11)3
55
=P
(1 + 0,11)3
∴ P = 40,22

Three years ago, a box of chocolates would have cost R 40,22.

Population growth EMACK
Family trees increase exponentially as every person born has the ability to start another
family. For this reason we calculate population growth using the compound interest
formula.
Example 11: Population growth
QUESTION
If the current population of Johannesburg is 3 888 180, and the average rate of
population growth in South Africa is 2,1% p.a., what can city planners expect the
population of Johannesburg to be in 10 years?
SOLUTION
P = 3 888 180
i = 0,021
n = 10
A = P (1 + i)n
A = 3 888 180(1 + 0,021)10

= 4 786 343


City planners can expect Johannesburg’s population to be 4 786 343
in ten years time.
Exercise 6 - 4
1. If the average rate of inflation for the past few years was 7,3% p.a. and
your water and electricity account is R 1 425 on average, what would
you expect to pay in 6 years time?
2. The price of popcorn and a coke at the movies is now R 60. If the
average rate of inflation is 9,2% p.a. What was the price of popcorn and
coke 5 years ago?
3. A small town in Ohio, USA is experiencing a huge increase in births. If
the average growth rate of the population is 16% p.a., how many babies
will be born to the 1 600 residents in the next 2 years?
(1.) 00f7 (2.) 00f8 (3.) 00mh
Foreign exchange rates EMACL
Different countries have their own currencies. In England, a Big Mac from McDonald’s
costs £ 4, in South Africa it costs R 20 and in Norway it costs 48 kr. The meal is the same
in all three countries but in some places it costs more than in others. If £ 1 = R 12,41
and 1 kr = R 1,37, this means that a Big Mac in England costs R 49,64 and a Big Mac in
Norway costs R 65,76.
Exchange rates affect a lot more than just the price of a Big Mac. The price of oil increases
when the South African Rand weakens. This is because when the Rand is weaker, we can
buy less of other currencies with the same amount of money.

A currency gets stronger when money is invested in the country. When we buy products
that are made in South Africa, we are investing in South African business and keeping
the money in the country. When we buy products imported from other countries, we
are investing money in those countries and as a result, the Rand will weaken. The more
South African products we buy, the greater the demand for them will be and more jobs
will become available for South Africans. Local is lekker!
Video: VMbcj at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 12: Foreign exchange rates
QUESTION
Saba wants to travel to see her family in Spain. She has been given R 10 000
spending money. How many Euros can she buy if the exchange rate is currently
€ 1 = R 10,68?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Write down the equation

Let the equivalent amount in Euros be x.
10 000
x=
10,68
= 936,33

Saba can buy € 936,33 with R 10 000.

Exercise 6 - 5
1. Bridget wants to buy an iPod that costs £ 100, with the exchange rate
currently at £ 1 = R 14. She estimates that the exchange rate will drop
to R 12 in a month.
(a) How much will the iPod cost in Rands, if she buys it now?
(b) How much will she save if the exchange rate drops to R 12?
(c) How much will she lose if the exchange rate moves to R 15?
2. Study the following exchange rate table:
Country Currency Exchange Rate
United Kingdom (UK) Pounds (£) R 14,13
United States (USA) Dollars ($) R 7,04
(a) In South Africa the cost of a new Honda Civic is R 173 400. In
England the same vehicle costs £ 12 200 and in the USA $ 21 900.
In which country is the car the cheapest?
(b) Sollie and Arinda are waiters in a South African restaurant attracting
many tourists from abroad. Sollie gets a £ 6 tip from a tourist and
Arinda gets $ 12. Who got the better tip?
(1.) 023p (2.) 0240
Chapter 6 | Summary
Summary presentation: VMdib at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• There are two types of interest rates:

Simple interest Compound interest
A = P (1 + in) A = P (1 + i)n

Where:
A = accumulated amount
P = principal amount
n = number of years
• Hire purchase loan repayments are calculated using the simple interest formula on
the cash price, less the deposit. Monthly repayments are calculated by dividing the
accumulated amount by the number of months for the repayment.
• Population growth and inflation are calculated using the compound interest for-
mula.
• Foreign exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another.
1. Alison is going on holiday to Europe. Her hotel will cost € 200 per
night. How much will she need in Rands to cover her hotel bill, if the
exchange rate is € 1 = R 9,20?
2. Calculate how much you will earn if you invested R 500 for 1 year at the
following interest rates:
(a) 6,85% simple interest
(b) 4,00% compound interest
3. Bianca has R 1 450 to invest for 3 years. Bank A offers a savings ac-
count which pays simple interest at a rate of 11% per annum, whereas
Bank B offers a savings account paying compound interest at a rate of
10,5% per annum. Which account would leave Bianca with the highest
accumulated balance at the end of the 3 year period?
4. How much simple interest is payable on a loan of R 2 000 for a year, if
the interest rate is 10% p.a.?
5. How much compound interest is payable on a loan of R 2 000 for a year,
if the interest rate is 10% p.a.?
6. Discuss:
(a) Which type of interest would you like to use if you are the borrower?
(b) Which type of interest would you like to use if you were the banker?

7. Calculate the compound interest for the following problems.

(a) A R 2 000 loan for 2 years at 5% p.a.
(b) A R 1 500 investment for 3 years at 6% p.a.
(c) A R 800 loan for 1 year at 16% p.a.
8. If the exchange rate to the Rand for Japanese Yen is ¥ 100 = R 6,2287
and for Australian Dollar is 1 AUD = R 5,1094, determine the exchange
rate between the Australian Dollar and the Japanese Yen.
9. Bonnie bought a stove for R 3 750. After 3 years she had finished pay-
ing for it and the R 956,25 interest that was charged for hire purchase.
Determine the rate of simple interest that was charged.
10. According to the latest census, South Africa currently has a population
of 57 000 000.
(a) If the annual growth rate is expected to be 0,9%, calculate how
many South Africans there will be in 10 years time (correct to the
nearest hundred thousand).
(b) If it is found after 10 years that the population has actually increased
by 10 million to 67 million, what was the growth rate?
(1.) 0235 (2.) 0236 (3.) 0237 (4.) 0238 (5.) 0239
(6.) 023a
(7.) 023b (8.) 023c (9.) 023d (10.) 023e

Trigonometry 7
CHAPTER 7. TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry deals with the relationship between the angles and sides of a right-angled
triangle. We will learn about trigonometric functions, which form the basis of trigonom-
etry. Video: VMbec at www.everythingmaths.co.za
7.1 Trigonometry is useful EMACM
There are many applications of trigonometry. Of particular value is the technique of

triangulation, which is used in astronomy to measure the distances to nearby stars, in
geography to measure distances between landmarks, and in satellite navigation systems.
GPS (the global positioning system) would not be possible without trigonometry. Other
fields which make use of trigonometry include acoustics, optics, analysis of financial mar-
kets, electronics, probability theory, statistics, biology, medical imaging (CAT scans and
ultrasound), chemistry, cryptology, meteorology, oceanography, land surveying, architec-
ture, phonetics, engineering, computer graphics and game development.
7.2 Similarity of triangles EMACN
If 4ABC is similar to 4DEF , then this is written as:
4ABC ||| 4DEF

CHAPTER 7. TRIGONOMETRY 7.2
C b
F b
b
B
b
E
b b
A D
In similar triangles, it is possible to deduce ratios between corresponding sides:
AB DE
=
BC EF
AB DE
=
AC DF
AC DF
=
BC EF
AB BC AC
= =
DE EF DF
Another important fact about similar triangles ABC and DEF is that the angle at vertex
A is equal to the angle at vertex D, the angle at B is equal to the angle at E, and the
angle at C is equal to the angle at F .
Â = D̂
B̂ = Ê
Ĉ = F̂
Investigation: Ratios of similar triangles
Draw three similar triangles of different sizes, with each triangle having interior
angles equal to 30◦ , 90◦ and 60◦ as shown below. Measure angles and lengths
very accurately in order to fill in the table (round answers to 1 decimal place):

7.3 CHAPTER 7. TRIGONOMETRY
G
D
A 30◦
30◦
30◦
60◦ 60◦ 60◦

C B F E K H
Dividing lengths of sides (ratios)
AB AB CB
BC = AC = AC =
DE DE FE
EF = DF = DF =
GH GH KH
HK = GK = GK =
What observations can you make about the ratios of the sides?
7.3 Defining the trigonometric ratios EMACO
The ratios of similar triangles are used to define the trigonometric ratios. Consider a
right-angled triangle ABC.
B
b
hy
po
opposite
ten
us
e
b
θ b
A C
adjacent
In the right-angled triangle, we refer to the lengths of the three sides according to how
they are placed in relation to the angle θ. The side opposite to the right-angle is labelled
the hypotenuse, the side opposite θ is labelled “opposite”, the side next to θ is labelled

“adjacent”. Note that the choice of non-90◦ internal angle is arbitrary. You can choose ei-
ther internal angle and then define the adjacent and opposite sides accordingly. However,
the hypotenuse remains the same regardless of which internal angle you are referring to
(because it is always opposite the right-angle and always the longest side). We define the
trigonometric ratios, sine, cosine and tangent of an angle, as follows:
opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos θ =
hypotenuse
opposite
tan θ =
adjacent
These ratios, also known as trigonometric identities, relate the lengths of the sides of a
right-angled triangle to its interior angles. These three ratios form the basis of trigonome-
try.
Important: the definitions of opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse are only applicable
when working with right-angled triangles! Always check to make sure your triangle has a
right-angle before you use them, otherwise you will get the wrong answer.
You may also hear people saying “Soh Cah Toa”. This is a mnemonic technique for
remembering the trigonometric ratios:
opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos θ =
hypotenuse
opposite
tan θ =
adjacent

7.4 Reciprocal functions EMACP
Each of the three trigonometric functions has a reciprocal. The reciprocals, cosecant,
secant and cotangent, are defined as follows:
1
cosec θ =
sin θ
1
sec θ =
cos θ
1
cot θ =
tan θ
We can also define these reciprocals for any right-angled triangle:
hypotenuse
cosec θ =
opposite
hypotenuse
sec θ =
adjacent
adjacent
cot θ =
opposite
Note that:
sin θ × cosec θ = 1
cos θ × sec θ = 1
tan θ × cot θ = 1
Video: VMber at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Important: most scientific calculators are quite similar but these steps might differ de-
pending on the calculator you use. Make sure your calculator is in “degrees” mode.

Example 1: Using your calculator
QUESTION
Use your calculator to calculate the following (correct to 2 decimal places):
1. cos 48◦
2. 2 sin 35◦
3. tan2 81◦
4. 3 sin2 72◦
5. 1
4 cos 27◦
6. 5
6 tan 34◦
SOLUTION
Step 1 :
Press cos 48 = 0,67
Step 2 :
Press 2 sin 35 = 1,15
Step 3 :
Press ( tan 81 ) x2 = 39,86
OR
Press tan 81 = ANS x2 = 39,86
Step 4 :
Press 3 ( sin 72 ) x2 = 2,71
OR
Press sin 72 = ANS x2 = ANS × 3
Step 5 :
Press ( 1 ÷ 4 ) cos 27 = 0,22
OR
Press cos 27 = ANS ÷ 4 = 0,22
Step 6 :

Press ( 5 ÷ 6 ) tan 34 = 0,56

OR
Press tan 34 = ANS × 5 ÷ 6 = 0,56
Example 2: Calculator work
QUESTION
If x = 25◦ and y = 65◦ , use your calculator to determine whether the following
statement is true or false:
sin 2 x + cos 2 (90◦ − y) = 1
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Calculate the left hand side of the equation

Press ( sin 25 ) x2 + ( cos ( 90 - 65 ) ) x2 =
1

LHS = RHS therefore the statement is true.
Exercise 7 - 1
1. In each of the following triangles, state whether a, b and c are the hy-
potenuse, opposite or adjacent sides of the triangle with respect to θ.

(a) (b) c (c)

a a
c b
a θ
θ b θ
b c
(d) θ (e) (f) c

c
b
b a θ
c
a
θ b
b
a
2. Use your calculator to determine the value of the following (correct to 2

decimal places):
(a) tan 65◦ (f) tan 49◦

(b) sin 38◦ (g) 1
4 cos 20◦
(c) cos 74◦ (h) 3 tan 40◦
(d) sin 12◦ (i) 2
3 sin 90◦
(e) cos 26◦
3. If x = 39◦ and y = 21◦ , use a calculator to determine whether the

following statements are true or false:
(a) cos x + 2 cos x = 3 cos x sin x

(c) tan x =
cos x
(b) cos 2y = cos y + cos y (d) cos (x + y) = cos x + cos y
4. Complete each of the following (the first example has been done for
you):
A
C B
opposite CB
(a) sin Â = hypotenuse = AC
(d) sin Ĉ =
(b) cos Â = (e) cos Ĉ =
(c) tan Â = (f) tan Ĉ =
5. Use the triangle below to complete the following:

30◦
2 √
3
60◦
1
(a) sin 60◦ = (d) sin 30◦ =

(b) cos 60◦ = (e) cos 30◦ =
(c) tan 60◦ = (f) tan 30◦ =
6. Use the triangle below to complete the following:
45◦
√
2
1
45◦
1
(a) sin 45◦ =
(b) cos 45◦ =
(c) tan 45◦ =
(1.) 00ke (2.) 00kf (3.) 00kg (4.) 00kh (5.) 00ki
(6.) 00kj
7.5 Special angles EMACQ
For most angles we need a calculator to calculate the values of sin , cos and tan .
However, we saw in the previous exercise that we could work out these values for some
special angles. The values of the trigonometric functions for these special angles are
listed in the table below. Remember that the lengths of the sides of a right-angled triangle

must obey the Theorem of Pythagoras: the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of
the squares of the two other sides.
θ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦

√
3 √1 1
cos θ 2 2 2
√
1 √1 3
sin θ 2 2 2
√
tan θ √1 1 3
3
45◦
30◦
√
2 2
√ 1
3
60◦ 45◦
1
1
These values are useful when we need to solve a problem involving trigonometric func-
tions without using a calculator.
Exercise 7 - 2
1. Calculate the value of the following without using a calculator:

(a) sin 45◦ × cos 45◦
(b) cos 60◦ + tan 45◦
(c) sin 60◦ − cos 60◦
2. Use the table to show that:

sin 60◦
(a) = tan 60◦
cos 60◦
(b) sin2 45◦ + cos2 45◦ = 1
√
(c) cos 30◦ = 1 − sin2 30◦
3. Use the definitions of the trigonometric rations to answer the following

questions:
(a) Explain why sin α ≤ 1 for all values of α.
(b) Explain why cos β has a maximum value of 1.
(c) Is there a maximum value for tan γ?

(1.) 00kk (2.) 00km (3.) 00kn
7.6 Solving trigonometric equations EMACR
Video: VMbfo at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 3: Finding lengths
QUESTION
Find the length of x in the following right-angled triangle:
100
x
50◦
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Identify the opposite and adjacent sides and the hypotenuse
opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse
x
sin 50◦ =
100
Step 2 : Rearrange the equation to solve for x

x = 100 × sin 50◦
Step 3 : Use your calculator to find the answer
x = 76,6
Exercise 7 - 3
1. In each triangle find the length of the side marked with a letter. Give
answers correct to 2 decimal places.
(a) (b)
a 37◦
b
62
23◦
21
(c) (d)
49◦
c 33
19 d
55◦

(e) (f)
12
e
31
22◦ f
17◦
(g) (h)
30◦
32
20 h
23◦
g
2. Write down two ratios for each of the following in terms of the sides:
AB; BC; BD; AD; DC and AC:
B
A D
(a) sin B̂
(b) cos D̂
(c) tan B̂
3. In 4M N P , N̂ = 90◦ , M P = 20 and P̂ = 40◦ . Calculate N P and M N

(correct to 2 decimal places).
(1.) 00kp (2.) 00kq (3.) 00mr

7.7 Finding an angle EMACS
Video: VMbfq at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 4: Finding angles
QUESTION
Find the value of θ in the following right-angled triangle:
50
θ
100
SOLUTION
In this case you have the opposite side and the hypotenuse for angle
θ.
opposite
tan θ =
adjacent
50
tan θ =
100
Step 2 : Use your calculator to solve for θ

To solve for θ, you will need to use the inverse function on your
calculator:
Press 2ndF tan ( 50 ÷ 100 ) = 26,6
θ = 26,6◦

Exercise 7 - 4
1. Determine the angle (correct to 1 decimal place):
(a) tan θ = 1,7 (i) sin β + 2 = 2,65

(b) sin θ = 0,8 (j) sin θ = 0,8
(c) cos α = 0,32 (k) 3 tan β = 1
(d) tan θ = 5 43 (l) sin 3α = 1,2
(e) sin θ = 2
3 (m) tan θ
3 = sin 48◦
1
(f) cos γ = 1,2 (n) 2 cos 2β = 0,3
(g) 4 cos θ = 3 (o) 2 sin 3θ + 1 = 2,6
(h) cos 4θ = 0,3
2. Determine α in the following right-angled triangles:

4
(a) (b)
α 13
9
α
7,5
(c) (d) 9,1

2,2 α
1,7 4,5
α
(e) (f)
1
12 α
15 √
α 2
(1.) 00kr (2.) 00ks

7.8 Two-dimensional problems EMACT
Trigonometry was developed in ancient civilisations to solve practical problems such as

building construction and navigating by the stars. We will show that trigonometry can
also be used to solve some other practical problems. We use the trigonometric functions
to solve problems in two dimensions that involve right-angled triangles.
Video: VMbkj at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 5: Flying a kite
QUESTION
Mandla flies a kite on a 17 m string at an inclination of 63◦ .
1. What is the height h of the kite above the ground?

2. If Mandla’s friend Sipho stands directly below the kite, calculate the distance
d between the two friends.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Make a sketch and identify the opposite and adjacent sides and the
hypotenuse
17
h
63◦
d
Step 2 : Use given information and appropriate ratio to solve for h and d

1.
opposite
sin 63◦ = hypotenuse
h
sin 63◦ =
17
∴ h = 17 sin 63◦
= 15,15 m
2.
adjacent
cos 63◦ = hypotenuse
d
cos 63◦ =
17
∴ d = 17 cos 63◦
= 7,72 m
Note that the third side of the triangle can also be calculated using
the Theorem of Pythagoras: d2 = 172 − h2 .
Step 3 : Write final answers

1. The kite is 15,15 m above the ground.
2. Mandla and Sipho are 7,72 m apart.
Example 6: Calculating angles
QUESTION
ABCD is a trapezium with AB = 4 cm, CD = 6 cm, BC = 5 cm and AD = 5 cm.

Point E on diagonal AC divides the diagonal such that AE = 3 cm. B ÊC = 90◦ .
Find AB̂C.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Draw trapezium and label all given lengths on diagram. Indicate
that B ÊC is a right-angle

A 4 cm B
3
cm
5 cm E 5 cm
D C
6 cm
Step 2 : Use 4ABE and 4CBE to determine the two angles at B̂
Step 3 : Find the first angle, AB̂E

The hypotenuse and opposite side are given for both triangles, there-
fore use the sin function: In 4ABE,
opposite
sin AB̂E =
hypotenuse
3
=
4
∴ AB̂E = 48,6◦
Step 4 : Use Theorem of Pythagoras to determine BE

In 4ABE,
BE 2 = AB 2 − AE 2
= 4 2 − 32
= 7
√
∴ BE = 7 cm
Step 5 : Find the second angle C B̂E

In 4CBE
adjacent
cos C B̂E =
hypotenuse
√
7
=
5
= 0,529
∴ C B̂E = 58,1◦

Step 6 : Calculate the sum of the angles
AB̂C = 48,6◦ + 58,1◦ = 106,7◦
Another application is using trigonometry to find the height of a building. We could

use a tape measure lowered from the roof, but this is impractical (and dangerous) for tall
buildings. It is much more sensible to use trigonometry.
Example 7: Finding the height of a building
QUESTION
38,7◦
Q
100 m B
The given diagram shows a building of unknown height h. If we (Q) walk 100
m away from the building (B) and measure the angle from the ground to the top
of the building (T ), the angle is found to be 38,7◦ . This is called the angle of
elevation. We have a right-angled triangle and know the length of one side and an
angle. We can therefore calculate the height of the building (correct to the nearest
metre).
SOLUTION

Step 2 :
In 4QT B,
opposite
tan 38,7◦ = adjacent
h
=
100
Step 3 : Rearrange and solve for h
h = 100 × tan 38,7◦
= 80,1

The height of the building is 80 m.
Example 8: Angles of elevation and depression
QUESTION
A block of flats is 200 m away from a cellphone tower. Someone stands at B.

They measure the angle from B to the top of the tower E to be 34◦ (the angle of
elevation). They then measure the angle from B to the bottom of the tower C to
be 62◦ (the angle of depression).
What is the height of the cellphone tower (correct to the nearest metre)?

E
b
B 34◦
D
62◦
A
C
200 m
Note: diagram not drawn to scale
SOLUTION
Step 1 : To determine height CE, first calculate lengths DE and CD

4BDE and 4BDC are both right-angled triangles. In each of the
triangles, the length BD is known. Therefore we can calculate the
sides of the triangles.
Step 2 : Calculate CD
The length AC is given. CABD is a rectangle so BD = AC = 200
m.
In 4CBD,
CD
tan C B̂D =
BD
∴ CD = BD × tan C B̂D
= 200 × tan 62◦
= 376 m
Step 3 : Calculate DE

In 4DBE,
DE
tan DB̂E =
BD
∴ DE = BD × tan DB̂E
= 200 × tan 34◦
= 135 m
Step 4 : Add the two heights to get the final answer

The height of the tower CE = CD+DE = 135 m+376 m = 511 m.
Example 9: Building plan
QUESTION
Mr Nkosi has a garage at his house and he decides to add a corrugated iron roof
to the side of the garage. The garage is 4 m high, and his sheet for the roof is 5 m
long. If the angle of the roof is 5◦ , how high must he build the wall BD? Give the
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
C
b
5m Roof
b 5◦ b
B
A
4m
Garage
Wall
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Identify opposite and adjacent sides and hypotenuse

4ABC is right-angled. The hypotenuse and an angle are known
therefore we can calculate AC. The height of the wall BD is then the

height of the garage minus AC.
AC
sin AB̂C =
BC
∴ AC = BC × sin AB̂C
= 5 sin 5◦
= 0,4 m
∴ BD = 4 m − 0,4 m
= 3,6 m

Mr Nkosi must build his wall to be 3,6 m high.
Exercise 7 - 5
1. A boy flying a kite is standing 30 m from a point directly under the kite.
If the kite’s string is 50 m long, find the angle of elevation of the kite.
2. What is the angle of elevation of the sun when a tree 7,15 m tall casts a
shadow 10,1 m long?
3. From a distance of 300 m, Susan looks up at the top of a lighthouse. The
angle of elevation is 5◦ . Determine the height of the lighthouse to the
nearest metre.
4. A ladder of length 25 m is resting against a wall, the ladder makes an
angle 37◦ to the wall. Find the distance between the wall and the base
of the ladder.
(1.) 00kt (2.) 00ku (3.) 00kv (4.) 00ms

Defining ratios in the Cartesian

7.9 plane
EMACU
We have defined the trigonometric functions using right-angled triangles. We can extend
these definitions to any angle, noting that the definitions do not rely on the lengths of the
sides of the triangle, but on the size of the angle only. So if we plot any point on the
Cartesian plane and then draw a line from the origin to that point, we can work out the
angle of that line. In the figure below points P and Q have been plotted. A line from
the origin (O) to each point is drawn. The dotted lines show how we can construct right-
angled triangles for each point. The dotted line must always be drawn to the x-axis. Now
we can find the angles A and B. We can also extend the definitions of the reciprocals in
the same way:
Q(−2; 3) P (2; 3)
3
1
α B A x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3
From the coordinates of P (2; 3), we know the length of the side opposite Â is 3 and the
length of the adjacent side is 2. Using tan Â = opposite
adjacent
= 32 , we calculate that Â = 56,3◦ .
We can also use the Theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the hypotenuse of the triangle
opposite adjacent
and then calculate Â using sin Â = hypotenuse or cos Â = hypotenuse .
Consider point Q(−2; 3). We define B̂ as the angle formed between the line OQ and
the positive x-axis. This is called the standard position of an angle. Angles are always
measured from the positive x-axis in an anti-clockwise direction. Let α̂ be the angle
formed between the line OQ and the negative x-axis such that B̂ + α̂ = 180◦ .

From the coordinates of Q(−2; 3), we know the length of the side opposite α̂ is 3 and the
length of the adjacent side is 2. Using tan α̂ = opposite
adjacent
= 3
2 we calculate that α̂ = 56,3◦ .
Therefore B̂ = 180◦ − α̂ = 123,7◦ .
Similarly, an alternative method is to calculate the hypotenuse using the Theorem of

opposite adjacent
Pythagoras and calculate α̂ using sin α̂ = hypotenuse or cos α̂ = hypotenuse .
If we were to draw a circle centred on the origin (O) and passing through point P , then
the length from the origin to point P is the radius of the circle, which we denote r. We
can rewrite all the trigonometric functions in terms of x, y and r. The general definitions
for the trigonometric functions are:
y r
sin θ = r cosec θ = y
x r
cos θ = r sec θ = x
y x
tan θ = x cot θ = y
The Cartesian plane is divided into 4 quadrants in an anti-clockwise direction as shown

in the diagram below. Notice that r is always positive but the values of x and y change
depending on the position of the point in the Cartesian plane. As a result, the trigono-
metric ratios can be positive or negative. The letters C, A, S and T indicate which of the
functions are positive in each quadrant:
y
90◦
Quadrant II Quadrant I
S A
sin θ all
180◦ 0◦ x
0 360◦
T C
tan θ cos θ
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
270◦
This diagram is known as the CAST diagram.

Quadrant I: All ratios are positive.

Quadrant II: y values are positive therefore sine and cosine are positive.
Quadrant III: Both x and y values are negative therefore tangent and cotangent are posi-
tive.
Quadrant IV: x values are positive therefore cosecant and secant are positive.
Note: the hypotenuse r is a length, and is therefore always positive. Video: VMbhy
at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Special angles in the Cartesian plane
When working in the Cartesian plane we include two other special angles in right-angled
triangles: 0◦ and 90◦ . These are special since we can usually not have an angle of 0◦ or
another angle (in addition to the right angle) of 90◦ . Notice that when θ = 0◦ , the length
of the opposite side is equal to 0, therefore
opposite 0
sin 0◦ = = = 0.
hypotenuse hypotenuse
When θ = 90◦ , the length of the adjacent side is equal to 0, therefore
adjacent 0
cos 90◦ = = = 0.
hypotenuse hypotenuse
sin θ
Using the definition tan θ = we see that for θ = 0◦ , sin 0◦ = 0, therefore
cos θ
0
tan 0◦ = = 0.
cos 0◦
For θ = 90◦ , cos 90◦ = 0, therefore
sin 90◦
tan 90◦ = = undefined.
0
θ 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦

√
3 √1 1
cos θ 1 2 2 2 0
√
1 √1 3
sin θ 0 2 2 2 1
√
tan θ 0 √1 1 3 undef
3

Example 10: Ratios in the Cartesian plane
QUESTION
P (−3; 4) is a point in the Cartesian plane. X ÔP = θ, where X is a point on the

x-axis. Without using a calculator, determine the value of:
1. cos θ
2. 3 tan θ
1
3. 2 cosec θ
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sketch point P in the Cartesian plane and label θ
P (−3; 4)
θ x
0
Step 2 : Use Pythagoras to calculate r
r 2 = x2 + y 2
= (−3)2 + (4)2
= 25
∴r = 5
Step 3 : Substitute values for x, y and r into the required ratios

x 3
1. cos θ = =−
r 5
y
4
2. 3 tan θ = 3 =3 = −4
x −3

1 1 r 1 5 5
3. cosec θ = = =
2 2 y 2 4 8
Example 11: Ratios in the Cartesian plane
QUESTION
X ÔK = θ is an angle in the third quadrant and K is the point (−5; y). OK is 13
units. Determine without using a calculator:
1. The value of y
2. Prove that tan 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sketch point K in the Cartesian plane and label θ
θ
x
0
13
K(−5; y)

Step 2 : Use Pythagoras to calculate y
r 2 = x2 + y 2
y 2 = r 2 − x2
= (13)2 − (−5)2
= 169 − 25
= 144
y = ±12
Given that θ lies in the third quadrant, y must be negative.
∴ y = −12
Step 3 : Substitute values for x, y and r and simplify
LHS = tan 2 θ + 1 RHS = sec 2 θ

y 2 r 2
= +1 =
x x
2 2
−12 13
= +1 =
−5 −5

144 169
= +1 =
25 25
144 + 25
=
25
169
=
25
∴ LHS = RHS
Important: whenever you have to solve trigonometric problems without a calculator, al-
ways make a sketch.

Exercise 7 - 6
1. B is a point in the Cartesian plane. Determine without using a calcula-

tor:
(a) OB
(b) cos β
(c) cosec β
(d) tan β
y
β
X x
B(1; −3)
2. If sin θ = 0,4 and θ is an obtuse angle, determine:

(a) cos θ
√
(b) 21 tan θ
3. Given tan θ = t
2, where 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦ . Determine the following in
terms of t:
(a) sec θ
(b) cot θ
(c) cos2 θ
(d) tan2 θ − sec2 θ
(1.) 00kw (2.) 00kx (3.) 0242

Chapter 7 | Summary
Summary presentation: VMdwh at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• We can define three trigonometric ratios for right-angled triangles: sine (sin), cosine
(cos) and tangent (tan).
• Each of these ratios have a reciprocal: cosecant (cosec), secant (sec) and cotangent
(cot).
• We can use the principles of solving equations and the trigonometric ratios to help
us solve simple trigonometric equations.
• We can solve problems in two dimensions that involve right-angled triangles.
• For some special angles, we can easily find the values of sin, cos and tan without
using a calculator.
• We can extend the definitions of the trigonometric functions to any angle.
• Trigonometry is used to help us solve problems in two dimensions, such as finding
the height of a building.
1. Without using a calculator determine the value of
sin 60◦ cos 30◦ − cos 60◦ sin 30◦ + tan 45◦
2. If 3 tan α = −5 and 0◦ < α < 270◦ , use a sketch to determine:

(a) cos α
(b) tan 2 α − sec 2 α
3. Solve for θ if θ is a positive, acute angle:

(a) 2 sin θ = 1,34
(b) 1 − tan θ = −1
(c) cos 2θ = sin 40◦
sin θ
(d) =1
cos θ
4. Calculate the unknown lengths in the diagrams below:

c 5m e
50◦ 60◦
b
20◦
a 25◦
d g
30◦
16 cm 80◦
f
5. In 4P QR, P R = 20 cm, QR = 22 cm and P R̂Q = 30◦ . The perpen-

dicular line from P to QR intersects QR at X. Calculate:
(a) the length XR
(b) the length P X
(c) the angle QP̂ X
6. A ladder of length 15 m is resting against a wall, the base of the ladder

is 5 m from the wall. Find the angle between the wall and the ladder.
7. In the following triangle find the angle AB̂C:

A
41◦
D C B
17
8. In the following triangle find the length of side CD:

A
15◦
35◦
D C B
9. Given A(5; 0) and B(11; 4), find the angle between the line through A
and B and the x-axis.
10. Given C(0; −13) and D(−12; 14), find the angle between the line through
C and D and the y-axis.

11. A right-angled triangle has hypotenuse 13 mm. Find the length of the
other two sides if one of the angles of the triangle is 50◦ .
12. One of the angles of a rhombus with perimeter 20 cm is 30◦ .

(a) Find the sides of the rhombus.
(b) Find the length of both diagonals.
13. Captain Jack is sailing towards a cliff with a height of 10 m.

(a) The distance from the boat to the top of the cliff is 30 m. Calculate
the angle of elevation from the boat to the top of the cliff (correct to
the nearest integer).
(b) If the boat sails 7 m closer to the cliff, what is the new angle of
elevation from the boat to the top of the cliff?
14. Given the points, E(5; 0), F (6; 2) and G(8; −2), find the angle F ÊG.
15. A triangle with angles 40◦ , 40◦ and 100◦ has a perimeter of 20 cm. Find
the length of each side of the triangle.
(1.) 00ky (2.) 00kz (3.) 00m0 (4.) 00m1 (5.) 00m2
(6.) 00m3 (7.) 00m4 (8.) 00m5 (9.) 00m6 (10.) 00m7
(11.) 00m8 (12.) 00m9 (13.) 00ma (14.) 00mb (15.) 00mc

Analytical geometry 8
CHAPTER 8. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Analytical geometry is the study of geometric properties, relationships and measurement

of points, lines and angles in the Cartesian plane. Geometrical shapes are defined using a
coordinate system and algebraic principles. Some consider the introduction of analytical
geometry, also called coordinate or Cartesian geometry, to be the beginning of modern
mathematics.
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Drawing figures on the Cartesian

8.1 plane
EMACV
If we are given the coordinates of the vertices of a figure, we can draw the figure on the
Cartesian plane. For example, quadrilateral ABCD with coordinates A(1; 1), B(3; 1),
C(3; 3) and D(1; 3).
y
4
D C
3
1
A B
x
0 1 2 3 4
The order of the letters for naming a figure is important. It indicates the order in which
points must be joined: A to B, B to C, C to D and D back to A. It would also be correct
to write quadrilateral CBAD or BADC but it is better to follow the convention of writing
letters in alphabetical order.

8.2 CHAPTER 8. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
8.2 Distance between two points EMACW
A point is a simple geometric object having location as its only property.
DEFINITION: Point
A point is an ordered pair of numbers written as (x; y).
DEFINITION: Distance
Distance is a measure of the length between two points.
Investigation: Distance between two points
Points P (2; 1), Q(−2; −2) and R(2, − 2) are given.

• Can we assume that R̂ = 90◦ ? If so, why?
• Apply the Theorem of Pythagoras in 4P QR to find the length of P Q.
y
2
P (2; 1)
1 b
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
−1
b
−2 b
Q(−2; −2) R(2; −2)

CHAPTER 8. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 8.2
To derive a general formula for the distance between two points A(x1 ; y1 ) and B(x2 ; y2 ),
we use the Theorem of Pythagoras:
y
2
B(x2 ; y2 )
1 b
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
−1
b
−2 C (x2 ; y1 )
A(x1 ; y1 )
AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
p
∴ AB = AC 2 + BC 2
And
AC = x2 − x1
BC = y2 − y1
Therefore,
p
AB = AC 2 + BC 2
p
= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
Therefore to calculate the distance between any two points, (x1 ; y1 ) and (x2 ; y2 ), we use:
q
Distance (d) = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
Notice that (x1 − x2 )2 = (x2 − x1 )2 .
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Example 1: Using the distance formula
QUESTION
Find the distance between S(−2; −5) and Q(7; −2).
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Draw a sketch
y
4
2
x
−4 −2 0 2 4 6
−2 b
T (7, − 2)
−4
S(−2, − 5) b
−6
Step 2 : Assign values to (x1 ; y1 ) and (x2 ; y2 )

Let the coordinates of S be (x1 ; y1 ) and the coordinates of T be
(x2 ; y2 ).
x1 = −2 y1 = −5 x2 = 7 y2 = −2
Step 3 : Write down the distance formula
p
d= (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
Step 4 : Substitute values

p
dST = (−2 − 7)2 + (−5 − (−2))2
p
= (−9)2 + (−3)2
√
= 81 + 9
√
= 90
= 9,5

The distance between S and T is 9,5 units.
Example 2: Using the distance formula
QUESTION
Given RS = 13, R(3; 9) and S(8; y), find y.
SOLUTION

y
22 b
S2 (8; y2 )
20
18
16
14
12
10 b
R(3; 9)
8
6
4
2
x
−6−4−2
−2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
b
−4 S1 (8; y1 )
−6


Let the coordinates of R be (x1 ; y1 ) and the coordinates of S be
(x2 ; y2 ).
x1 = 3 y1 = 9 x2 = 8 y2 = y
Step 3 : Write down the distance formula
p
d= (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
Step 4 : Substitute values and solve for y
p
13 = (3 − 8)2 + (9 − y)2
132 = (−5)2 + (81 − 18y + y 2 )
0 = y 2 − 18y − 63
= (y + 3)(y − 21)
∴ y = −3 or y = 21

S is (8; −3) or (8; 21)
Important: always draw a sketch. It helps with your calculation and makes it easier to
check if your answer is correct.
Exercise 8 - 1
1. Find the length of AB if:

(a) A(2; 7) and B(−3; 5)
(b) A(−3; 5) and B(−9; 1)
(c) A(x; y) and B(x + 4; y − 1)
2. The length of CD = 5. Find the missing coordinate if:
(a) C(6; −2) and D(x; 2)

(b) C(4; y) and D(1; −1)
(1.) 00cy (2.) 00cz
8.3 Gradient of a line EMACX
DEFINITION: Gradient
The gradient of a line is determined by the ratio of vertical change to hori-

zontal change.
Gradient (m) describes the slope or steepness of the line joining two points. In the figure
below, line OQ is the least steep and line OT is the steepest.
y
T S
3
R
2
1
Q
x
0 1 2 3
To derive the formula for gradient, we consider any right-angled triangle formed from
A (x1 ; y1 ) and B (x2 ; y2 ) with hypotenuse AB, as shown in the diagram below. The
gradient is determined by the ratio of the length of the vertical side of the triangle to the
length of the horizontal side of the triangle. The length of the vertical side of the triangle
is the difference in y-values of points A and B. The length of the horizontal side of the
triangle is the difference in x-values of points A and B.

2
B(x2 ,y2 )
1 b
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
−1
b
−2
A(x1 ,y1 ) C
Therefore, gradient is determined using the following formula:
y2 − y1 y1 − y2
Gradient (m) = or
x2 − x1 x1 − x2
y1 − y2
Important: remember to be consistent: m 6=
x2 − x1
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Example 3: Gradient between two points
QUESTION
Find the gradient of the line between points E(2; 5) and F(−3; 9).
SOLUTION

y
F (−3; 9)
b
9
8
7
6
5 b
E(2; 5)
4
3
2
1
x
−5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−1

Let the coordinates of E be (x1 ; y1 ) and the coordinates of F be
(x2 ; y2 ).
x1 = 2 y1 = 5 x2 = −3 y2 = 9
Step 3 : Write down the formula for gradient
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
Step 4 : Substitute known values
9−5
mEF =
−3 − 2
4
=
−5

4
The gradient of EF = −
5

Example 4: Gradient between two points
QUESTION
Given G(7; −9) and H(x; 0), with mGH = 3, Find x.
SOLUTION
6
4
2 H (x; 0)
b x
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
−2
−4 mGH = 3
−6
−8 b
−10 G (7; −9)

Let the coordinates of G be (x1 ; y1 ) and the coordinates of H be
(x2 ; y2 ).
x1 = 7 y1 = −9 x2 = x y2 = 0
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
Step 4 : Substitute values and solve for x

0 − (−9)
3 =
x−7
3(x − 7) = 9
9
x−7 =
3
x−7 =3
x =3+7
= 10

The coordinates of H are (10; 0).
Exercise 8 - 2
1. Find the gradient of AB if

(a) A(7; 10) and B(−4; 1)
(b) A(−5; −9) and B(3; 2)
(c) A(x − 3; y) and B(x; y + 4)
2. If the gradient of CD = 23 , find p given
(a) C(16; 2) and D(8; p)
(b) C(3; 2p) and D(9; 14)
(1.) 00d0 (2.) 00d1

Straight lines EMACY
DEFINITION: Straight line
A straight line is a set of points with a constant gradient between any two of
the points.
Consider the diagram below with points A(x; y), B(x2 ; y2 ) and C(x1 ; y1 ).
y
b
A(x; y)
2
1
B(x2 ; y2 ) b
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
C(x1 ; y1 ) b
−1
−2
y2 − y1 y1 − y2
We have mAB = mBC = mAC and m = =
x2 − x1 x1 − x2
y − y1 y2 − y1
The general formula for finding the equation of a straight line is = where
x − x1 x2 − x1
(x; y) is any point on the line.
This formula can also be written as y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
The standard form of the straight line equation is y = mx + c where m is the gradient and
c is the y-intercept.

Example 5: Finding the equation of a straight line
QUESTION
Find the equation of the straight line through P (−1; −5) and Q(5; 4).
SOLUTION
y
5
Q(5; 4)
4 b
3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
P (−1; −5) −5b
Step 2 : Assign values

Let the coordinates of P be (x1 ; y1 ) and Q(x2 ; y2 )
x1 = −1 y1 = −5 x2 = 5 y2 = 4
Step 3 : Write down the general formula of the line
y − y1 y2 − y1
=
x − x1 x2 − x1
Step 4 : Substitute values and make y the subject of the equation

y − (−5) 4 − (−5)
=
x − (−1) 5 − (−1)
y+5 3
=
x+1 2
2(y + 5) = 3(x + 1)
2y + 10 = 3x + 3
2y = 3x − 7
3 7
y = x−
2 2

The equation of the straight line is y = 32 x − 72 .
Parallel and perpendicular lines EMACZ
Two lines that run parallel to each other are always the same distance apart and have
equal gradients.
If two lines intersect perpendicularly, then the product of their gradients is equal to −1.
If line W X ⊥ line Y Z, then mW X × mY Z = −1. Perpendicular lines have gradients that
are the negative inverse of each other.
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Example 6: Parallel lines
QUESTION
Prove that line AB with A(0; 2) and B(2,6) is parallel to line 2x − y = 2.
SOLUTION
y
7
6 b
B(2; 6)
5
y = 2x − 2
4
3
2 A(0; 2)
b
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
(Be careful - some lines may look parallel but are not!)
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
Step 3 : Substitute values to find the gradient for line AB

6−2
mAB =
2−0
4
=
2
=2
Step 4 : Check that the equation of CD is in the standard form y = mx + c
2x − y =2
y = 2x − 2
∴ mCD = 2
mAB = mCD
therefore line AB is parallel to cd, y = 2x − 2.
Example 7: Perpendicular lines
QUESTION
Line AB is perpendicular to line CD. Find y given A(2; −3), B(−2; 6), C(4; 3)
and D(7; y).
SOLUTION

7
B(−2; 6)
b
6
5
b
4 D(7; y)
3 C(4; 3) b
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1
−2
−3 b
A(2; −3)
−4
−5
Step 2 : Write down the relationship between the gradients of the perpendic-
ular lines AB ⊥ CD
mAB × mCD = −1
yB − yA yD − yC
× = −1
xB − xA xD − xC
Step 3 : Substitute values and solve for y
6 − (−3) y − 3
× = −1
−2 − 2 7−4
9 y−3
× = −1
−4 3
y−3 −4
= −1 ×
3 9
y−3 4
=
3 9
4
y−3 = ×3
9
4
y−3 =
3

4
y = +3
3
4+9
=
3
13
=
3
1
=4
3

Therefore the coordinates of D are (7; 4 13 ).
Horizontal and vertical lines EMADA
A line that runs parallel to the x-axis is called a horizontal line and has a gradient of zero.
This is because there is no vertical change:
change in y 0
m= = =0
change in x change in x
A line that runs parallel to the y-axis is called a vertical line and its gradient is undefined.
This is because there is no horizontal change:
change in y change in y
m= = = undefined
change in x 0
Points on a line EMADB
A straight line is a set of points with a constant gradient between any of the two points.
There are two methods to prove that points lie on the same line; the gradient method and
a longer method using the distance formula.

Example 8: Points on a line
QUESTION
Prove that A(−3; 3), B(0; 5) and C(3; 7) are on a straight line.
SOLUTION
7 b
C(3; 7)
6
5 b
B(0; 5)
4
A(−3; 3) b
3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
Step 2 : Calculate two gradients between any of the three points
y2 − y1
m =
x2 − x1
5−3 2
mAB = =
0 − (−3) 3
and
7−5 2
mBC = =
3−0 3
OR
3−7 −4 2
mAC = = =
3−3 −6 3
and
7−5 2
mBC = =
3−0 3
Step 3 : Explain your answer

mAB = mBC = mAC
Therefore the points A, B and C are on a straight line.
To prove that three points are on a straight line using the distance formula, we must
calculate the distances between each pair of points and then prove that the sum of the
two smaller distances equals the longest distance.
Example 9: Points on a straight line
QUESTION
Prove that A(−3; 3), B(0; 5) and C(3; 7) are on a straight line.
SOLUTION
7 b
C(3; 7)
6
5 b
B(0; 5)
4
A(−3; 3) b
3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
Step 2 : Calculate the three distances AB, BC and AC

p p √ √
dAB = (−3 − 0)2 + (3 − 5)2 = (−3)2 + (−2)2 = 9 + 4 = 13
p p √ √
dBC = (0 − 3)2 + (5 − 7)2 = (−3)2 + (−2)2 = 9 + 4 = 13
p p √ √
dAC = ((−3) − 3)2 + (3 − 7)2 = (−6)2 + (−4)2 = 36 + 16 = 52
Step 3 : Find the sum of the two shorter distances
√ √ √ √ √
dAB + dBC = 13 + 13 = 2 13 = 4 × 13 = 52
Step 4 : Explain your answer
dAB + dBC = dAC
therefore points A, B and C lie on the same straight line.
Exercise 8 - 3
1. Determine whether AB and CD are parallel, perpendicular or neither

if:
(a) A(3; −4), B(5; 2), C(−1; −1), D(7; 23)
(b) A(3; −4), B(5; 2), C(−1; −1), D(0; −4)
(c) A(3; −4), B(5; 2), C(−1; −1), D(1; 2)
2. Determine whether the following points lie on the same straight line:
(a) E(0; 3), F (−2; 5), G(2; 1)
(b) H(−3; −5), I(−0; 0), J(6; 10)
(c) K(−6; 2), L(−3; 1), M (1; −1)
3. Points P (−6; 2), Q(2; −2) and R(−3; r) lie on a straight line. Find the
value of r.
4. Line P Q with P (−1; −7) and Q(q; 0) has a gradient of 1. Find q.
(1.) 00d2 (2.) 00d3 (3.) 00d4 (4.) 00d5

8.4 Mid-point of a line EMADC
Investigation: Finding the mid-point of a line
On graph paper, accurately plot the points P (2; 1) and Q(−2; 2) and draw the line
P Q.
• Fold the piece of paper so that point P is exactly on top of point Q.
• Where the folded line intersects with line P Q, label point S.
• Count the blocks and find the exact position of S.
• Write down the coordinates of S.
To calculate the coordinates of the mid-point M (x; y) of any line between two points
A(x1 ; y1 ) and B(x2 ; y2 ) we use the following formulae:
y
B(x2 ; y2 )
5
3
M (x; y)
2
1
A(x1 ; y1 )
x
0
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
x1 + x2
x =
2
y1 + y2
y =
2

From this we obtain the mid-point of a line:
x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
Midpoint M (x; y) = ( ; )
2 2
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Example 10: Calculating the mid-point
QUESTION
Calculate the coordinates of the mid-point F (x; y) of the line segment between
point E(2; 1) and point G(−2; −2).
SOLUTION
2
E(2; 1)
1
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
F (x; y)
−1
−2
G(−2, − 2)
x1 = −2 y1 = −2 x1 = 2 y2 = 1

Step 3 : Write down the mid-point formula
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
F (x; y) = ( ; )
2 2
Step 4 : Substitute values into the mid-point formula
x1 + x2
x =
2
−2 + 2
=
2
= 0
y1 + y2
y =
2
−2 + 1
=
2
1
= −
2
Step 5 : Write the answer

The mid-point is at F (0; − 12 )
Step 6 : Confirm answer using distance formula

Using the distance formula, we can confirm that the distances from
the mid-point to each end point are equal:
q
PS = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
q
= (0 − 2)2 + (−0,5 − 1)2
q
= (−2)2 + (−1,5)2
p
= 4 + 2,25
p
= 6,25

and
q
QS = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
q
= (0 − (−2))2 + (−0,5 − (−2))2
q
= (0 + 2)2 +(−0,5 + 2)2
q
= (2)2 +(−1,5)2
p
= 4 + 2,25
p
= 6,25
As expected, P S = QS, therefore F is the mid-point.
Example 11: Calculating the mid-point
QUESTION
Find the mid-point of line AB, given A(6; 2) and B(−5; −1).
SOLUTION

y
5
4
3
A (6; 2)
2 b
M (x; y)
1 b
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b
−1
B(−5; −1)
−2
−3
−4
−5

From the sketch, we can estimate that M will lie in quadrant I, with
positive x- and y-coordinates.

Let the mid-point be M (x; y)
x1 = 6 y1 = 2 x2 = −5 y2 = −1

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
M (x; y) = ;
2 2
Step 4 : Substitute values and simplify

6−5 2−1 1 1
M (x; y) = ; = ;
2 2 2 2

M ( 12 ; 21 ) is the mid-point of line AB.
Example 12: Using the mid-point formula
QUESTION
The line joining C(−2; 4) and D(x; y) has the mid-point M (1; −3). Find point D.
SOLUTION

5
C(−2; 4)
b
4
3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1
−2
−3 b
M (1; −3)
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9
−10 b D(x; y)
From the sketch, we can estimate that D will lie in Quadrant IV, with
a positive x- and negative y-coordinate.

Let the coordinates of C be (x1 ; y1 ) and the coordinates of D be
(x2 ; y2 ).
x1 = −2 y1 = 4 x2 = x y2 = y

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M (x; y) = ;
2 2
Step 4 : Substitute values and solve for x2 and y2
−2 + x2 4 + y2
1 = −3 =
2 2
1 × 2 = −2 + x2 −3 × 2 = 4 + y2
2 = −2 + x2 −6 = 4 + y2
x2 = 2 + 2 y2 = −6 − 4

x2 = 4 y2 = −10

The coordinates of point D are (4; −10).
Example 13: Using the mid-point formula
QUESTION
Points E(−1; 0), F (0; 3), G(8; 11) and H(x; y) are points on the Cartesian plane.
Find H(x; y) if EF GH is a parallelogram.
SOLUTION

y
G(8; 11)
11 b
10
9
8 H(x; y)
7
6
5 M
4
F (0; 3) 3 b
2
1
E(−1; 0) x
b
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
−1
Method: the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, therefore

the mid-point of EG will be the same as the mid-point of F H. We
must first find the mid-point of EG. We can then use it to determine
the coordinates of point H.


Let the mid-point of EG be M (x; y)
x1 = −1 y1 = 0 x2 = 8 y2 = 11

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M (x; y) = ;
2 2
Step 4 : Substitute values calculate the coordinates of M

−1 + 8 0 + 11 7 11
M (x; y) = ; = ;
2 2 2 2
Step 5 : Use the coordinates of M to determine H

M is also the mid-point of F H so we use M ( 27 ; 11
2 ) and F (0; 3) to
solve for H(x; y)
Step 6 : Substitute values and solve for x and y

7 11 x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M ; = ;
2 2 2 2
7 0+x 11 3+y
= =
2 2 2 2
7 = x+0 11 = 3 + y
x = 7 y = 8

The coordinates of H are (7; 8).
Exercise 8 - 4
1. Find the mid-points of the following lines:

(a) A(2; 5), B(−4; 7)
(b) C(5; 9), D(23; 55)
(c) E(x + 2; y − 1), F (x − 5; y − 4)
2. The mid-point M of P Q is (3; 9). Find P if Q is (−2; 5).

3. P QRS is a parallelogram with the points P (5; 3), Q(2; 1) and R(7; −3).
Find point S.
(1.) 00d6 (2.) 00d7 (3.) 00d8
Chapter 8 | Summary
Summary presentation: at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• A point is an ordered pair of numbers written as (x; y).

• Distance is a measure of the length between two points.
• The formula for finding the distance between any two points is:
q
d = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
• The gradient between two points is determined by the ratio of vertical change to
horizontal change.
• The formula for finding the gradient of a line is:
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
• A straight line is a set of points with a constant gradient between any two of the
points.
• The standard form of the straight line equation is y = mx + c.
• The equation of a straight line can also be written as
y − y1 y2 − y1
=
x − x1 x2 − x1
• If two lines are parallel, their gradients are equal.

• If two lines are perpendicular, the product of their gradients is equal to −1.
• For horizontal lines the gradient is equal to 0.
• For vertical lines the gradient is undefined.
• The formula for finding the mid-point between two points is:

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
M (x; y) = ;
2 2

1. Represent the following figures in the Cartesian plane:

(a) Triangle DEF with D(1; 2), E(3; 2) and F (2; 4)
(b) Quadrilateral GHIJ with G(2; −1), H(0; 2), I(−2; −2) and J(1; −3)
(c) Quadrilateral M N OP with M (1; 1), N (−1; 3), O(−2; 3) and P (−4; 1)
(d) Quadrilateral W XY Z with W (1; −2), X(−1; −3), Y (2; −4) and
Z(3; −2)
2. In the diagram below, the vertices of the quadrilateral are F (2; 0), G(1; 5),
H(3; 7) and I(7; 2).
y
H(3; 7)
7 b
6
G(1; 5)
5 b
2 b
I(7; 2)
1
F (2; 0) b
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(a) Calculate the lengths of the sides of F GHI.

(b) Are the opposite sides of F GHI parallel?
(c) Do the diagonals of F GHI bisect each other?
(d) Can you state what type of quadrilateral F GHI is? Give reasons for
your answer.
3. Consider a quadrilateral ABCD with vertices A(3; 2), B(4; 5), C(1; 7)
and D(1; 3).
(a) Draw the quadrilateral.
(b) Find the lengths of the sides of the quadrilateral.
4. ABCD is a quadrilateral with vertices A(0; 3), B(4; 3), C(5; −1) and
D(−1; −1).

(a) Show by calculation that:

i. AD = BC
ii. AB k DC
(b) What type of quadrilateral is ABCD?
(c) Show that the diagonals AC and BD do not bisect each other.
5. P , Q, R and S are the points (−2; 0), (2; 3), (5; 3), (−3; −3) respectively.
(a) Show that:
i. SR = 2P Q
ii. SR k P Q
(b) Calculate:
i. P S
ii. QR
(c) What kind of quadrilateral is P QRS? Give reasons for your answer.
6. EF GH is a parallelogram with vertices E(−1; 2), F (−2; −1) and G(2; 0).
Find the coordinates of H by using the fact that the diagonals of a par-
allelogram bisect each other.
7. P QRS is a quadrilateral with points P (0; −3), Q(−2; 5), R(3; 2) and
S(3; −2) in the Cartesian plane.
(a) Find the length of QR.
(b) Find the gradient of P S.
(c) Find the mid-point of P R.
(d) Is P QRS a parallelogram? Give reasons for your answer.
8. A(−2; 3) and B(2; 6) are points in the Cartesian plane. C(a; b) is the
mid-point of AB. Find the values of a and b.
9. Consider triangle ABC with vertices A(1; 3), B(4; 1) and C(6; 4).
(a) Sketch triangle ABC on the Cartesian plane.
(b) Show that ABC is an isosceles triangle.
(c) Determine the coordinates of M , the mid-point of AC.
(d) Determine the gradient of AB.
(e) Show that D(7; −1) lies on the line that goes through A and B.

10. In the diagram, A is the point (−6; 1) and B is the point (0; 3)
y
3 B(0; 3)
1
A(−6; 1)
x
0
−9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
(a) Find the equation of line AB.

(b) Calculate the length of AB.
11. 4P QR has vertices P (1; 8), Q(8; 7) and R(7; 0). Show through calcu-
lation that 4P QR is a right angled isosceles triangle.
12. 4ABC has vertices A(−3; 4), B(3; −2) and R(−5; −2). M is the mid-
point of AC and N the midpoint of BC. Use 4ABC to prove the
midpoint theorem using analytical geometrical methods.
(1.) 00d9 (2.) 00da (3.) 00db (4.) 00dc (5.) 00dd
(6.) 00de (7.) 00df (8.) 00dg (9.) 00dh (10.) 00di
(11.) 022r (12.) 022s

Statistics CHAPTER 9. STATISTICS
9
When running an experiment or conducting a survey we can potentially end up with

many hundreds, thousands or even millions of values in the resulting data set. Too many
data can be overwhelming and we need to reduce them or represent them in a way that
is easier to understand and communicate.
Statistics is about summarising data. The methods of statistics allow us to represent the
essential information in a data set while disregarding the unimportant information. We
have to be careful to make sure that we do not accidentally throw away some of the
important aspects of a data set.
By applying statistics properly we can highlight the important aspects of data and make
the data easier to interpret. By applying statistics poorly or dishonestly we can also hide
important information and let people draw the wrong conclusions.
In this chapter we will look at a few numerical and graphical ways in which data sets can
be represented, to make them easier to interpret.
Video: VMbqd at www.everythingmaths.co.za
9.1 Collecting data EMADD
DEFINITION: Data
Data refer to the pieces of information that have been observed and recorded,
from an experiment or a survey.
We distinguish between two main types of data: quantitative and qualitative. Note that
the word data is the plural of the word datum, and therefore one should say, “the data
are” and not “the data is”.

CHAPTER 9. STATISTICS 9.1
DEFINITION: Quantitative data
Quantitative data are data that can be written as numbers.
Quantitative data can be discrete or continuous. Discrete quantitative data can be rep-
resented by integers and usually occur when we count things, for example, the number
of learners in a class, the number of molecules in a chemical solution, or the number of
SMS messages sent in one day.
Continuous quantitative data can be represented by real numbers, for example, the height
or mass of a person, the distance travelled by a car, or the duration of a phone call.
DEFINITION: Qualitative data
Qualitative data are data that cannot be written as numbers.
Two common types of qualitative data are categorical and anecdotal data. Categorical
data can come from one of a limited number of possibilities, for example, your favourite
cool drink, the colour of your cell phone, or the language that you learned to speak at
home.
Anecdotal data take the form of an interview or a story, for example, when you ask
someone what their personal experience was when using a product, or what they think
of someone else’s behaviour.
Categorical qualitative data are sometimes turned into quantitative data by counting the
number of times that each category appears. For example, in a class with 30 learners, we
ask everyone what the colours of their cell phones are and get the following responses:
black black black white purple red red black black black
white white black black black black purple black black white
purple black red red white black orange orange black white
This is a categorical qualitative data set since each of the responses comes from one of a
small number of possible colours. We can represent exactly the same data in a different
way, by counting how many times each colour appears.

9.1 CHAPTER 9. STATISTICS
Colour Count
black 15
white 6
red 4
purple 3
orange 2
This is a discrete quantitative data set since each count is an integer.
Example 1: Qualitative and quantitative data
QUESTION
Thembisile is interested in becoming an airtime reseller to his classmates. He

would like to know how much business he can expect from them. He asked each
of his 20 classmates how many SMS messages they sent during the previous day.
The results were:
20 3 0 14 30 9 11 13 13 15
9 13 16 12 13 7 17 14 9 13
Is this data set qualitative or quantitative? Explain your answer.
SOLUTION
The number of SMS messages is a count represented by an integer, which means

that it is quantitative and discrete.

Example 2: Qualitative and quantitative data
QUESTION
Thembisile would like to know who the most popular cellular provider is among
learners in his school. This time Thembisile randomly selects 20 learners from the
entire school and asks them which cellular provider they currently use. The results
were:
Cell C Vodacom Vodacom MTN Vodacom
MTN MTN Virgin Mobile Cell C 8-ta
Vodacom MTN Vodacom Vodacom MTN
Vodacom Vodacom Vodacom Virgin Mobile MTN
Is this data set qualitative or quantitative? Explain your answer.
SOLUTION
Since each response is not a number, but one of a small number of possibilities,
these are categorical qualitative data.

9.2 Measures of central tendency EMADE
Mean EMADF
DEFINITION: Mean
The mean is the sum of a set of values, divided by the number of values in
the set. The notation for the mean of a set of values is a horizontal bar over
the variable used to represent the set. The formula for the mean of a data
set {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } is
n
1X
x= xi
n
i=1
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn
=
n
The mean is sometimes also called the average or the arithmetic mean.
Video: VMbqd at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 3: Calculating the mean
QUESTION
What is the mean of the data set {10; 20; 30; 40; 50}?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Calculate the sum of the data
10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50 = 150

Step 2 : Divide by the number of values in the data set to get the mean
Since there are 5 values in the data set, the mean is
150
Mean = = 30
5
Median EMADG
DEFINITION: Median
The median of a data set is the value in the central position, when the data
set has been arranged from the lowest to the highest value.
Note that exactly half of the values from the data set are less than the median and the
other half are greater than the median.
To calculate the median of a quantitative data set, first sort the data from the smallest to
the largest value and then find the value in the middle. If there are an odd number of
data, the median will be equal to one of the values in the data set. If there are an even
number of data, the median will lie halfway between two values in the data set.
Example 4: Median for an odd number of values
QUESTION
What is the median of {10; 14; 86; 2; 68; 99; 1}?
SOLUTION

Step 1 : Sort the values

The values in the data set, arranged from the smallest to the largest,
are
1; 2; 10; 14; 68; 86; 99
Step 2 : Find the number in the middle

There are 7 values in the data set. Since there are an odd number of
values, the median will be equal to the value in the middle, namely,
in the 4th position. Therefore the median of the data set is 14.
Example 5: Median for an even number of values
QUESTION
What is the median of {11; 10; 14; 86; 2; 68; 99; 1}?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sort the values

The values in the data set, arranged from the smallest to the largest,
are
1; 2; 10; 11; 14; 68; 86; 99
Step 2 : Find the number in the middle

There are 8 values in the data set. Since there are an even number
of values, the median will be halfway between the two values in the
middle, namely, between the 4th and 5th positions. The value in the
4th position is 11 and the value in the 5th position is 14. The median
lies halfway between these two values and is therefore
11 + 14
Median = = 12,5
2

Mode EMADH
DEFINITION: Mode
The mode of a data set is the value that occurs most often in the set. The
mode can also be described as the most frequent or most common value in
the data set.
To calculate the mode, we simply count the number of times that each value appears in
the data set and then find the value that appears most often.
A data set can have more than one mode if there is more than one value with the highest
count. For example, both 2 and 3 are modes in the data set {1; 2; 2; 3; 3}. If all points
in a data set occur with equal frequency, it is equally accurate to describe the data set as
having many modes or no mode.
Example 6: Finding the mode
QUESTION
Find the mode of the data set {2; 2; 3; 4; 4; 4; 6; 6; 7; 8; 8; 10; 10}.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Count the number of times that each value appears in the data set

Value Count
2 2
3 1
4 3
6 2
7 1
8 2
10 2
Step 2 : Find the value that appears most often

From the table above we can see that 4 is the only value that appears
3 times, and all the other values appear less often. Therefore the
mode of the data set is 4.
One problem with using the mode as a measure of central tendency is that we can
usually not compute the mode of a continuous data set. Since continuous values can lie
anywhere on the real line, any particular value will almost never repeat. This means that
the frequency of each value in the data set will be 1 and that there will be no mode. We
will look at one way of addressing this problem in the section on grouping data.
Example 7: Comparison of measures of central tendency
QUESTION
There are regulations in South Africa related to bread production to protect con-
sumers. By law, if a loaf of bread is not labelled, it must weigh 800 g, with the
leeway of 5 percent under or 10 percent over. Vishnu is interested in how a well-
known, national retailer measures up to this standard. He visited his local branch
of the supplier and recorded the masses of 10 different loaves of bread for one
week. The results, in grams, are given below:

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
802,4 787,8 815,7 807,4 801,5 786,6 799,0
796,8 798,9 809,7 798,7 818,3 789,1 806,0
802,5 793,6 785,4 809,3 787,7 801,5 799,4
819,6 812,6 809,1 791,1 805,3 817,8 801,0
801,2 795,9 795,2 820,4 806,6 819,5 796,7
789,0 796,3 787,9 799,8 789,5 802,1 802,2
789,0 797,7 776,7 790,7 803,2 801,2 807,3
808,8 780,4 812,6 801,8 784,7 792,2 809,8
802,4 790,8 792,4 789,2 815,6 799,4 791,2
796,2 817,6 799,1 826,0 807,9 806,7 780,2
1. Is this data set qualitative or quantitative? Explain your answer.

2. Determine the mean, median and mode of the mass of a loaf of bread for
each day of the week. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
3. Based on the data, do you think that this supplier is providing bread within
the South African regulations?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Qualitative or quantitative?

Since each mass can be represented by a number, the data set is
quantitative. Furthermore, since a mass can be any real number, the
data are continuous.
Step 2 : Calculate the mean

In each column (for each day of the week), we add up the measure-
ments and divide by the number of measurements, 10. For Monday,
the sum of the measured values is 8007,9 and so the mean for Monday
is
8007,9
= 800,8 g
10
In the same way, we can compute the mean for each day of the week.
See the table below for the results.

Step 3 : Calculate the median

In each column we sort the numbers from lowest to highest and
find the value in the middle. Since there are an even number of
measurements (10), the median is halfway between the two numbers
in the middle. For Monday, the sorted list of numbers is
789,0; 789,0; 796,2; 796,7; 801,2;

802,3; 802,3; 802,5; 808,7; 819,6
The two numbers in the middle are 801,2 and 802,3 and so the me-
dian is
801,2 + 802,3
= 801,8 g
2
In the same way, we can compute the median for each day of the
week:
Day Mean Median
Monday 800,8 g 801,8 g
Tuesday 797,2 g 796,1 g
Wednesday 798,4 g 797,2 g
Thursday 803,4 g 800,8 g
Friday 802,0 g 804,3 g
Saturday 801,6 g 801,4 g
Sunday 799,3 g 800,2 g
From the above calculations we can see that the means and medians
are close to one another, but not quite equal. In the next worked
example we will see that the mean and median are not always close
to each other.
Step 4 : Determine the mode

Since the data are continuous we cannot compute the mode. In the
next section we will see how we can group data in order to make it
possible to compute an approximation for the mode.
Step 5 : Conclusion: Is the supplier reliable?

From the question, the requirements are that the mass of a loaf
of bread be between 800 g minus 5%, which is 760 g, and plus 10%,
which is 880 g. Since every one of the measurements made by Vishnu

lies within this range and since the means and medians are all close
to 800 g, we can conclude that the supplier is reliable.
DEFINITION: Outlier
An outlier is a value in the data set that is not typical of the rest of the set. It
is usually a value that is much greater or much less than all the other values
in the data set.
Example 8: Effect of outliers on mean and median
QUESTION
The heights of 10 learners are measured in centimetres to obtain the following

data set:
{150; 172; 153; 156; 146; 157; 157; 143; 168; 157}
Afterwards, we include one more learner in the group, who is exceptionally tall at
181 cm. Compare the mean and median of the heights of the learners before and
after the 11th learner was included.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Calculate the mean of the first 10 learners
150 + 172 + 153 + 156 + 146 + 157 + 157 + 143 + 168 + 157
Mean =
10
= 155,9 cm
Step 2 : Calculate the mean of all 11 learners

150 + 172 + 153 + 156 + 146 + 157 + 157 + 143 + 168 + 157 + 181
Mean =
11
= 158,2 cm
From this we see that the average height changes by 158,2 − 155,9 =
2,3 cm when we introduce the outlier value (the tall person) to the
data set.
Step 3 : Calculate the median of the first 10 learners

To find the median, we need to sort the data set:
{143; 146; 150; 153; 156; 157; 157; 157; 168; 172}
Since there are an even number of values, 10, the median lies halfway
between the 5th and 6th values:
156 + 157
Median = = 156,5 cm
2
Step 4 : Calculate the median of all 11 learners

After adding the tall learner, the sorted data set is
{143; 146; 150; 153; 156; 157; 157; 157; 168; 172; 181}
Now, with 11 values, the median is the 6th value: 157 cm. So, the
median changes by only 0,5 cm when we add the outlier value to
the data set. In general, the median is less affected by the addition
of outliers to a data set than the mean is. This is important because
it is quite common that outliers are measured during an experiment,
because of problems with the equipment or unexpected interference.
Exercise 9 - 1
1. Calculate the mean, median and mode of the following data sets:
(a) 2; 5; 8; 8; 11; 13; 22; 23; 27
(b) 15; 17; 24; 24; 26; 28; 31; 43
(c) 4; 11; 3; 15; 11; 13; 25; 17; 2; 11

(d) 24; 35; 28; 41; 32; 49; 31

2. The ages of 15 runners of the Comrades Marathon were recorded:
31; 42; 28; 38; 45; 51; 33; 29; 42; 26; 34; 56; 33; 46; 41
Calculate the mean, median and modal age.

3. In the first of a series of jars, there is 1 sweet. In the second jar, there are
3 sweets. The mean number of sweets in the first two jars is 2.
(a) If the mean number of sweets in the first three jars is 3, how many
sweets are there in the third jar?
(b) If the mean number of sweets in the first four jars is 4, how many
sweets are there in the fourth jar?
4. Find a set of five ages for which the mean age is 5, the modal age is 2
and the median age is 3 years.
5. Four friends each have some marbles. They work out that the mean
number of marbles they have is 10. One friend leaves with 4 marbles.
How many marbles do the remaining friends have together?
(1.) 00jr (2.) 00js (3.) 00jt (4.) 00ju (5.) 00jv
9.3 Grouping data EMADI
A common way of handling continuous quantitative data is to subdivide the full range
of values into a few sub-ranges. By assigning each continuous value to the sub-range or
class within which it falls, the data set changes from continuous to discrete.
Grouping is done by defining a set of ranges and then counting how many of the data
fall inside each range. The sub-ranges must not overlap and must cover the entire range
of the data set.
One way of visualising grouped data is as a histogram. A histogram is a collection of

rectangles, where the base of a rectangle (on the x-axis) covers the values in the range
associated with it, and the height of a rectangle corresponds to the number of values in
its range.

Video: VMbue at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 9: Groups and histograms
QUESTION
The heights in centimetres of 30 learners are given below.
142 163 169 132 139 140 152 168 139 150
161 132 162 172 146 152 150 132 157 133
141 170 156 155 169 138 142 160 164 168
Group the data into the following ranges and draw a histogram of the grouped
data:
130 ≤ h < 140

140 ≤ h < 150
150 ≤ h < 160
160 ≤ h < 170
170 ≤ h < 180
(Note that the ranges do not overlap since each one starts where the previous one
ended.)
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Count the number of values in each range

Range Count
130 ≤ h < 140 7
140 ≤ h < 150 5
150 ≤ h < 160 7
160 ≤ h < 170 9
170 ≤ h < 180 2
Step 2 : Draw the histogram

Since there are 5 ranges, the histogram will have 5 rectangles. The
base of each rectangle is defined by its range. The height of each
rectangle is determined by the count in its range.
9
8
7
6
Count
5
4
3
2
1
0
130 140 150 160 170 180
Height (m)
The histogram makes it easy to see in which range most of the heights
are located and provides an overview of the distribution of the values
in the data set.
Exercise 9 - 2
1. A class experiment was conducted and 50 learners were asked to guess

the number of sweets in a jar. The following guesses were recorded:

56 49 40 11 33 33 37 29 30 59
21 16 38 44 38 52 22 24 30 34
42 15 48 33 51 44 33 17 19 44
47 23 27 47 13 25 53 57 28 23
36 35 40 23 45 39 32 58 22 40
(a) Draw up a grouped frequency table using the intervals 10 < x ≤ 20;
20 < x ≤ 30; 30 < x ≤ 40; 40 < x ≤ 50; and 50 < x ≤ 60.
(b) Draw the histogram corresponding to the frequency table of the
grouped data.
(1.) 00jw
Measures of central tendency EMADJ
With grouped data our estimates of central tendency will change because we lose some
information when we place each value in a range. If all we have to work with is the
grouped data, we do not know the measured values to the same accuracy as before. The
best we can do is to assume that values are grouped at the centre of each range.
Looking back to the previous worked example, we started with this data set of learners’
heights.
{132; 132; 132; 133; 138; 139; 139; 140; 141; 142; 142; 146; 150; 150; 152;
152; 155; 156; 157; 160; 161; 162; 163; 164; 168; 168; 169; 169; 170; 172}
Note that the data are sorted. The mean of these data is 151,8 and the median is 152.
The mode is 132, but remember that there are problems with computing the mode of
continuous quantitative data.
After grouping the data, we now have the data set shown below. Note that each value is
placed at the centre of its range and that the number of times that each value is repeated

corresponds exactly to the counts in each range.
{135; 135; 135; 135; 135; 135; 135; 145; 145; 145; 145; 145; 155; 155; 155;
155; 155; 155; 155; 165; 165; 165; 165; 165; 165; 165; 165; 165; 175; 175}
The grouping changes the measures of central tendency since each datum is treated as if
it occurred at the centre of the range in which it was placed.
The mean is now 153, the median 155 and the mode is 165. This is actually a better
estimate of the mode, since the grouping showed in which range the learners’ heights
were clustered.
Exercise 9 - 3
1. Consider the following grouped data and calculate the mean, the modal
group and the median group.
Mass (kg) Count
40 < m ≤ 45 7
45 < m ≤ 50 10
50 < m ≤ 55 15
55 < m ≤ 60 12
60 < m ≤ 65 6
2. Find the mean, the modal group and the median group in this data set
of how much time people needed to complete a game.

Time (s) Count
35 < t ≤ 45 5
45 < t ≤ 55 11
55 < t ≤ 65 15
65 < t ≤ 75 26
75 < t ≤ 85 19
85 < t ≤ 95 13
95 < t ≤ 105 6
3. The histogram below shows the number of passengers that travel in Al-
fred’s minibus taxi per week.
Calculate
(a) the modal interval
(b) the total number of passengers to travel in Alfred’s taxi
(c) an estimate of the mean
(d) an estimate of the median
(e) if it is estimated that every passenger travelled an average distance
of 5 km, how much money would Alfred have made if he charged
R 3,50 per km?
16
14
12
10
Count
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

No. of passengers

(1.) 00jx (2.) 00jy (3.) 00jz
9.4 Measures of dispersion EMADK
The central tendency is not the only interesting or useful information about a data set.
The two data sets illustrated below have the same mean (0), but have different spreads
around the mean. Each circle represents one datum.
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Dispersion is a general term for different statistics that describe how values are distributed
around the centre. In this section we will look at measures of dispersion.
Video: VMbsf at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Range EMADL
DEFINITION: Range
The range of a data set is the difference between the maximum and mini-
mum values in the set.
The most straightforward measure of dispersion is the range. The range simply tells us
how far apart the largest and smallest values in a data set are. The range is very sensitive
to outliers.

Example 10: Range
QUESTION
Find the range of the following data set:
{1; 4; 5; 8; 6; 7; 5; 6; 7; 4; 10; 9; 10}
What would happen if we removed the first datum from the set?
SOLUTION

The smallest value in the data set is 1 and the largest value is 10.
The range is 10 − 1 = 9.
Step 2 : Remove the first datum

If the first datum, 1, were to be removed from the set, the minimum
value would be 4. This means that the range would change to 10−4 =
6. This is very different from the previous value. This shows that the
range is sensitive to outliers. In the data set above, the value 1 is not
typical of the other values. It is an outlier and has a big influence on
the range.

Percentiles EMADM
DEFINITION: Percentile
The pth percentile is the value, v, that divides a data set into two parts, such
that p percent of the values in the data set are less than v and 100−p percent
of the values are greater than v. Percentiles can lie in the range 0 ≤ p ≤ 100.
To understand percentiles properly, we need to distinguish between 3 different aspects of

a datum: its value, its rank and its percentile:
• The value of a datum is what we measured and recorded during an experiment or

survey.
• The rank of a datum is its position in the sorted data set (for example, first, second,
third, and so on).
• The percentile at which a particular datum is, tells us what percentage of the values
in the full data set are less than this datum.
The table below summarises the value, rank and percentile of the data set
{14,2; 13,9; 19,8; 10,3; 13,0; 11,1}
Value Rank Percentile
10,3 1 0
11,1 2 20
13,0 3 40
13,9 4 60
14,2 5 80
19,8 6 100
As an example, 13,0 is at the 40th percentile since there are 2 values less than 13,0 and 3
values greater than 13,0.
2
= 0,4 = 40%
2+3

In general, the formula for finding the pth percentile in an ordered data set with n values
is
p
r= (n − 1) + 1
100
This gives us the rank, r, of the pth percentile. To find the value of the pth percentile, we
have to count from the first value in the ordered data set up to the rth value. Sometimes
the rank will not be an integer. This means that the percentile lies between two values
in the data set. The convention is to take the value halfway between the two values indi-
cated by the rank. The figure below shows the relationship between rank and percentile
graphically. We have already encountered three percentiles in this chapter: the median
(50th percentile), the minimum (0th percentile) and the maximum (100th ). The median is
defined as the value halfway in a sorted data set.
n+1
r 1 2 n
p 0 50 100
minimum median maximum
Example 11: Using the percentile formula
QUESTION
Determine the minimum, maximum and median values of the following data set
using the percentile formula.
{14; 17; 45; 20; 19; 36; 7; 30; 8}
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sort the values in the data set

Before we can use the rank to find values in the data set, we always
have to order the values from the smallest to the greatest. The sorted
data set is
{7; 8; 14; 17; 19; 20; 30; 36; 45}

Step 2 : Find the minimum

We already know that the minimum value is the first value in the or-
dered data set. We will now confirm that the percentile formula gives
the same answer. The minimum is equivalent to the 0th percentile.
According to the percentile formula the rank, r, of the p = 0th per-
centile in a data set with n = 9 values is
p
r= (n − 1) + 1
100
0
= (9 − 1) + 1
100
=1
This confirms that the minimum value is the first value in the list,
namely 7.
Step 3 : Find the maximum

We already know that the maximum value is the last value in the
ordered data set. The maximum is also equivalent to the 100th per-
centile. Using the percentile formula with p = 100 and n = 9, we
find the rank of the maximum value as
p
r= (n − 1) + 1
100
100
= (9 − 1) + 1
100
=9
This confirms that the maximum value is the last (the 9th ) value in the
list, namely 45.
Step 4 : Find the median

The median is equivalent to the 50th percentile. Using the percentile
formula with p = 50 and n = 9, we find the rank of the median value
as
50
r= (n − 1) + 1
100
50
= (9 − 1) + 1
100
1
= (8) + 1
2
=5
This shows that the median is in the middle (at the 5th position) of the

ordered data set. Therefore the median value is 19.
DEFINITION: Quartiles
The quartiles are the three data values that divide an ordered data set into
four groups, where each group contains an equal number of data values.
The median (50th percentile) is the second quartile (Q2). The 25th percentile
is also be called the first or lower quartile (Q1), and the 75th percentile the
third or upper quartile (Q3).
Example 12: Quartiles
QUESTION
Determine the quartiles of the following data set:
{7; 45; 11; 3; 9; 35; 31; 7; 16; 40; 12; 6}
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sort the data set
{3; 6; 7; 7; 9; 11; 12; 16; 31; 35; 40; 45}
Step 2 : Find the ranks of the quartiles

Using the percentile formula, n = 12, we can find the rank of the

25th , 50th and 75th percentiles as
25
r25 = (12 − 1) + 1
100
= 3,75
50
r50 = (12 − 1) + 1
100
= 6,5
75
r75 = (12 − 1) + 1
100
= 9,25
Step 3 : Find the values of the quartiles

Note that each of these ranks is a fraction, meaning that the value
for each percentile is somewhere in between two values from the
data set. For the 25th percentile the rank is 3,75, which is between
the 3rd and 4th values. Since both these values are equal to 7, the 25th
percentile is 7. For the 50th percentile (the median) the rank is 6,5,
meaning halfway between the 6th and 7th values. The 6th value is 11
11+12
and the 7th value is 12, which means that the median is 2 = 11,5.
For the 75th percentile the rank is 9,25, meaning between the 9th and
31+35
10th values. Therefore the 75th percentile is 2 = 33.
Deciles
The deciles are the nine data values that divide an ordered data set into ten groups, where
each group contains an equal number of data values.
For example, consider the ordered data set:
28; 33; 35; 45; 57; 59; 61; 68; 69; 72; 75; 78; 80; 83; 86; 91;
92; 95; 101; 105; 111; 117; 118; 125; 127; 131; 137; 139; 141
The nine deciles are: 35; 59; 69; 78; 86; 95; 111; 125; 137

Percentiles for grouped data EMADN
In grouped data, the percentiles will lie somewhere inside a range, rather than at a spe-
cific value. To find the range in which a percentile lies, we still use the percentile formula
to determine the rank of the percentile and then find the range within which that rank
is.
Example 13: Percentiles in grouped data
QUESTION
The mathematics marks of 100 grade 10 learners at a school have been collected.
The data are presented in the following table:
Percentage mark Number of learners
0 ≤ x < 20 2
20 ≤ x < 30 5
30 ≤ x < 40 18
40 ≤ x < 50 22
50 ≤ x < 60 18
60 ≤ x < 70 13
70 ≤ x < 80 12
80 ≤ x < 100 10
1. Calculate the mean of this grouped data set.

2. In which intervals are the quartiles of the data set?
3. In which interval is the 30th percentile of the data set?
SOLUTION

Step 1 : Calculate the mean

Since we are given grouped data rather than the original ungrouped
data, the best we can do is approximate the mean as if all the learners
in each interval were located at the central value of the interval.
2 . 10 + 5 . 25 + 18 . 35 + 22 . 45 + 18 . 55 + 13 . 65 + 12 . 75 + 10 . 90
Mean =
100
= 54%
Step 2 : Find the quartiles

Since the data have been grouped, they have also already been
sorted. Using the percentile formula and the fact that there are 100
learners, we can find the rank of the 25th , 50th and 75th percentiles
as
25
r25 = (100 − 1) + 1
100
= 24,75
50
r50 = (100 − 1) + 1
100
= 50,5
75
r75 = (100 − 1) + 1
100
= 75,25
Now we need to find in which ranges each of these ranks lie.

• For the lower quartile, we have that there are 2 + 5 = 7 learners in the
first two ranges combined and 2 + 5 + 18 = 25 learners in the first three
ranges combined. Since 7 < r25 < 25, this means that the lower quartile lies
somewhere in the third range: 30 ≤ x < 40.
• For the second quartile (the median), we have that there are 2 + 5 + 18 + 22 =
47 learners in the first four ranges combined and 65 learners in the first five
ranges combined. Since 47 < r50 < 65, this means that the median lies
somewhere in the fifth range: 50 ≤ x < 60.
• For the upper quartile, we have that there are 65 learners in the first five
ranges combined and 65 + 13 = 78 learners in the first six ranges combined.
Since 65 < r75 < 78, this means that the upper quartile lies somewhere in
the sixth range: 60 ≤ x < 70.
Step 3 : Find the 30th percentile

Using the same method as for the quartiles, we first find the rank of

the 30th percentile.
30
r= (100 − 1) + 1
100
= 30,7
Now we have to find the range in which this rank lies. Since there
are 25 learners in the first 3 ranges combined and 47 learners in the
first 4 ranges combined, the 30th percentile lies in the fourth range:
40 ≤ x < 50.
Ranges EMADO
We define data ranges in terms of percentiles. We have already encountered the full data
range, which is simply the difference between the 100th and the 0th percentile (that is,
between the maximum and minimum values in the data set).
DEFINITION: Interquartile range
The interquartile range is a measure of dispersion, which is calculated by

subtracting the first quartile (Q1) from the third quartile (Q3). This gives the
range of the middle half of the data set.
DEFINITION: Semi interquartile range
The semi interquartile range is half of the interquartile range.

Exercise 9 - 4
1. Find the range of the data set
{1; 2; 3; 4; 4; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 8; 9; 10; 10}
2. What are the quartiles of this data set?
{3; 5; 1; 8; 9; 12; 25; 28; 24; 30; 41; 50}
3. A class of 12 students writes a test and the results are as follows:
20; 39; 40; 43; 43; 46; 53; 58; 63; 70; 75; 91
Find the range, quartiles and the interquartile range.

4. Three sets of data are given:
• Data set 1: {9; 12; 12; 14; 16; 22; 24}
• Data set 2: {7; 7; 8; 11; 13; 15; 16; 16}
• Data set 3: {11; 15; 16; 17; 19; 19; 22; 24; 27}
For each data set find:
(a) the range
(b) the lower quartile
(c) the interquartile range
(d) the semi-interquartile range
(e) the median
(f) the upper quartile
(1.) 00k0 (2.) 00k1 (3.) 00k2 (4.) 00k3

9.5 Five number summary EMADP
A common way of summarising the overall data set is with the five number summary and
the box-and-whisker plot. These two represent exactly the same information, numerically
in the case of the five number summary and graphically in the case of the box-and-
whisker plot.
The five number summary consists of the minimum value, the maximum value and the
three quartiles. Another way of saying this is that the five number summary consists of the
following percentiles: 0th , 25th , 50th , 75th , 100th . The box-and-whisker plot shows these
five percentiles as in the figure below. The box shows the interquartile range (the distance
between Q1 and Q3). A line inside the box shows the median. The lines extending
outside the box (the whiskers) show where the minimum and maximum values lie. This
graph can also be drawn horizontally.
Video: VMbur at www.everythingmaths.co.za
maximum (100th percentile)
upper quartile (75th percentile)
data range interquartile range median (50th percentile)
lower quartile (25th percentile)
minimum (0th percentile)
Example 14: Five number summary
QUESTION
Draw a box and whisker diagram for the following data set:
{1,25; 1,5; 2,5; 2,5; 3,1; 3,2; 4,1; 4,25; 4,75; 4,8; 4,95; 5,1}

SOLUTION
Step 1 : Determine the minimum and maximum

Since the data set is already sorted, we can read off the minimum as
the first value (1,25) and the maximum as the last value (5,1).
Step 2 : Determine the quartiles

There are 12 values in the data set. Using the percentile formula, we
can determine that the median lies between the 6th and 7th values,
making it
3,2 + 4,1
= 3,65
2
The first quartile lies between the 3rd and 4th values, making it
2,5 + 2,5
= 2,5
2
The third quartile lies between the 9th and 10th values, making it
4,75 + 4,8
= 4,775
2
This provides the five number summary of the data set and allows us
to draw the following box-and-whisker plot.
5,1
4,775
3,65
2,5
1,25

Exercise 9 - 5
1. Lisa is working in a computer store. She sells the following number of

computers each month:
{27; 39; 3; 15; 43; 27; 19; 54; 65; 23; 45; 16}
Give the five number summary and box-and-whisker plot of Lisa’s sales.
2. Zithulele works as a telesales person. He keeps a record of the number

of sales he makes each month. The data below show how much he sells
each month.
{49; 12; 22; 35; 2; 45; 60; 48; 19; 1; 43; 12}
Give the five number summary and box-and-whisker plot of Zithulele’s

sales.
3. Hannah has worked as a florist for nine months. She sold the following
number of wedding bouquets:
{16; 14; 8; 12; 6; 5; 3; 5; 7}
Give the five number summary of Hannah’s sales.
4. Use the diagram below to determine the five number summary:

(a)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
15 22 25 28 35
(b)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
88 92 98 100 101
(1.) 00k4 (2.) 00k5 (3.) 00k6 (4.) 00k7

Chapter 9 | Summary
Summary presentation: VMdvy at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• Data refer to the pieces of information that have been observed and recorded, from
an experiment or a survey.
• Quantitative data are data that can be written as numbers. Quantitative data can
be discrete or continuous.
• Qualitative data are data that cannot be written as numbers. There are two common
types of qualitative data: categorical and anecdotal data.
• The mean is the sum of a set of values divided by the number of values in the set.
n
1X
x= xi
n
i=1
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn
=
n
• The median of a data set is the value in the central position, when the data set has
been arranged from the lowest to the highest value. If there are an odd number of
data, the median will be equal to one of the values in the data set. If there are an
even number of data, the median will lie half way between two values in the data
set.
• The mode of a data set is the value that occurs most often in the set.
• An outlier is a value in the data set that is not typical of the rest of the set. It is
usually a value that is much greater or much less than all the other values in the
data set.
• Dispersion is a general term for different statistics that describe how values are
distributed around the centre.
• The range of a data set is the difference between the maximum and minimum
values in the set.
• The pth percentile is the value, v, that divides a data set into two parts, such that p%
of the values in the data set are less than v and 100 − p% of the values are greater
than v. The general formula for finding the pth percentile in an ordered data set
with n values is
p
r= (n − 1) + 1
100

• The quartiles are the three data values that divide an ordered data set into four
groups, where each group contains an equal number of data values. The lower
quartile is denoted Q1, the median is Q2 and the upper quartile is Q3.
• The interquartile range is a measure of dispersion, which is calculated by subtract-

ing the lower (first) quartile from the upper (third) quartile. This gives the range of
the middle half of the data set.
• The semi interquartile range is half of the interquartile range.
• The five number summary consists of the minimum value, the maximum value and
the three quartiles (Q1, Q2 and Q3).
• The box-and-whisker plot is a graphical representation of the five number summary.
1. In a park, the tallest 7 trees have heights (in metres):
41; 60; 47; 42; 44; 42; 47
Find the median of their heights.
2. The students in Ndeme’s class have the following ages:
5; 6; 7; 5; 4; 6; 6; 6; 7; 4
Find the mode of their ages.
3. An engineering company has designed two different types of engines

for motorbikes. The two different motorbikes are tested for the time (in
seconds) it takes for them to accelerate from 0 km/h to 60 km/h.
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 Test 6 Test 7 Test 8 Test 9 Test 10
Bike 1 1,55 1,00 0,92 0,80 1,49 0,71 1,06 0,68 0,87 1,09
Bike 2 0,9 1,0 1,1 1,0 1,0 0,9 0,9 1,0 0,9 1,1
(a) Which measure of central tendency should be used for this infor-
mation?
(b) Calculate the measure of central tendency that you chose in the
previous question, for each motorbike.

(c) Which motorbike would you choose based on this information?

Take note of the accuracy of the numbers from each set of tests.
4. In a traffic survey, a random sample of 50 motorists were asked the dis-

tance they drove to work daily. This information is shown in the table
below.
Distance (km) Count
0<d≤5 4
5 < d ≤ 10 5
10 < d ≤ 15 9
15 < d ≤ 20 10
20 < d ≤ 25 7
25 < d ≤ 30 8
30 < d ≤ 35 3
35 < d ≤ 40 2
40 < d ≤ 45 2
(a) Find the approximate mean of the data.

(b) What percentage of samples had a distance of
i. less than 15 km?
ii. more than 30 km?
iii. between 16 km and 30 km daily?
(c) Draw a histogram to represent the data
5. A company wanted to evaluate the training programme in its factory.

They gave the same task to trained and untrained employees and timed
each one in seconds.
Trained 121 137 131 135 130
128 130 126 132 127
129 120 118 125 134
Untrained 135 142 126 148 145
156 152 153 149 145
144 134 139 140 142

(a) Find the medians and quartiles for both sets of data.
(b) Find the interquartile range for both sets of data.
(c) Comment on the results.
(d) Draw a box-and-whisker diagram for each data set to illustrate the
five number summary.
6. A small firm employs 9 people. The annual salaries of the employers are:
R 600 000 R 250 000 R 200 000
R 120 000 R 100 000 R 100 000
R 100 000 R 90 000 R 80 000
(a) Find the mean of these salaries.

(b) Find the mode.
(c) Find the median.
(d) Of these three figures, which would you use for negotiating salary
increases if you were a trade union official? Why?
(1.) 00k8 (2.) 00k9 (3.) 00ka (4.) 00kb (5.) 00kc
(6.) 00kd

Probability 10
CHAPTER 10. PROBABILITY
We use probability to describe uncertain events. When you accidentally drop a slice
of bread, you don’t know if it’s going to fall with the buttered side facing upwards or
downwards. When your favourite sports team plays a game, you don’t know whether
they will win or not. When the weatherman says that there is a 40% chance of rain
tomorrow, you may or may not end up getting wet. Uncertainty presents itself to some
degree in every event that occurs around us and in every decision that we make.
We will see in this chapter that all of these uncertainties can be described using the
rules of probability theory and that we can make definite conclusions about uncertain
processes.
We’ll use three examples of uncertain processes to help you understand the meanings of
the different words used in probability theory: tossing a coin, rolling dice, and a soccer
match.
Video: VMbxk at www.everythingmaths.co.za
DEFINITION: Experiment
An experiment refers to an uncertain process.
DEFINITION: Outcome
An outcome of an experiment is a single result of that experiment.

Experiment 1 A coin is tossed and it lands with either heads (H) or tails (T) facing up-
wards. An example outcome of tossing a coin is that it lands with heads facing up:
Experiment 2 Two dice are rolled and the total number of dots added up. An example
outcome of rolling two dice:
Experiment 3 Two teams play a soccer match and we are interested in the final score. An
example outcome of a soccer match:
(Picture by apasciuto on Flickr.com)
DEFINITION: Sample space
The sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes of

that experiment. The sample space is denoted with the symbol S and the
size of the sample space (the total number of possible outcomes) is denoted
with n(S).
Even though we are usually interested in the outcome of an experiment, we also need to
know what the other outcomes could have been. Let’s have a look at the sample spaces
of each of our three experiments.
Experiment 1 Since a coin can land in one of only two ways (we will ignore the possi-
bility that the coin lands on its edge), the sample space is the set S = {H; T}. The size of

the sample space of the coin toss is n(S) = 2:
H T
Experiment 2 Each of the dice can land on a number from 1 to 6. In this experiment the
sample space of all possible outcomes is every possible combination of the 6 numbers on
the first die with the 6 numbers on the second die. This gives a total of n(S) = 6 × 6 = 36
possible outcomes. The figure below shows all of the outcomes in the sample space of
rolling two dice:
Experiment 3 Each soccer team can get an integer score from 0 upwards. Usually we
don’t expect a score to go much higher than 5 goals, but there is no reason why this can-
not happen. So the sample space of this experiment consists of all possible combinations
of two non-negative integers. The figure below shows all of the possibilities. Since we
do not limit the score of a team, this sample space is infinitely large:

S
0–0 1–0 2–0 3 – 0 ···
0–1 1–1 2–1 3 – 1 ···
0–2 1–2 2–2 3 – 2 ···
0–3 1–3 2–3 3–3

.. .. .. ..
. . . .
DEFINITION: Event
An event is a specific set of outcomes of an experiment that you are inter-

ested in. An event is denoted with the letter E and the number of outcomes
in the event with n(E).
Experiment 1 Let’s say that we would like the coin to land heads up. Here the event
contains a single outcome: E = {H}, n(E) = 1.
Experiment 2 Let’s say that we are interested in the sum of the dice being 8. In this case
the event set is E = {( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( )} since it contains all of the
possible ways to get 8 dots with 2 dice. The size of the event set is n(E) = 5.
Experiment 3 We would like to know whether the first team will win. For this event to
happen the first score must be greater than the second.
E = {(1; 0); (2; 0); (2; 1); (3; 0); (3; 1); (3; 2); . . .}
This event set is infinitely large.

CHAPTER 10. PROBABILITY 10.1
10.1 Theoretical probability EMADQ
DEFINITION: Probability
A probability is a real number between 0 and 1 that describes how likely it

is that an event will occur.
It can also be described as a percentage (a probability of 0,75 can be written as 75% ) or

as fraction (0,75 can also be written as 34 ).
• A probability of 0 means that an event will never occur.
• A probability of 1 means that an event will always occur.
• A probability of 0,5 means that an event will occur half the time, or 1 time out of
every 2.
When all of the possible outcomes of an experiment have an equal chance of occurring,
we can compute the exact theoretical probability of an event. The probability of an event
is the ratio between the number of outcomes in the event set and the number of possible
outcomes in the sample space.
n(E)
P (E) =
n(S)
Video: VMbzp at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 1: Theoretical probabilities
QUESTION
What is the theoretical probability of each of the events in the first two of our three
experiments?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Write down the value of n(S)

10.1 CHAPTER 10. PROBABILITY
Experiment 1 (coin): n(S) = 2

Experiment 2 (dice): n(S) = 36
Step 2 : Write down the size of the event set

Experiment 1: n(E) = 1
Experiment 2: n(E) = 5
Step 3 : Compute the theoretical probability

n(E) 1
Experiment 1: P (E) = = = 0,5
n(S) 2
n(E) 5
Experiment 2: P (E) = = = 0,138̇
n(S) 36
Note that we do not consider the theoretical probability of the third experiment. The third
experiment is different from the first two in an important way, namely that all possible
outcomes (all final scores) are not equally likely. For example, we know that a soccer
score of 1–1 is quite common, while a score of 11–15 is very, very rare. Because all
outcomes are not equally likely, we cannot use the ratio between n(E) and n(S) to
compute the theoretical probability of a team winning.
Exercise 10 - 1
1. A bag contains 6 red, 3 blue, 2 green and 1 white balls. A ball is picked
at random. Determine the probability that it is:
(a) red
(b) blue or white
(c) not green
(d) not green or red
2. A playing card is selected randomly from a pack of 52 cards. Determine

the probability that it is:
(a) the 2 of hearts
(b) a red card
(c) a picture card
(d) an ace

(e) a number less than 4
3. Even numbers from 2 to 100 are written on cards. What is the probability
of selecting a multiple of 5, if a card is drawn at random?
(1.) 00id (2.) 00ie (3.) 00if
10.2 Relative frequency EMADR
DEFINITION: Relative frequency
The relative frequency of an event is defined as the number of times that

the event occurs during experimental trials, divided by the total number of
trials conducted.
The relative frequency is not a theoretical quantity, but an experimental one. We have to
repeat an experiment a number of times and count how many times the outcome of the
trial is in the event set. Because it is experimental, it is possible to get a different relative
frequency every time that we repeat an experiment.
Video: VMbzy at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 2: Relative frequency and theoretical probability
QUESTION
We toss a coin 30 times and observe the outcomes. The results of the trials are
shown in the table below.

trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
outcome H T T T H T H H H T
trial 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
outcome H T T H T T T H T T
trial 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
outcome H H H T H T H T T T
What is the relative frequency of observing heads after each trial and how does it
compare to the theoretical probability of observing heads?
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Count the number of positive outcomes

A positive outcome is when the outcome is in our event set. The
table below shows a running count (after each trial t) of the number
of positive outcomes p we have observed. For example, after t = 20
trials we have observed heads 8 times and tails 12 times and so the
positive outcome count is p = 8.
t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
p 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5
t 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
p 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8
t 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
p 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 13
Step 2 : Compute the relative frequency

Since the relative frequency is defined as the ratio between the num-
ber of positive trials and the total number of trials,
p
f=
t

The relative frequency of observing heads, f , after having completed

t coin tosses is:
t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f 1,00 0,50 0,33 0,25 0,40 0,33 0,43 0,50 0,56 0,50
t 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
f 0,55 0,50 0,46 0,50 0,47 0,44 0,41 0,44 0,42 0,40
t 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
f 0,43 0,45 0,48 0,46 0,48 0,46 0,48 0,46 0,45 0,43
From the last entry in this table we can now easily read the relative
frequency after 30 trials, namely 13/30 = 0,43̇. The relative frequency
is close to the theoretical probability of 0,5. In general, the relative
frequency of an event tends to get closer to the theoretical probability
of the event as we perform more trials.
A much better way to summarise the table of relative frequencies is

in a graph:
1.0
0.8
0.6
f
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
t
The graph above is the plot of the relative frequency of observing

heads, f , after having completed t coin tosses. It was generated from
the table of numbers above by plotting the number of trials that have
been completed, t, on the x-axis and the relative frequency, f , on the
y-axis. In the beginning (after a small number of trials) the relative

frequency fluctuates a lot around the theoretical probability at 0,5,

which is shown with a dashed line. As the number of trials increases,
the relative frequency fluctuates less and gets closer to the theoretical
probability.
Example 3: Relative frequency and theoretical probability
QUESTION
While watching 10 soccer games where Team 1 plays against Team 2, we record
the following final scores:
Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Team 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 5 3
Team 2 0 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0
What is the relative frequency of Team 1 winning?
SOLUTION
In this experiment, each trial takes the form of Team 1 playing a soccer match
against Team 2.
Step 1 : Count the number of positive outcomes

We are interested in the event where Team 1 wins. From the table
above we see that this happens 3 times.
Step 2 : Compute the relative frequency

The total number of trials is 10. This means that the relative fre-
quency of the event is
3
= 0,3
10

It is important to understand the difference between the theoretical probability of an event

and the observed relative frequency of the event in experimental trials. The theoretical
probability is a number that we can compute if we have enough information about the
experiment. If each possible outcome in the sample space is equally likely, we can count
the number of outcomes in the event set and the number of outcomes in the sample
space to compute the theoretical probability.
The relative frequency depends on the sequence of outcomes that we observe while
doing a statistical experiment. The relative frequency can be different every time we redo
the experiment. The more trials we run during an experiment, the closer the observed
relative frequency of an event will get to the theoretical probability of the event.
So why do we need statistical experiments if we have theoretical probabilities? In some

cases, like our soccer experiment, it is difficult or impossible to compute the theoretical
probability of an event. Since we do not know exactly how likely it is that one soccer
team will score goals against another, we can never compute the theoretical probability
of events in soccer. In such cases we can still use the relative frequency to estimate
the theoretical probability, by running experiments and counting the number of positive
outcomes.
10.3 Venn diagrams EMADS
A Venn diagram is a graphical way of representing the relationships between sets. In each
Venn diagram a set is represented by a closed curve. The region inside the curve repre-
sents the elements that belong to the set, while the region outside the curve represents
the elements that are excluded from the set.
Venn diagrams are helpful for thinking about probability since we deal with different
sets. Consider two events, A and B, in a sample space S. The diagram below shows the
possible ways in which the event sets can overlap, represented using Venn diagrams:

S S S
B A
A B
A
B
The sets are represented using a rectangle for S and circles for each of A and B. In the
first diagram the two events overlap partially. In the second diagram the two events do
not overlap at all. In the third diagram one event is fully contained in the other. Note
that events will always appear inside the sample space since the sample space contains
all possible outcomes of the experiment.
Video: VMcbf at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 4: Venn diagrams
QUESTION
Represent the sample space of two rolled dice and the following two events using
a Venn diagram:
Event A: the sum of the dice equals 8
Event B: at least one of the dice shows
SOLUTION
S
B

Example 5: Venn diagrams
QUESTION
Consider the set of diamonds removed from a deck of cards. A random card is
selected from the set of diamonds.
• Write down the sample space, S, for the experiment.
• What is the value of n(S)?
• Consider the following two events:
· P : An even diamond is chosen

· R: A royal diamond is chosen
Represent sample space S and events P and R using a Venn diagram.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Write down the sample space S
S = {A; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; J; Q; K}
Step 2 : Write down the value of n(S)
n(S) = 13
Step 3 : Draw the Venn diagram

R S
P K
2 J
Q
4 6 A
8 10 5
3
9
7
Exercise 10 - 2
1. Let S denote the set of whole numbers from 1 to 16, X denote the set
of even numbers from 1 to 16 and Y denote the set of prime numbers
from 1 to 16. Draw a Venn diagram depicting S, X and Y .
2. There are 79 Grade 10 learners at school. All of these take some com-
bination of Maths, Geography and History. The number who take Ge-
ography is 41, those who take History is 36, and 30 take Maths. The
number who take Maths and History is 16; the number who take Geog-
raphy and History is 6, and there are 8 who take Maths only and 16 who
take History only.
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate all this information.
(b) How many learners take Maths and Geography but not History?
(c) How many learners take Geography only?
(d) How many learners take all three subjects?
3. Pieces of paper labelled with the numbers 1 to 12 are placed in a box

and the box is shaken. One piece of paper is taken out and then re-
placed.
(a) What is the sample space, S?
(b) Write down the set A, representing the event of taking a piece of
paper labelled with a factor of 12.
(c) Write down the set B, representing the event of taking a piece of
paper labelled with a prime number.
(d) Represent A, B and S by means of a Venn diagram.
(e) Find
i. n (S)

ii. n (A)
iii. n (B)
(1.) 00ig (2.) 00ih (3.) 00ii
10.4 Union and intersection EMADT
DEFINITION: Union
The union of two sets is a new set that contains all of the elements that are
in at least one of the two sets. The union is written as A ∪ B.
DEFINITION: Intersection
The intersection of two sets is a new set that contains all of the elements
that are in both sets. The intersection is written as A ∩ B.
The figure below shows the union and intersection for different configurations of two
events in a sample space, using Venn diagrams.

S S S
B A
A B
B
A
S S S
A∪B
A∪B
A∪B
S S S
A∩B
A∩B
The unions and intersections of different events. Note that in the middle column the
intersection, A ∩ B, is empty since the two sets do not overlap. In the final column the
union, A ∪ B, is equal to A and the intersection, A ∩ B, is equal to B since B is fully
contained in A.
Video: VMcci at www.everythingmaths.co.za
10.5 Probability identities EMADU
P (S) = 1
By definition, the sample space contains all possible outcomes of an experiment. So we

know that the probability of observing an outcome from the sample space is 1.
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)
We will prove this identity using the Venn diagrams given above. For each of the 4 terms

in the union and intersection identity, we can draw the Venn diagram and then add and
subtract the different diagrams. The area of a region represents its probability. We will
do this for the first column of the Venn diagram figure given previously. You should also
try it for the other columns.
P (A) + P (B) − P (A∩B)

!
= + −
= +
= P (A∪B)
Example 6: Union and intersection of events
QUESTION
Relate the probabilities of events A and B from Example 4 (two rolled dice) and
show that they satisfy the identity
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B).
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Write down the probabilities of the two events, their union and their
intersection
From the Venn diagram in Example 4, we can count the number
of outcomes in each event. To get the probability of an event, we
divide the size of the event by the size of the sample space, which is

n(S) = 36.
n(A) 5
P (A) = =
n(S) 36
n(B) 11
P (B) = =
n(S) 36
n(A ∩ B) 2
P (A ∩ B) = =
n(S) 36
n(A ∪ B) 14
P (A ∪ B) = =
n(S) 36
Step 2 : Write down and check the identity
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)
14 5 11 2
= + −
36 36 36 36
5 9
= +
36 36
14
=
36
10.6 Mutually exclusive events EMADV
DEFINITION: Mutually exclusive events
Two events are called mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same
time. Whenever an outcome of an experiment is in the first event it can not
also be in the second event, and vice versa.
Another way of saying this is that the two event sets, A and B, cannot have any elements
in common, or P (A ∩ B) = ∅ (where ∅ denotes the empty set). We have already seen the
Venn diagrams of mutually exclusive events in the middle column of the Venn diagrams

provided on page 336.
S S A ∩ BS
B
A A∪B
From this figure you can see that the intersection has no elements. You can also see that
the probability of the union is the sum of the probabilities of the events.
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B)
This relationship is true for mutually exclusive events only.
Example 7: Mutually exclusive events
QUESTION
We roll two dice and are interested in the following two events:
A : The sum of the dice equals 8
B : At least one of the dice shows
Show that the events are mutually exclusive.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Draw the sample space and the two events

Step 2 : Determine the intersection

From the above figure we notice that there are no elements in com-
mon in A and B. Therefore the events are mutually exclusive.
10.7 Complementary events EMADW
DEFINITION: Complementary set
The complement of a set, A, is a different set that contains all of the ele-
ments that are not in A. We write the complement of A as A0 , or sometimes
as “not (A)”.
For an experiment with sample space S and an event A we can derive some identities
for complementary events. Since every element in A is not in A0 , we know that comple-
mentary events are mutually exclusive.
A ∩ A0 = ∅
Since every element in the sample space is either in A or in A0 , the union of complemen-

tary events covers the sample space.
A ∪ A0 = S
From the previous two identities, we also know that the probabilities of complementary
events sum to 1.
P (A) + P (A0 ) = P (A ∪ A0 ) = P (S) = 1
Video: VMcdl at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 8: Reasoning with Venn diagrams
QUESTION
In a survey 70 people were questioned about which product they use: A or B or

both. The report of the survey shows that 25 people use product A, 35 people use
product B and 15 people use neither. Use a Venn diagram to work out how many
people
1. use product A only
2. use product B only
3. use both product A and product B
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Summarise the sizes of the sample space, the event sets, their union
and their intersection
• We are told that 70 people were questioned, so the size of
the sample space is n(S) = 70.
• We are told that 25 people use product A, so n(A) = 25.
• We are told that 35 people use product B, so n(B) = 35.
• We are told that 15 people use neither product. This means
that 70−15 = 55 people use at least one of the two products,
so n(A ∪ B) = 55.

• We are not told how many people use both products, so we

have to work out the size of the intersection, A∩B, by using
the identity
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)
n(A ∪ B) n(A) n(B) n(A ∩ B)
= + −
n(S) n(S) n(S) n(S)
55 25 35 n(A ∩ B)
= + −
70 70 70 70
∴ n(A ∩ B) = 25 + 35 − 55
=5
Step 2 : Determine whether the events are mutually exclusive

Since the intersection of the events, A ∩ B, is not empty, the events
are not mutually exclusive. This means that their circles should over-
lap in the Venn diagram.
Step 3 : Draw the Venn diagram and fill in the numbers
A B
20 5 30
15
Step 4 : Read off the answers
1. 20 people use product A only.
2. 30 people use product B only.
3. 5 people use both products.

Exercise 10 - 3
1. A box contains coloured blocks. The number of each colour is given in

the following table.
Colour Purple Orange White Pink
Number of blocks 24 32 41 19
A block is selected randomly. What is the probability that the block will
be:
(a) purple
(b) purple or white
(c) pink and orange
(d) not orange?
2. A small school has a class with children of various ages. The table gives
the number of pupils of each age in the class.
3 years old 4 years old 5 years old
Male 2 7 6
Female 6 5 4
If a pupil is selected at random what is the probability that the pupil will
be:
(a) a female
(b) a 4 year old male
(c) aged 3 or 4
(d) aged 3 and 4
(e) not 5
(f) either 3 or female?
3. Fiona has 85 labelled discs, which are numbered from 1 to 85. If a disc
is selected at random what is the probability that the disc number:
(a) ends with 5
(b) is a multiple of 3
(c) is a multiple of 6
(d) is number 65
(e) is not a multiple of 5
(f) is a multiple of 4 or 3

(g) is a multiple of 2 and 6

(h) is number 1?
(1.) 00in (2.) 00ip (3.) 00iq
Chapter 10 | Summary
Summary presentation: VMdve at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• An experiment refers to an uncertain process.
• An outcome of an experiment is a single result of that experiment.
• The sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes of that exper-
iment. The sample space is denoted with the symbol S and the size of the sample
space (the total number of possible outcomes) is denoted with n(S).
• An event is a specific set of outcomes of an experiment that you are interested in.
An event is denoted with the letter E and the number of outcomes in the event
with n(E).
• A probability is a real number between 0 and 1 that describes how likely it is that
an event will occur.
· A probability of 0 means that an event will never occur.

· A probability of 1 means that an event will always occur.
· A probability of 0,5 means that an event will occur half the time, or 1 time out
of every 2.
• A probability can also be written as a percentage or as a fraction.
• The relative frequency of an event is defined as the number of times that the event
occurs during experimental trials, divided by the total number of trials conducted.
• The union of two sets is a new set that contains all of the elements that are in at
least one of the two sets. The union is written as A ∪ B.
• The intersection of two sets is a new set that contains all of the elements that are in
both sets. The intersection is written as A ∩ B.

• The probability of sample space: P (S) = 1.
• Union and intersection: P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B).
• Mutually exclusive events are two events that cannot occur at the same time. When-
ever an outcome of an experiment is in the first event, it can not also be in the
second event.
• The complement of a set, A, is a different set that contains all of the elements that
are not in A. We write the complement of A as A0 , or sometimes as “not(A)”.
• Complementary events are mutually exclusive: A ∩ A0 = ∅.
• Complementary events cover the sample space: A ∪ A0 = S.
• Probabilities of complementary events sum to 1: P (A) + P (A0 ) = P (A ∪ A0 ) =

P (S) = 1.
1. A group of 45 children were asked if they eat Frosties and/or Strawberry

Pops. 31 eat both and 6 eat only Frosties. What is the probability that a
child chosen at random will eat only Strawberry Pops?
2. In a group of 42 pupils, all but 3 had a packet of chips or a Fanta or both.

If 23 had a packet of chips and 7 of these also had a Fanta, what is the
probability that one pupil chosen at random has:
(a) both chips and Fanta
(b) only Fanta
3. Use a Venn diagram to work out the following probabilities for a die
being rolled:
(a) a multiple of 5 and an odd number
(b) a number that is neither a multiple of 5 nor an odd number
(c) a number which is not a multiple of 5, but is odd
4. A packet has yellow and pink sweets. The probability of taking out a
7
pink sweet is 12 . What is the probability of taking out a yellow sweet?
5. In a car park with 300 cars, there are 190 Opels. What is the probability
that the first car to leave the car park is:
(a) an Opel
(b) not an Opel

6. Tamara has 18 loose socks in a drawer. Eight of these are orange and
two are pink. Calculate the probability that the first sock taken out at
random is:
(a) orange
(b) not orange
(c) pink
(d) not pink
(e) orange or pink
(f) neither orange nor pink
7. A plate contains 9 shortbread cookies, 4 ginger biscuits, 11 chocolate

chip cookies and 18 Jambos. If a biscuit is selected at random, what is
the probability that:
(a) it is either a ginger biscuit of a Jambo
(b) it is not a shortbread cookie
8. 280 tickets were sold at a raffle. Ingrid bought 15 tickets. What is the
probability that Ingrid:
(a) wins the prize
(b) does not win the prize
9. The children in a nursery school were classified by hair and eye colour.
44 had red hair and not brown eyes, 14 had brown eyes and red hair, 5
had brown eyes but not red hair and 40 did not have brown eyes or red
hair.
(a) How many children were in the school?
(b) What is the probability that a child chosen at random has:
i. brown eyes
ii. red hair
(c) A child with brown eyes is chosen randomly. What is the probabil-
ity that this child will have red hair?
10. A jar has purple, blue and black sweets in it. The probability that a
1
sweet chosen at random will be purple is 7 and the probability that it
3
will be black is 5.
(a) If I choose a sweet at random what is the probability that it will be:
i. purple or blue
ii. black
iii. purple
(b) If there are 70 sweets in the jar how many purple ones are there?
2
(c) 5 of the purple sweets in (b) have streaks on them and the rest do
not. How many purple sweets have streaks?

11. For each of the following, draw a Venn diagram to represent the situation
and find an example to illustrate the situation.
(a) a sample space in which there are two events that are not mutually
exclusive
(b) a sample space in which there are two events that are complemen-
tary
12. Use a Venn diagram to prove that the probability of either event A or B
occurring (A and B are not mutually exclusive) is given by:
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)
13. All the clubs are taken out of a pack of cards. The remaining cards
are then shuffled and one card chosen. After being chosen, the card is
replaced before the next card is chosen.
(a) What is the sample space?
(b) Find a set to represent the event, P , of drawing a picture card.
(c) Find a set for the event, N , of drawing a numbered card.
(d) Represent the above events in a Venn diagram.
(e) What description of the sets P and N is suitable? (Hint: Find any
elements of P in N and of N in P ).
14. A survey was conducted at Mutende Primary School to establish how

many of the 650 learners buy vetkoek and how many buy sweets during
break. The following was found:
• 50 learners bought nothing
• 400 learners bought vetkoek
• 300 learners bought sweets
(a) Represent this information with a Venn diagram
(b) If a learner is chosen randomly, calculate the probability that this
learner buys:
i. sweets only
ii. vetkoek only
iii. neither vetkoek nor sweets
iv. vetkoek and sweets
v. vetkoek or sweets
15. In a survey at Lwandani’s Secondary School 80 people were questioned

to find out how many read the Sowetan and how many read the Daily
Sun newspaper or both. The survey revealed that 45 read the Daily Sun,
30 read the Sowetan and 10 read neither. Use a Venn diagram to find
the percentage of people that read:

(a) Only the Daily Sun

(b) Only the Sowetan
(c) Both the Daily Sun and the Sowetan
(1.) 00ir (2a-b.) 00is (3a-c.) 023q (4.) 023r (5a-b.) 00mp (6a-f.) 023s
(7a-b.) 023t (8a-b.) 023u (9a-c.) 023v (10a-c.) 00mq (11a-b.) 023w (12.) 023x
(13a-e.) 00it (14a-c.) 023i (15a-c.) 02sn

Euclidean geometry 11
CHAPTER 11. EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
Geometry (from the Greek “geo” = earth and “metria” = measure) arose as the field
of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. Geometry can be split into Euclidean
geometry and analytical geometry. Analytical geometry deals with space and shape using
algebra and a coordinate system. Euclidean geometry deals with space and shape using
a system of logical deductions.
Video: VMchw at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Angles EMADX
An angle is formed when two straight lines meet at a point, also known as a vertex.
Angles are labelled with a caret on a letter, for example, B̂. Angles can also be labelled
according to the line segments that make up the angle, for example, C B̂A or AB̂C. The
∠ symbol is a short method of writing angle in geometry and is often used for phrases
such as “sum of ∠s in a 4”. Angles are measured in degrees which is denoted by ◦ , a
small circle raised above the text, similar to an exponent.
B
A
Properties and notation EMADY
In the diagram below two straight lines intersect at a point, forming the four angles â, b̂,
ˆ
ĉ and d.

b a
c
d
The following table summarises the different types of angles, with examples from the
figure above.
Term Property Examples
Acute angle 0◦ < angle < 90◦ â; ĉ
Right angle Angle = 90◦
Obtuse angle 90◦ < angle < 180◦ b̂; dˆ
Straight angle Angle = 180◦ â + b̂; b̂ + ĉ
Reflex angle 180◦ < angle < 360◦ â + b̂ + ĉ
Adjacent angles Angles that share a ver- ˆ ĉ and dˆ

â and d;
tex and a common side.
Vertically opposite Angles opposite each â = ĉ; b̂ = dˆ

angles other when two lines in-
tersect. They share a ver-
tex and are equal.
Supplementary Two angles that add up â + b̂ = 180◦ ; b̂ + ĉ =

angles to 180◦ . 180◦
Complementary an- Two angles that add up

gles to 90◦ .
Revolution The sum of all angles â + b̂ + ĉ + dˆ = 360◦

around a point.
Note that adjacent angles on a straight line are supplementary.

Parallel lines and transversal lines EMADZ
Two lines intersect if they cross each other at a point. For example, at a traffic intersection
two or more streets intersect; the middle of the intersection is the common point between
the streets. Parallel lines are always the same distance apart and they are denoted by
arrow symbols as shown below.
O B
M D
A P
C N
In writing we use two vertical lines to indicate that two lines are parallel:
AB k CD and M N k OP
A transversal line intersects two or more parallel lines. In the diagram below, AB k CD
and EF is a transversal line.
F
h
g
C D
a
b
d
c
A B
e
f
E
The properties of the angles formed by these intersecting lines are summarised in the
following table:

Name of an- Definition Examples Notes

gle
Interior an- Angles that lie in be- â, b̂, ĉ and dˆ are in- Interior means
gles tween the parallel lines. terior angles. inside.
Exterior Angles that lie outside ê, fˆ, ĝ and ĥ are Exterior means
angles the parallel lines. exterior angles. outside.
Corresponding Angles on the same side â and ê, b̂ and

angles of the lines and the same fˆ, ĉ and ĝ, dˆ
side of the transversal. and ĥ are pairs of
F shape
If the lines are paral- corresponding an-
lel, the corresponding gles. â = ê, b̂ = fˆ,
angles will be equal. ĉ = ĝ, dˆ = ĥ.
Co-interior Angles that lie in be- ˆ b̂ and

â and d,
angles tween the lines and on ĉ are pairs of
the same side of the co-interior angles. C shape
transversal. If the lines â + dˆ = 180◦ ,
are parallel, the angles b̂ + ĉ = 180◦ .
are supplementary.
Alternate in- Equal interior angles that â and ĉ, b̂ and

terior angles lie inside the line and dˆ are pairs of al-
on opposite sides of the ternate interior an- Z shape
transversal. If the lines ˆ
gles. â = ĉ, b̂ = d.
are parallel, the interior
angles will be equal.
If two lines are intersected by a transversal such that
• corresponding angles are equal; or

• alternate interior angles are equal; or
• co-interior angles are supplementary
then the two lines are parallel.

Example 1: Finding angles
QUESTION
Find all the unknown angles. Is EF k CG? Explain your answer.

D
p
B F
r
y
60◦
E
160◦
x
s
A C G
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use the properties of parallel lines to find all equal angles on the
diagram
Step 2 : Determine the unknown angles
AB k CD (given)
∴ x̂ = 60◦ (alt. int. ∠’s)
ŷ + 160◦ = 180◦ (co-int. ∠’s)
∴ ŷ = 20◦
p̂ = ŷ (vert. opp. ∠’s)
∴ p̂ = 20◦
r̂ + p̂ = 180◦ (sum of ∠’s str. line)
∴ r̂ = 160◦

ŝ + x̂ = 90◦ (given)
ŝ + 60◦ = 90◦
∴ ŝ = 30◦
Step 3 : Determine whether EF k CG

If EF k CG then p̂ will be equal to corresponding angle ŝ, but
p̂ = 20◦ and ŝ = 30◦ . Therefore EF is not parallel to CG.
Exercise 11 - 1
1. Use adjacent, corresponding, co-interior and alternate angles to fill in

all the angles labelled with letters in the diagram:
a 42◦
b c
d e
g f
2. Find all the unknown angles in the figure:

E
A
1
1
B 70◦ 2
F
3
1
2
C 3
2
1 G
3
80◦
D 1 H

3. Find the value of x in the figure:
A D
X
x
60◦ x − 20◦
Y
Z
B C
4. Determine whether the pairs of lines in the following figures are parallel:
(a) O Q
S
1 115◦
2
3
A
55◦
2
B1 3
T
P
R
(b) M
O
K
Q 1 2 2 45◦ R
3 1
124◦ 3
L

(c) K
T 3 2
Y
95◦ 1
M 2 1 N
3
85◦
L
5. If AB is parallel to CD and AB is parallel to EF , explain why CD must
be parallel to EF .
C
D
A B
E F
(1.) 00gi (2.) 00gj (3.) 00gk (4.) 00gm (5.) 00gn
Classification of triangles EMAEA
A triangle is a three-sided polygon. Triangles can be classified according to sides or

according to angles: equilateral, isosceles and scalene, acute-angled, obtuse-angled and
right-angled.
We use the notation 4ABC to refer to a triangle with corners labelled A, B, and C.
Video: VMciu at www.everythingmaths.co.za

Name Diagram Properties
All sides and angles are differ-

Scalene C
ent.
B
Two sides are equal in length.

Isosceles The angles opposite the equal
sides are also equal.
C B
A
60◦
All three sides are equal in
Equilateral length and all three angles are
C
60◦ 60◦
B equal.
C Each of the three interior an-

Acute
gles is less than 90◦ .
B
One interior angle is greater

Obtuse
B than 90◦ .
C
B
hy
po
ten
Right-angled One interior angle is 90◦ .

us
e
A C

Different combinations of these properties are also possible. For example, an obtuse
isosceles triangle and a right-angled isosceles triangle are shown below:
obtuse isosceles
right-angled isosceles
Investigation: Interior angles of a triangle
b c
1. On a piece of paper draw a triangle of any size and shape.

2. Cut it out and label the angles â, b̂ and ĉ on both sides of the paper.
3. Draw dotted lines as shown and cut along these lines to get three pieces of
paper.
4. Place them along your ruler as shown in the figure below.
5. What can we conclude?
Hint: What is the sum of angles on a straight line?
b
a c

Investigation: Exterior angles of a triangle
b c
1. On a piece of paper draw a triangle of any size and shape. On another piece
of paper, make a copy of the triangle.
2. Cut both out and label the angles of both triangles â, b̂ and ĉ on both sides of
the paper.
3. Draw dotted lines on one triangle as shown and cut along the lines.
4. Place the second triangle and the cut out pieces as shown in the figure below.
5. What can we can conclude?
a
b c b
Congruency EMAEB
Two triangles are congruent if one fits exactly over the other. This means that the triangles
have equal corresponding angles and sides. To determine whether two triangles are
congruent, it is not necessary to check every side and every angle. The following table
describes the requirements for congruency:

Rule Description Diagram
RHS If the hypotenuse and one

(90◦ , hypotenuse, side of a right-angled triangle A D
side) are equal to the hypotenuse
and the corresponding side of B C E F
another right-angled triangle, 4ABC ≡ 4DEF
then the two triangles are con-
gruent.
SSS If three sides of a triangle are

(side, side, side) equal in length to the corre- P S
sponding sides of another tri-
angle, then the two triangles Q R T U
are congruent. 4P QR ≡ 4ST U
SAS If two sides and the included

(side, angle, side) angle of a triangle are equal F I
to the corresponding two sides
and included angle of another G H J K
triangle, then the two triangles 4F GH ≡ 4IJK
are congruent.
AAS If one side and two angles of

(angle, angle, side) a triangle are equal to the cor- U X
responding one side and two
angles of another triangle, then V W Y Z
the two triangles are congru- 4U V W ≡ 4XY Z
ent.
The order of letters when labelling congruent triangles is very important.
4ABC ≡ 4DEF
This notation indicates the following properties of the two triangles: Â = D̂, B̂ = Ê,
Ĉ = F̂ , AB = DE, AC = DF and BC = EF .

Similarity EMAEC
Two triangles are similar if one triangle is a scaled version of the other. This means that
their corresponding angles are equal in measure and the ratio of their corresponding sides
are in proportion. The two triangles have the same shape, but different scales. Congruent
triangles are similar triangles, but not all similar triangles are congruent. The following
table describes the requirements for similarity:
Rule Description Diagram
D
A a
If all three pairs of corre- a
AAA b
sponding angles of two b c c
(angle, angle, an- B C E F
triangles are equal, then
gle) Â = D̂, B̂ = Ê, Ĉ = F̂
the triangles are similar.
∴ 4ABC ||| 4DEF
M
R
If all three pairs of cor-
responding sides of two L T
SSS N S
triangles are in propor- MN ML NL
(side, side, side) RS = RT = ST
tion, then the triangles
∴ 4M N L ||| 4RST
are similar.
The order of letters for similar triangles is very important. Always label similar triangles
in corresponding order. For example,
4M N L ||| 4RST is correct; but

4M N L ||| 4RT S is incorrect.

The theorem of Pythagoras EMAED
A
b
c
B a C
If 4ABC is right-angled with B̂ = 90◦ , then b2 = a2 + c2 .

Converse: If b2 = a2 + c2 , then 4ABC is right-angled with B̂ = 90◦ .
Example 2: Triangles
QUESTION
Determine if the two triangles are congruent. Use the result to find x, ŷ and z.
D
3
B
x E
3
35◦
5
55◦ y
A z C
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Examine the information given for both triangles
Step 2 : Determine whether 4CDE ≡ 4CBA

In 4CDE,
D̂ + Ĉ + Ê = 180◦ (sum of ∠’s of 4)
90◦ + 35◦ + Ê = 180◦
∴ Ê = 55◦

In 4CDE and 4CBA,
DÊC = B ÂC = 55◦ (proved)
C D̂E = C B̂A = 90◦ (given)
DE = BA = 3 (given)
∴ 4CDE ≡ 4CBA (AAS)
Step 3 : Determine the unknown angles and sides

In 4CDE,
CE 2 = DE 2 + CD2 (Pythagoras)
52 = 32 + x2
x2 = 16
∴x=4
In 4CBA,
B̂ + Â + ŷ = 180◦ (sum of ∠’s of 4)
90◦ + 55◦ + ŷ = 180◦
∴ ŷ = 35◦
4CDE ≡ 4CBA (proved)
∴ CE = CA
∴z=5
Exercise 11 - 2
1. Calculate the unknown variables in each of the following figures.

N N
(a) N (b) (c)
x
x
30 ◦
y 36◦ 68◦ x 68◦ y

P O P O P O 68◦
N N
(d) 19 x (e)
116 R
P O x
15
76
P 20 O
N S
(f) R N R
14 (g) 15
12 x x
6 5
P 9
y S y
P O 21 T
O
2. State whether the following pairs of triangles are congruent or not. Give
reasons for your answers. If there is not enough information to make a
decision, explain why.
B B
E
(a) (b)
A C
A D
D
B E
(c) B
(d) E
C C
A D
B D
(e) A
b
A b
C

CHAPTER 11. EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 11.1
(1.) 00gp (2.) 00gq
11.1 Quadrilaterals EMAEE
DEFINITION: Quadrilateral
A quadrilateral is a closed shape consisting of four straight line segments.
Video: VMcjo at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Parallelogram EMAEF
DEFINITION: Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.

11.1 CHAPTER 11. EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
Example 3: Properties of a parallelogram
QUESTION
ABCD is a parallelogram with AB k DC and AD k BC. Show that:
1. AB = DC and AD = BC
2. Â = Ĉ and B̂ = D̂
A B
2
1
4
3
D C
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Connect AC to form 4ABC and 4CDA
Step 2 : Use properties of parallel lines to indicate all equal angles on the
diagram
Step 3 : Prove 4ABC ≡ 4CDA

In 4ABC and 4CDA,
Â2 = Ĉ3 (alt. int. ∠’s, AB k DC)
Ĉ4 = Â1 (alt. int. ∠’s, BC k AD)
AC is a common side
∴ 4ABC ≡ 4CDA (AAS)
∴ AB = CD and BC = DA
∴ Opposite sides of a parallelogram have equal length.

We have already shown Â2 = Ĉ3 and Â1 = Â4 . Therefore,
Â = Â1 + Â2 = Ĉ3 + Ĉ4 = Ĉ.

Furthermore,
B̂ = D̂ (4ABC ≡ 4CDA)
Therefore opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
Summary of the properties of a parallelogram:
• Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.

• Both pairs of opposite sides are equal in length.
• Both pairs of opposite angles are equal.
• Both diagonals bisect each other.
D b b
C
/ ///
/// /
A b b
B
Example 4: Proving a quadrilateral is a parallelogram
QUESTION
Prove that if both pairs of opposite angles in a quadrilateral are equal, the quadri-
lateral is a parallelogram.
W X
y x
x y
Z Y

SOLUTION
Step 1 : Find the relationship between x̂ and ŷ

In W XY Z
Ŵ = Ŷ = ŷ (given)
Ẑ = X̂ = x̂ (given)
Ŵ + X̂ + Ŷ + Ẑ = 360◦ (sum of int. ∠’s of quad.)
∴ 2x̂ + 2ŷ = 360◦
∴ x̂ + ŷ = 180◦
Ŵ + Ẑ = x̂ + ŷ
= 180◦
But these are co-interior angles between lines W X and ZY . There-

fore W X k ZY .
Step 2 : Find parallel lines

Similarly Ŵ + X̂ = 180◦ . These are co-interior angles between lines
XY and W Z. Therefore XY k W Z.
Both pairs of opposite sides of the quadrilateral are parallel, therefore
W XY Z is a parallelogram.
Investigation: Proving a quadrilateral is a parallelogram
1. Prove that if both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
2. Prove that if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadri-
lateral is a parallelogram.
3. Prove that if one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are both equal and
parallel, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if:

• Both pairs of opposite sides are equal.
• The diagonals bisect each other.
• One pair of opposite sides are both equal and parallel.
Exercise 11 - 3
1. Prove that the diagonals of parallelogram M N RS bisect one another at

P.
M N
S R
Hint: Use congruency.
(1.) 00gr
Rectangle EMAEG
DEFINITION: Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram that has all four angles equal to 90◦ .
A rectangle has all the properties of a parallelogram:


It also has the following special property:
Example 5: Special property of a rectangle
QUESTION
P QRS is a rectangle. Prove that the diagonals are of equal length.
P Q
S R
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Connect P to R and Q to S to form 4P SR and 4QRS
Step 2 : Use the definition of a rectangle to fill in on the diagram all equal
angles and sides
Step 3 : Prove 4P SR ≡ 4QRS

In 4P SR and 4QRS

P S = QR (equal opp. sides of rectangle)
SR is a common side
P ŜR = QR̂S = 90◦ (int. ∠ of rectangle)
∴ 4P SR ≡ 4QRS (RHS)
Therefore P R = QS
The diagonals of a rectangle are of equal length.
Summary of the properties of a rectangle:

• Both pairs of opposite sides are of equal length.
• Diagonals are equal in length.
• All interior angles are equal to 90◦ .
D b b
C
/ /
b
/ /
A b b
B
Exercise 11 - 4
1. ABCD is a quadrilateral. Diagonals AC and BD intersect at T . AC =

BD, AT = T C, DT = T B. Prove that:
(a) ABCD is a parallelogram.
(b) ABCD is a rectangle.

A B
D C
(1.) 00gs
Rhombus EMAEH
DEFINITION: Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram with all four sides of equal length.
A rhombus has all the properties of a parallelogram:

It also has two special properties:

Example 6: Special properties of a rhombus
QUESTION
XY ZT is a rhombus. Prove that:
1. the diagonals bisect each other perpendicularly;
2. the diagonals bisect the interior angles.

X
21
2 1 2 2
T 1 O
4 3 1
Y
1 2
Z
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use the definition of a rhombus to fill in on the diagram all equal
angles and sides
Step 2 : Prove 4XT O ≡ 4ZT O
XT = ZT (all sides equal for rhombus)
T O is a common side
XO = OZ (diag. of rhombus bisect)
∴ 4XT O ≡ 4ZT O (SSS)
∴ Ô1 = Ô4
But Ô1 + Ô4 = 180◦ (sum ∠’s on str. line)
∴ Ô1 = Ô4 = 90◦
We can further conclude that Ô1 = Ô2 = Ô3 = Ô4 = 90◦ .

Therefore the diagonals bisect each other perpendicularly.
Step 3 : Use properties of congruent triangles to prove diagonals bisect inte-

rior angles

X̂2 = Ẑ1 (4XT O ≡ 4ZT O)
and X̂2 = Ẑ2 (alt. int. ∠’s, XT k Y Z)
∴ Ẑ1 = Ẑ2
Therefore diagonal XZ bisects Ẑ. Similarly, we can show that XZ

also bisects X̂; and that diagonal T Y bisects T̂ and Ŷ .
We conclude that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect the interior an-
gles.
To prove a parallelogram is a rhombus, we need to show any one of the following:
• All sides are equal in length.

• Diagonals intersect at right angles.
• Diagonals bisect interior angles.
Summary of the properties of a rhombus:

• The diagonals bisect each other at 90◦ .
• The diagonals bisect both pairs of opposite angles.
D b
• x C
b
• /// x
/
//
/
x / •
•
A x b b
B

Square EMAEI
DEFINITION: Square
A square is a rhombus with all four interior angles equal to 90◦ .
OR
A square is a rectangle with all four sides equal in length.
A square has all the properties of a rhombus:

• The diagonals bisect each other at 90◦ .
• The diagonals bisect both pairs of opposite angles.
It also has the following special properties:
• All interior angles equal 90◦ .

• Diagonals are equal in length.
• Diagonals bisect both pairs of interior opposite angles (i.e. all are 45◦ ).
D b
• •
b
C
• •
/
/
b
/
/
• •
• •
A b b
B
To prove a parallelogram is a square, we need to show either one of the following:
• It is a rhombus (all four sides of equal length) with interior angles equal to 90◦ .
• It is a rectangle (interior angles equal to 90◦ ) with all four sides of equal length.

Trapezium EMAEJ
DEFINITION: Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
isosceles trapezium
Kite EMAEK
DEFINITION: Kite
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal.
Example 7: Properties of a kite
QUESTION
ABCD is a kite with AD = AB and CD = CB. Prove that:
1. AD̂C = AB̂C
2. Diagonal AC bisects Â and Ĉ

A
12
D O B
12
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Prove 4ADC ≡ 4ABC

In 4ADC and 4ABC,
AD = AB (given)
CD = CB (given)
AC is a common side
∴ 4ADC ≡ 4ABC (SSS)
∴ AD̂C = AB̂C
Therefore one pair of opposite angles are equal in kite ABCD.
Step 2 : Use properties of congruent triangles to prove AC bisects Â and Ĉ
Â1 = Â2 (4ADC ≡ 4ABC)
and Ĉ1 = Ĉ2 (4ADC ≡ 4ABC)
Therefore diagonal AC bisects Â and Ĉ.

We conclude that the diagonal between the equal sides of a kite bi-
sects the two interior angles and is an axis of symmetry.

Summary of the properties of a kite:
A
b b
D O B
xx
• Diagonal between equal sides bisects the other diagonal.

• One pair of opposite angles are equal (the angles between unequal sides).
• Diagonal between equal sides bisects the interior angles and is an axis of symmetry.
• Diagonals intersect at 90◦ .
Investigation: Relationships between the different quadrilaterals
Heather has drawn the following diagram to illustrate her understanding of the rela-
tionships between the different quadrilaterals. The following diagram summarises
the different types of special quadrilaterals.
Kite
Quadrilateral
Trapezium
s
bu Parallelogram
hom
R
Square Rectangle
1. Explain her possible reasoning for structuring the diagram as shown.

2. Design your own diagram to show the relationships between the different
quadrilaterals and write a short explanation of your design.

Exercise 11 - 5
1. Use the sketch of quadrilateral ABCD to prove the diagonals are per-
pendicular to each other.
B
A
b
x
b O x C
2. Explain why quadrilateral W XY Z is a kite. Write down all the proper-

ties of quadrilateral W XY Z.
X
1 2
5 4
6 3
Z
W Y
(1.) 00gt (2.) 00gu
11.2 The mid-point theorem EMAEL
Investigation: Proving the mid-point theorem
D E
B C
1. Draw a large scalene triangle on a sheet of paper.

2. Name the vertices A, B and C. Find the mid-points (D and E) of two sides

and connect them.

3. Cut out 4ABC and cut along line DE.
4. Place 4ADE on quadrilateral BDEC with vertex E on vertex C. Write
down your observations.
5. Shift 4ADE to place vertex D on vertex B. Write down your observations.
6. What do you notice about the lengths DE and BC?
7. Make a conjecture regarding the line joining the mid-point of two sides of a
triangle.
Example 8: Mid-point theorem
QUESTION
Prove that the line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to
the third side and equal to half the length of the third side.
D E
B C
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Extend DE to F so that DE = EF and join F C
D 1 E
2
F
B C
Step 2 : Prove BCF D is a parallelogram

In 4EAD and 4ECF :
Ê1 = Ê2 (vert. opp. ∠’s)
AE = CE (given)
DE = EF (by construction)
∴ 4EAD ≡ 4ECF (SAS)
∴ AD̂E = C F̂ E
But these are alternate interior angles, therefore BD k F C
BD = DA (given)
DA = F C (4EAD ≡ 4ECF )
∴ BD = F C
∴ BCF D is a parallelogram (one pair opp. sides = and k)
Therefore DE k BC.
We conclude that the line joining the two mid-points of two sides of
a triangle is parallel to the third side.
Step 3 : Use properties of parallelogram BCF D to prove that DE = 21 BC
DF = BC (opp. sides parm equal)
and DF = 2(DE) (by construction)
∴ 2DE = BC
∴ DE = 12 BC
We conclude that the line joining the mid-point of two sides of a

triangle is equal to half the length of the third side.
Converse
The converse of this theorem states: If a line is drawn through the mid-point of a side of
a triangle parallel to the second side, it will bisect the third side.

Exercise 11 - 6
1. Find x and y in the following:
(a) (b) 7
x x
7
(c) (d) P
40◦
6 Q 60◦ R
x
14
y
8 S x T
(e) 66◦
x
2,5 6,5
y
2. Show that M is the mid-point of AB and that M N = RC.
A
M N
B R C
3. ABCD is a rhombus with AM = M O and AN = N O. Prove AN OM

is also a rhombus.

A N B
2
1
M O
2
1
D C
(1.) 00gv (2.) 00gw (3.) 00mj
11.3 Proofs and conjectures EMAEM
You can use geometry and the properties of polygons to find unknown lengths and angles
in various quadrilaterals and triangles. The following worked example will help make this
clearer.
Video: VMckg at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 9: Proving a quadrilateral is a parallelogram
QUESTION
In parallelogram ABCD, the bisectors of the angles (AW , BX, CY and DZ)
have been constructed. You are also given AB = CD, AD = BC, AB k CD,
AD k BC, Â = Ĉ, and B̂ = D̂. Prove that M N OP is a parallelogram.
A Y B
b u
b 1 u
2 1 2
1
1
M 2 N
X 2 2 Z
P 2 O1
1 1
b
u
2 2 b
u 1
D W C

SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use properties of the parallelogram ABCD to fill in on the diagram

all equal sides and angles
Step 2 : Prove that M̂2 = Ô2

In 4CDZ and 4ABX,
DĈZ = B ÂX (given)
D̂1 = B̂1 (given)
DC = AB (given)
∴ 4CDZ ≡ 4ABX (AAS)
∴ CZ = AX
and C ẐD = AX̂B
In 4XAM and 4ZCO,

X ÂM = Z ĈO (given: 4CDZ ≡ 4ABX)
AX̂M = C ẐO (proved above)
AX = CZ (proved above)
∴ 4XAM ≡ 4ZCO (AAS)
∴ M̂1 = Ô1
but M̂1 = M̂2 (vert. opp. ∠’s)
and Ô1 = Ô2 (vert. opp. ∠’s)
∴ M̂2 = Ô2
Step 3 : Similarly, we can show that N̂2 = P̂2

First show 4ADW ≡ 4CBY . Then show 4P DW ≡ 4N BY .
Step 4 : Conclusion
Both pairs of opposite angles of M N OP are equal. Therefore
M N OP is a parallelogram.

Summary presentation: VMdml at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• A quadrilateral is a closed shape consisting of four straight line segments.

• A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
· Both pairs of opposite sides are equal in length.
· Both pairs of opposite angles are equal.
· Both diagonals bisect each other.
• A rectangle is a parallelogram that has all four angles equal to 90◦ .
· Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
· Both pairs of opposite sides are equal in length.
· The diagonals bisect each other.
· The diagonals are equal in length.
· All interior angles are equal to 90◦ .
• A rhombus is a parallelogram that has all four sides equal in length.
· All sides are equal in length.
· Both pairs of opposite angles are equal.
· The diagonals bisect each other at 90◦ .
· The diagonals of a rhombus bisect both pairs of opposite angles.
• A square is a rhombus that has all four interior angles equal to 90◦ .
· The diagonals bisect each other at 90◦ .
· All interior angles are equal to 90◦ .
· The diagonals are equal in length.
· The diagonals bisect both pairs of interior opposite angles (i.e. all are 45◦ ).
• A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
• A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal.
· One pair of opposite angles are equal (the angles are between unequal sides).
· The diagonal between equal sides bisects the other diagonal.
· The diagonal between equal sides bisects the interior angles.
· The diagonals intersect at 90◦ .

• The mid-point theorem: The line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and equal to half the length of the third side.
1. Identify the types of angles shown below:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f) An angle of 91◦
(g) An angle of 180◦ (h) An angle of 210◦
2. Assess whether the following statements are true or false. If the state-
ment is false, explain why:
(a) A trapezium is a quadrilateral with two pairs of opposite sides that
are parallel.
(b) Both diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
(c) A rectangle is a parallelogram that has one corner angles equal to
90◦ .
(d) Two adjacent sides of a rhombus have different lengths.
(e) The diagonals of a kite intersect at right angles.
(f) All squares are parallelograms.
(g) A rhombus is a kite with a pair of equal, opposite sides.
(h) The diagonals of a parallelogram are axes of symmetry.
(i) The diagonals of a rhombus are equal in length.
(j) Both diagonals of a kite bisect the interior angles.

3. Calculate x and y in the diagrams below:
(a) x (b)
x
15◦ 20◦
65◦
60◦
(c) y 25◦ (d)

15◦
x
2x x
(e) x (f) x
b
3x y
12 7,5 9
b
4. Find all the pairs of parallel lines in the following figures, giving reasons
in each case.
N
(a) A B (b) M 137◦ 57◦
62◦
62◦
D C
123◦ P
O
G H
120◦
(c)
60◦
K 60◦ L

5. Find angles a, b, c and d in each case, giving reasons:
K
P
(a) (b) 100 ◦
b A a B
Q L
a b
d c C D
M
S 73◦ c
R E F
d N
O
W
45◦
T
50◦ c
(c) d a
U
V
b
6. Say which of the following pairs of triangles are congruent with reasons.
A D
F
C E
(a) B
G
J L
I K
(b) H
P
N
Q R
(c) M O

U
R
S T
(d) Q
7. Using Pythagoras’ theorem for right-angled triangles, calculate the length

x:
x
3 cm
(a)
13 cm
5 cm
(b) x
2 cm
7 cm
x
(c)
A
25 mm
x
B D
7 mm C
(d) 39 mm
8. Consider the diagram below. Is 4ABC ||| 4DEF ? Give reasons for
your answer.
A
D 64
32
18 36
E F
B C

9. Explain why 4P QR is similar to 4T SR and calculate the values of x

and y.
P
6,1 S
4,8 30◦ y x
R
3,5
T
Q
10. Calculate a and b:
T
b
4
a
R S b
15 9
P Q
11. ABCD is a parallelogram with diagonal AC.

Given that AF = HC, show that:
(a) 4AF D ≡ 4CHB
(b) DF k HB
(c) DF BH is a parallelogram
A B
2
1
F
1 2
2 1
H
2 1
D C

12. 4P QR and 4P SR are equilateral triangles. Prove that P QRS is a

rhombus.
P Q
1 2
2
1
S R
13. Given parallelogram ABCD with AE and F C, AE bisecting Â and F C

bisecting Ĉ:
(a) Write all interior angles in terms of y.
(b) Prove that AF CE is a parallelogram.
A F B
y
D E C
14. Given that W Z = ZY = Y X, Ŵ = X̂ and W X k ZY , prove that:

(a) XZ bisects X̂
(b) W Y = XZ
W X
Z Y
15. LM N O is a quadrilateral with LM = LO and diagonals that intersect

at S such that M S = SO. Prove that:
(a) M L̂S = S L̂O
(b) 4LON ≡ 4LM N
(c) M O ⊥ LN

M O
S
16. Using the figure below, show that the sum of the three angles in a trian-
gle is 180◦ . Line DE is parallel to BC.
A
D E
d e
a
b c
B C
17. D is a point on BC, in 4ABC. N is the mid-point of AD. O is the

mid-point of AB and M is the mid-point of BD. N R k AC.
A
b
N
O b
C
R
b
D
M
B
(a) Prove that OBM N is a parallelogram.
(b) Prove that BC = 2M R.
18. P QR is an isosceles with P R = QR. S is the mid-point of P Q, T is the

mid-point of P R and U is the mid-point of RQ.

P S Q
T U
R
(a) Prove 4ST U is also isosceles.
(b) What type of quadrilateral is ST RU ? Motivate your answer.
(c) If RT̂ U = 68◦ calculate, with reasons, the size of T ŜU .
19. In 4M N P , M = 90◦ , S is the mid-point of M N and T is the mid-point

of N R.
M
S R
T
N P
U
(a) Prove U is the mid-point of N P .

(b) If ST = 4 cm and the area of 4SN T is 6 cm2 , calculate the area of
4M N R.
(c) Prove that the area of 4M N R will always be four times the area of
4SN T , let ST = x units and SN = y units.
(1.) 00gx (2.) 00gy (3.) 00gz (4.) 00h0 (5.) 00h1
(6.) 00h2 (7.) 00h3 (8.) 00h4 (9.) 00h5 (10.) 00h6
(11.) 00h7 (12.) 00h8 (13.) 00h9 (14.) 00ha (15.) 00hb
(16.) 00hc (17.) 023f (18.) 023g (19.) 023h

Measurements CHAPTER 12. MEASUREMENTS
12
This chapter examines the surface areas of two dimensional objects and volumes of three
dimensional objects, otherwise known as solids. In order to work with these objects, you
need to know how to calculate the surface area and perimeter of the two dimensional
shapes below.
Video: VMcmk at www.everythingmaths.co.za
12.1 Area of a polygon EMAEN
DEFINITION: Area
Area is the two dimensional space inside the boundary of a flat object. It is
measured in square units.
Name Shape Formula
s
Square Area = s2
s
h
Rectangle Area = b × h
b
h 1
Triangle Area = b × h
b 2

CHAPTER 12. MEASUREMENTS 12.1
Name Shape Formula
h 1
Trapezium Area = (a + b) × h
b 2
h
Parallelogram Area = b × h
b
r
b
Area = πr2
Circle
(Circumference = 2πr)
Video: VMdxu at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Video: VMdya at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Example 1: Finding the area of a polygon
QUESTION
Find the area of the following parallelogram:
B C
5 mm
A 3 mm E 4 mm D
SOLUTION

12.1 CHAPTER 12. MEASUREMENTS
Step 1 : Find the height BE of the parallelogram using the Theorem of

Pythagoras
AB 2 = BE 2 + AE 2
∴ BE 2 = AB 2 − AE 2
= 52 − 32
= 16
∴ BE = 4 mm
Step 2 : Find the area using the formula for a parallelogram
Area = b × h
= AD × BE
=7×4
= 28 mm2
Exercise 12 - 1
Find the areas of each of the polygons below:
1. 2. 3.
b
5 cm 5 cm
10 cm
10 cm 10 cm

4. 7 cm 3 cm 5. 6.
6 cm
10 cm
5 cm
12 cm 8 cm 5 cm
7. 8. 16 cm
10 cm 15 cm
9 cm 21 cm
(1 - 8.) 00hi
12.2 Right prisms and cylinders EMAEO
DEFINITION: Right prism
A right prism is a geometric solid that has a polygon as its base and vertical
sides perpendicular to the base. The base and top surface are the same
shape and size. It is called a “right” prism because the angles between the
base and sides are right angles.
A triangular prism has a triangle as its base, a rectangular prism has a rectangle as its
base, and a cube is a rectangular prism with all its sides of equal length. A cylinder is
another type of right prism which has a circle as its base.

Examples of right prisms are given below: a rectangular prism, a cube, a triangular prism
and a cylinder.
Video: VMcph at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Surface area of prisms and cylinders EMAEP
DEFINITION: Surface area
Surface area is the total area of the exposed or outer surfaces of a prism.
This is easier to understand if we imagine the prism to be a cardboard box that we can
unfold. A solid that is unfolded like this is called a net. When a prism is unfolded into
a net, we can clearly see each of its faces. In order to calculate the surface area of the
prism, we can then simply calculate the area of each face, and add them all together.
For example, when a triangular prism is unfolded into a net, we can see that it has two
faces that are triangles and three faces that are rectangles. To calculate the surface area of
the prism, we find the area of each triangle and each rectangle, and add them together. In
the case of a cylinder the top and bottom faces are circles and the curved surface flattens
into a rectangle with a length that is equal to the circumference of the circular base. To
calculate the surface area we therefore find the area of the two circles and the rectangle
and add them together.
Video: VMcre at www.everythingmaths.co.za

Below are examples of right prisms that have been unfolded into nets:
Rectangular prism
A rectangular prism unfolded into a net is made up of six rectangles.
Cube
A cube unfolded into a net is made up of six identical squares.

Triangular prism
A triangular prism unfolded into a net is made up of two triangles and three rectangles.
The sum of the lengths of the rectangles is equal to the perimeter of the triangles.
Cylinder
A cylinder unfolded into a net is made up of two identical circles and a rectangle with a
length equal to the circumference of the circles.
Example 2: Finding the surface area of a rectangular prism
QUESTION
Find the surface area of the following rectangular prism:

2 cm
5 cm 10 cm
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sketch and label the net of the prism
5 cm
2 cm 2 cm 5 cm
10 cm
Step 2 : Find the areas of the different shapes in the net
large rectangle = perimeter of small rectangle × length

= (2 + 5 + 2 + 5) × 10
= 14 × 10
= 140 cm2
2 × small rectangle = 2(5 × 2)

= 2(10)
= 20 cm2
Step 3 : Find the sum of the areas of the faces

large rectangle + 2 × small rectangle = 140 + 20 = 160 cm2 .


The surface area of the rectangular prism is 160 cm2 .
Example 3: Finding the surface area of a triangular prism
QUESTION
Find the surface area of the following triangular prism:
3 cm 12 cm
8 cm
SOLUTION
3 cm
8 cm
12 cm

Step 2 : Find the area of the different shapes in the net

To find the area of the rectangle, we need to calculate its length,
which is equal to the perimeter of the triangles.
To find the perimeter of the triangle, we have to first find the length
of its sides using the theorem of Pythagoras:
x
3 cm
8 cm
2
2 8 2
x =3 +
2
x2 = 32 + 42
= 25
∴ x = 5 cm
∴ perimeter of triangle = 5 + 5 + 8
= 18 cm
∴ area of large rectangle = perimeter of triangle × length

= 18 × 12
= 216 cm2
1
area of triangle = b × h
2
1
= ×8×3
2
= 12 cm2
Step 3 : Find the sum of the areas of the faces
surface area = area large rectangle + (2 × area of triangle)

= 216 + 2(12)
= 240 cm2

The surface area of the triangular prism is 240 cm2 .
Example 4: Finding the surface area of a cylindrical prism
QUESTION
Find the surface area of the following cylinder (correct to 1 decimal place):
10 cm
30 cm
SOLUTION
10 cm
30 cm
Step 2 : Find the area of the different shapes in the net

area of large rectangle = circumference of circle × length

= 2πr × l
= 2π(10) × 30
= 1 884,96 cm2
area of circle = πr2

= π102
= 314,16 cm2
surface area = area large rectangle + (2 × area of circle)

= 1 884,96 + 2(314,16)
= 2 513,28 cm2

The surface area of the cylinder is 2 513,28 cm2 .
Exercise 12 - 2
1. Calculate the surface area of the following prisms:

(a) (b)
10 cm
10 cm
5 cm
7 cm
6 cm
(c)
20 cm
5 cm
10 cm

2. If a litre of paint covers an area of 2 m2 , how much paint does a painter

need to cover:
(a) a rectangular swimming pool with dimensions 4 m × 3 m × 2,5 m
(the inside walls and floor only);
(b) the inside walls and floor of a circular reservoir with diameter 4 m
and height 2,5 m.
2,5 m
4m
(1.) 00hj (2.) 00hk
Volume of prisms and cylinders EMAEQ
DEFINITION: Volume
Volume is the three dimensional space occupied by an object, or the con-

tents of an object. It is measured in cubic units.
The volume of a right prism is simply calculated by multiplying the area of the base of a
solid by the height of the solid.
Video: VMcth at www.everythingmaths.co.za

h Volume = area of base × height

Rectangular
= area of rectangle × height
prism b
=l×b×h
l
Volume = area of base × height

Triangular = area of triangle × height
prism

H 1
h = b×h ×H
2
b
Volume = area of base × height

h
Cylinder = area of circle × height
r
= πr2 × h
Example 5: Finding the volume of a cube
QUESTION
Find the volume of the following cube:
3 cm
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Find the area of the base

area of square = s2
= 32
= 9 cm2
Step 2 : Multiply the area of the base by the height of the solid to find the
volume
volume = area of base × height

=9×3
= 27 cm3

The volume of the cube is 27 cm3 .
Example 6: Finding the volume of a triangular prism
QUESTION
Find the volume of the triangular prism:
10 cm 20 cm
8 cm
SOLUTION

1
area of triangle = b × h
2

1
= × 8 × 10
2
= 40 cm2
volume

1
= b×h×H
2
= 40 × 20
= 800 cm3

The volume of the triangular prism is 800 cm3 .
Example 7: Finding the volume of a cylindrical prism
QUESTION
Find the volume of the following cylinder (correct to 1 decimal place):
4 cm
15 cm

SOLUTION

= π(4)2
= 16π cm2
volume

= πr2 × h
= 16π × 15
= 754,0 cm3

The volume of the cylinder is 754,0 cm3 .
Exercise 12 - 3
Calculate the volumes of the following prisms (correct to 1 decimal place):

1. 2.
10 cm
20 cm
7 cm 5 cm
6 cm 10 cm
3.
10 cm
5 cm
(1.) 00hn (2.) 00hp (3.) 00hq
Right pyramids, right cones and

12.3 spheres
EMAER
DEFINITION: Pyramid
A pyramid is a geometric solid that has a polygon as its base and sides
that converge at a point called the apex. In other words the sides are not
perpendicular to the base.
The triangular pyramid and square pyramid take their names from the shape of their base.
We call a pyramid a “right pyramid” if the line between the apex and the centre of the
base is perpendicular to the base. Cones are similar to pyramids except that their bases
are circles instead of polygons. Spheres are solids that are perfectly round and look the
same from any direction.
Examples of a square pyramid, a triangular pyramid, a cone and a sphere:

Surface area of pyramids, cones and spheres EMAES
Surface area = area of base +

H area of triangular sides
Square hs
2 1
pyramid =b +4 bhs
2
b = b(b + 2hs )
Surface area = area of base +

Triangular H hs
pyramid area of triangular sides
hb = 12 b × hb + 3 21 b × hs

b
= 12 b(hb + 3hs )
h Surface area = area of base +

H
Right
area of walls
cone r
1
= πr2 + 2 × 2πrh
= πr(r + h)
b
r
Sphere Surface area = 4πr2

Example 8: Finding the surface area of a triangular pyramid
QUESTION
Find the surface area of the following triangular pyramid (correct to one decimal
place):
10 cm
6 cm
SOLUTION
1
area of base triangle = bhb
2
To find the height of the base triangle (hb ) we use the Theorem of
Pythagoras:
6 cm
hb
3 cm

62 = 32 + h2b
p
∴ hb = 62 − 32
√
=3 3
1 √
∴ area of base triangle = × 6 × 3 3
2
√
= 9 3 cm2
Step 2 : Find the area of the sides

1
area of sides = 3 × b × hs
2

1
=3 × 6 × 10
2
= 90 cm2
Step 3 : Find the sum of the areas
√
9 3 + 90 = 105,6 cm2

The surface area of the triangular pyramid is 105,6 cm2 .
Example 9: Finding the surface area of a cone
QUESTION
Find the surface area of the following cone (correct to 1decimal place):

h
14 cm
4 cm
SOLUTION
area of base circle = πr2

= π × 42
= 16π
Step 2 : Find the area of the walls
area of sides = πrh
To find the slant height h we use the Theorem of Pythagoras:
h
14 cm
4 cm
h2 = 42 + 142
p
∴ h = 42 + 142
√
= 2 53 cm

1
area of walls = 2πrh
2
√
= π(4)(2 53)
√
= 8π 53 cm2
Step 3 : Find the sum of the areas
√
total surface area = 16π + 8π 53
= 233,2 cm2

The surface area of the cone is 233,2 cm2 .
Example 10: Finding the surface area of a sphere
QUESTION
Find the surface area of the following sphere (correct to 1 decimal place):
b
5 cm
SOLUTION
surface area of sphere = 4πr2

= 4π52
= 100π
= 314,2 cm2

Example 11: Examining the surface area of a cone
QUESTION
If a cone has a height of h and a base of radius r, show that the surface area is:
√
πr2 + πr r2 + h2 .
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sketch and label the cone
a
h h
r
r
Step 2 : Identify the faces that make up the cone

The cone has two faces: the base and the walls. The base is a circle
of radius r and the walls can be opened out to a sector of a circle:
2πr = circumference
This curved surface can be cut into many thin triangles with height
close to a (where a is the slant height). The area of these triangles or
sectors can be summed as follows:
1
Area of sector = × base × height (of a small triangle)
2
1
= × 2πr × a
2
= πra

Step 3 : Calculate a
a can be calculated using the Theorem of Pythagoras:
p
a= r2 + h2
Step 4 : Calculate the area of the circular base (Ab )
Ab = πr2
Step 5 : Calculate the area of the curved walls (Aw )
Aw = πra
p
= πr r2 + h2
Step 6 : Find the sum of the areas A
A = Ab + Aw
p
= πr2 + πr r2 + h2
p
= πr(r + r2 + h2 )

Volume of pyramids, cones and spheres EMAET
1
H Volume = 3 × area of base ×
Square
pyramid height of pyramid
1
= 3 × b2 × H
b
1
H Volume = 3 × area of base ×
Triangular
pyramid height of pyramid
1
h = 3 × 12 bh × H
b
1
Volume = 3 × area of base ×
Right H
cone height of cone

r 1
= 3 × πr2 × H
r
Volume = 43 πr3
b
Sphere

Example 12: Finding the volume of a square pyramid
QUESTION
Find the volume of a square pyramid with a height of 3 cm and a side length of 2
cm.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sketch and label the pyramid
3 cm
2 cm 2 cm
Step 2 : Select the correct formula and substitute the given values
1
volume = × b2 × H
3
We are given b = 2 and H = 3, therefore
1
volume = × 22 × 3
3
1
= × 12
3
= 4 cm3

The volume of the square pyramid is 4 cm3 .

Example 13: Finding the volume of a triangular pyramid
QUESTION
Find the volume of the following triangular pyramid (correct to 1 decimal place):
H
12 cm
hb
8 cm
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Sketch the base triangle and calculate its area
8 cm
hb
4 cm
The height of the base triangle (hb ) can be calculated using the Theo-
rem of Pythagoras:
82 = 42 + h2b
p
∴ hb = 82 − 42
√
= 4 3 cm

1
∴ area of base triangle = b × hb
2
1 √
= ×8×4 3
2
√
= 16 3 cm2
Step 2 : Sketch the side triangle and calculate pyramid height H
12 cm
H
4 cm
122 = 42 + H 2
p
∴ H = 122 − 42
√
= 8 2 cm
Step 3 : Calculate the volume of the pyramid
1 1
volume = × bhb × H
3 2
1 √ √
= × 16 3 × 8 2
3
= 104,5 cm3

The volume of the triangular pyramid is 104,5 cm3 .

Example 14: Finding the volume of a cone
QUESTION
Find the volume of the following cone (correct to 1 decimal place):
11 cm
3 cm
SOLUTION

= π × 32
= 9π cm2
Step 2 : Calculate the volume
1
volume = × πr2 × H
3
1
= × 9π × 11
3
= 103,7 cm3

The volume of the cone is 103,7 cm3 .

Example 15: Finding the volume of a sphere
QUESTION
Find the volume of the following sphere (correct to 1 decimal place):
b
4 cm
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Use the formula to find the volume
4
volume = πr3
3
4
= π(4)3
3
= 268,1 cm3

The volume of the sphere is 268,1 cm3 .

Example 16: Finding the volume of a complex object
QUESTION
A triangular pyramid is placed on top of a triangular prism, as shown below. The

base of the prism is an equilateral triangle of side length 20 cm and the height of
the prism is 42 cm. The pyramid has a height of 12 cm. Calculate the total volume
of the object.
12 cm
42 cm
20 cm
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Calculate the volume of the prism

(a) Find the height of the base triangle
20 cm
hb
10 cm
202 = 102 + h2b

p
∴ hb = 202 − 102
√
= 10 3 cm
(b) Find the area of the base triangle
1 √
area of base triangle = × 20 × 10 3
2
√
= 100 3 cm2

(c) Find the volume of the prism
∴ volume of prism = area of base triangle × height of prism

√
= 100 3 × 42
√
= 4 200 3 cm3
Step 2 : Calculate the volume of the pyramid

The area of the base triangle is equal to the area of the base of the
pyramid.
1
∴ volume of pyramid = (area of base) × H
3
1 √
= × 100 3 × 12
3
√
= 400 3 cm3
Step 3 : Calculate the total volume
√ √
total volume = 4 200 3 + 400 3
√
= 4 600 3
= 7 967,4 cm3
Therefore the total volume of the object is 7 967,4 cm3 .
Example 17: Finding the surface area of a complex object
QUESTION
With the same complex object as in the previous Example, you are given the
additional information that the slant height hs of the triangular pyramid is 13,3
cm. Now calculate the total surface area of the object.
SOLUTION

Step 1 : Calculate the surface area of each exposed face of the pyramid
1
area of one pyramid face = b × hs
2
1
= × 20 × 13,3
2
= 133 cm2
Because the base triangle is equilateral, each face has the same base,
and therefore the same surface area. Therefore the surface area for
each face of the pyramid is 133 cm2 .
Step 2 : Calculate the surface area of each side of the prism

Each side of the prism is a rectangle with base b = 20 cm and height
hp = 42 cm.
area of one prism side = b × hp

= 20 × 42
= 840 cm2
Because the base triangle is equilateral, each side of the prism has
the same area. Therefore the surface area for each side of the prism
is 840 cm2 .
Step 3 : Calculate the total surface area of the object
total surface area = area of base of prism + area of sides of prism +
area of exposed faces of pyramid

√
= (100 3) + 3(840) + 3(133)
= 3 092,2 cm2
Therefore the total surface area (of the exposed faces) of the object is
3 092,2 cm2 .

Exercise 12 - 4
1. Find the total surface area of the following objects (correct to 1 decimal
place if necessary):
(a) (b)
13 cm
10 cm
5 cm
6 cm
(c) (d)
12 cm
10 cm
b
6 cm 6 cm
2. Find the volume of the following objects (round off to 1 decimal place
if needed):

(a) (b)
13 cm
10 cm
5 cm
6 cm
(c) (d)
12 cm
10 cm
b
6 cm 6 cm
3. The solid below is made up of a cube and a square pyramid. Find it’s
volume and surface area (correct to 1 decimal place):
11 cm
5 cm
(1.) 00hr (2.) 00hs (3.) 00ht

The effect of multiplying a

12.4 dimension by a factor of k
EMAEU
When one or more of the dimensions of a prism or cylinder is multiplied by a constant,

the surface area and volume will change. The new surface area and volume can be
calculated by using the formulae from the preceding section.
It is possible to see a relationship between the change in dimensions and the resulting
change in surface area and volume. These relationships make it simpler to calculate the
new volume or surface area of an object when its dimensions are scaled up or down.
Video: VMctl at www.everythingmaths.co.za
Consider a rectangular prism of dimensions l, b and h. Below we multiply one, two

and three of its dimensions by a constant factor of 5 and calculate the new volume and
surface area.
Dimensions Volume Surface
Original dimensions
V =l×b×h A = 2[(l × h) + (l × b) + (b × h)]

h
= lbh = 2(lh + lb + bh)
l b
Multiply one dimension

by 5
V1 = l × b × 5h
A1 = 2[(l × 5h) + (l × b) + (b × 5h)]
= 5(lbh)
5h
= 2(5lh + lb + 5bh)
= 5V
l b

Dimensions Volume Surface
Multiply two dimen-

sions by 5
V2 = 5l × b × 5h
A2 = 2[(5l × 5h) + (5l × b) + (b × 5h)]
= 5.5(lbh)
5h = 2 × 5(5lh + lb + bh)
= 52 × V
5l b
Multiply all three dimen-

sions by 5
A3 = 2[(5l × 5h) + (5l × 5b) + (5b × 5h)]
V3 = 5l × 5b × 5h
= 2(52 lh + 52 lb + 52 bh)
= 53 (lbh)
5h = 52 × 2(lh + lb + bh)
= 53 V
5b = 52 A
5l
Multiply all three dimen-

sions by k
Vk = kl × kb × kh Ak = 2[(kl × kh) + (kl × kb) + (kb × kh)]
kh = k 3 (lbh) = k 2 × 2(lh + lb + bh)
= k3 V = k2 A
kl kb
Example 18: Calculating the new dimensions of a rectangular prism
QUESTION
Consider a square prism with a height of 4 cm and base lengths of 3 cm.
4 cm
3 cm 3 cm

1. Calculate the surface area and volume.

2. Calculate the new surface area (An ) and volume (Vn ) if
the base lengths are multiplied by a constant factor of
3.
3. Express the new surface area and volume as a factor of
the original surface area and volume.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Calculate the original volume and surface area
V =l×b×h
=3×3×4
= 36 cm3
A = 2[(l × h) + (l × b) + (b × h)]
= 2[(3 × 4) + (3 × 3) + (3 × 4)]
= 66 cm2
Step 2 : Calculate the new volume and surface area

Two of the dimensions are multiplied by a factor of 3.
Vn = 3l × 3b × h
= 3.3 × 3.3 × 4
= 324 cm3
An = 2[(3l × h) + (3l × 3b) + (3b × h)]

= 2[(3.3 × 4) + (3.3 × 3.3) + (3.3 × 4)]
= 306 cm2
Step 3 : Express the new dimensions as a factor of the original dimensions

V = 36
Vn = 324
Vn 324
=
V 36
=9
∴ Vn = 9V
= 32 V
A = 66
An = 306
An 306
=
A 66
306
∴ An = A
66
51
= A
11
Example 19: Multiplying the dimensions of a rectangular prism by k
QUESTION
Prove that if the height of a rectangular prism with dimensions l, b and h is multi-
plied by a constant value of k, the volume will also increase by a factor k.
l
b
SOLUTION

Step 1 : Calculate the original volume

We are given the original dimensions l, b and h and so the original
volume is V = l × b × h.
Step 2 : Calculate the new volume

The new dimensions are l, b, and kh and so the new volume is
Vn = l × b × (kh)
= k(lbh)
= kV

If the height of a rectangular prism is multiplied by a constant k,
then the volume also increases by a factor of k.
Example 20: Multiplying the dimensions of a cylinder by k
QUESTION
Consider a cylinder with a radius of r and a height of h. Calculate the new

volume and surface area (expressed in terms of r and h) if the radius is multiplied
by a constant factor of k.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Calculate the original volume and surface area

V = πr2 × h
A = πr2 + 2πrh
Step 2 : Calculate the new volume and surface area

The new dimensions are kr and h.
Vn = π(kr)2 × h
= πk 2 r2 × h
= k 2 × πr2 h
= k2 V
An = π(kr)2 + 2π(kr)h
= πk 2 r2 + 2πkrh
= k 2 (πr2 ) + k(2πrh)
Exercise 12 - 5
1. If the height of a prism is doubled, how much will its volume increase?
2. Describe the change in the volume of a rectangular prism if:
(a) length and breadth increase by a constant factor of 3.
(b) length, breadth and height are multiplied by a constant factor of 2.
3. Given a prism with a volume of 493 cm3 and a surface area of 6 007
cm2 , find the new surface area and volume for a prism if all dimensions
are increased by a constant factor of 4.
(1.) 00hu (2.) 00hv (3.) 00hw

Summary presentation: VMdml at www.everythingmaths.co.za
• Area is the two dimensional space inside the boundary of a flat object. It is mea-
sured in square units.
• Area formulae:
· square: s2
· rectangle: b × h
· triangle: 12 b × h
· trapezium: 21 (a + b) × h
· parallelogram: b × h
· circle: πr2
• Surface area is the total area of the exposed or outer surfaces of a prism.
• A net is the unfolded “plan” of a solid.
• Volume is the three dimensional space occupied by an object, or the contents of

an object. It is measured in cubic units.
· Volume of a rectangular prism: l × b × h

· Volume of a triangular prism: ( 12 b × h) × H
· Volume of a square prism or cube: s3
· Volume of a cylinder: πr2 × h
• A pyramid is a geometric solid that has a polygon as its base and sides that converge
at a point called the apex. The sides are not perpendicular to the base.
• Surface area formulae:
· square pyramid: b(b + 2h)

· triangular pyramid: 12 b(hb + 3hs )
· right cone: πr(r + hs )
· sphere: 4πr2
• Volume formulae:
1
· square pyramid: 3 × b2 × H
1
· triangular pyramid: 3 × 12 bh × H

1
· right cone: 3 × πr2 × H
4 3
· sphere: 3 πr
• Multiplying one or more dimensions of a prism or cylinder by a constant k affects

the surface area and volume.
1. Consider the solids below and answer the questions that follow (correct
to 1 decimal place, if necessary):
m
10 cm
5c
3 cm 20 cm
4 cm
8 cm
2 cm
4 cm
5 cm
(a) Calculate the surface area of each solid.

(b) Calculate volume of each solid.
(c) If each dimension of the solids is increased by a factor of 3, calculate
the new surface area of each solid.
(d) If each dimension of the solids is increased by a factor of 3, calculate
the new volume of each solid.

2. Consider the solids below:
12 cm
10 cm
3 cm
15 cm 15 cm
b
4 cm
(a) Calculate the surface area of each solid.

(b) Calculate the volume of each solid.
3. Calculate the volume and surface area of the solid below (correct to 1
decimal place):
30 cm
50 cm
40 cm
(1.) 00hx (2.) 00hy (3.) 00hz

Exercise Solutions
CHAPTER 13. EXERCISE SOLUTIONS
13
1. Algebraic Expressions EMAEV
Exercise 1-1 3. 0,267 22. 49y 3 + 42y 2 + 79y + 10

4. 1,913 23. 72y 2 − 18y + 27
5. 6,325 24. −6y 6 − 85y 4 + 3y 3 +
1. (a) Rational, integer
6. 0,056 176y 2 + 48y
(b) Irrational
(c) Rational, integer,
whole, natural num-
ber Exercise 1-3 Exercise 1-5
(d) Irrational
2. (a) Rational 1. 4 and 5 1. 2(l + w)
(b) Rational 2. 5 and 6 2. 4(3x + 8y)
(c) Rational 3. 1 and 2 3. 2x(3x + 1 + 5x2 )
(d) Irrational 4. 4 and 5 4. xy(2y 2 + yz + 3)
3. (a) Rational 5. −2ab(b + a)
(b) Rational 6. 7a + 4
(c) Irrational 7. 10(2a − 1)
Exercise 1-4
(d) Rational 8. 3b(6a − c)
1
4. (a) 10 9. 6k(2j + 3q)
3 1. 2y 2 + 8y
(b) 25 10. (4k − 2)(4k + 2)
29 2. y 2 + 7y + 10
(c) 50 11. 3(a2 + 2a − 9)
2589 3. 2 + 3t + 2t2
(d) 10000 12. 12a(2a2 − 1)
4. x2 − 16
5. (a) 0,1 13. −2a(b + 4)
5. 6p2 + 29p + 9
(b) 0,12 14. 8kj(3 − 2k)
6. 3k2 + 16k − 12
(c) 0,123 15. −ab(a + b)
7. s2 + 12s + 36
(d) 0,114145 16. 12jk2 (2j + 1)
8. −49 + x2
6. (a) 0,6 17. 18b2 q(4 − bq)
9. 9x2 − 1
(b) 1,27 18. (3 − y)(−4 + k)
10. 14k2 + 17k + 6
(c) 4,83 19. (a − 1)(a − 5)(a + 5)
11. 1 − 8x + 16x2
(d) 2,1 20. (b + 4)(m)(b − 6)
12. y 2 − 2y − 15
7. (a) 59 21. (a + 7)(a2 + 9)
13. 16 − x2
(b) 57
90 22. (b − 4)(3b + 7)
14. 81 + 18x + x2
(c) 526
99 23. (abc − 1)(abc + 1)
15. −10y 3 + 4y 2 + 103y − 132
16. −14y 3 + 26y 2 + 4y − 16
17. −20y 3 − 116y 2 − 13y + 6
Exercise 1-2 18. −144y 3 + 96y 2 − 3y − 9 Exercise 1-6
19. −20y 2 − 80y − 30
1. 12,567 20. −10y 7 − 39y 6 − 36y 5 1. (3 + a)(2x + 1)
2. 3,317 21. 84y 2 − 153y + 33 2. (x + 5)(x − 6)

3. (5 − a)(x + 2y) Exercise 1-9 (d) 1,00

4. (a − x)(a − 2) 6. (a) 3,142
5. (y + 2)(5x − 3) (b) 1,618
1. a5
6. (−a + b)(a + 1) (c) 1,414
2. a+52
(d) 2,718
3. 5
9. (a) 3,142 1500 571
4. a 809
(b) 1,618 500
5. 3a
Exercise 1-7 2
(c) 1,414 707
6. a+3
a+2
500
(d) 2,718 1500 359
7. a(3b+1)
b
10. (a) 2 and 3
1. (a) (x + 5)(x + 3) 8. 4xy3
(b) 3 and 4
(b) (x + 6)(x + 4) 9. p(y−2)
3y
(c) 4 and 5
(c) (x + 8)(x + 1) 10. 3(a+3)
98
2 (d) 5 and 6
(d) (x + 7)(x + 2) 11. 4a (a−5)
6(a+5)2
(3x+4)2
(e) 1 and 2
(e) (x + 12)(x + 3) 12. 96p2 (f) 2 and 3
(f) (x + 6)(x + 6) 13. 4
3 (g) 2 and 3
2. (a) (x + 5)(x − 3) 14. 2a
(h) 3 and 4
(b) (x + 3)(x − 1) 15. 3q
8 11. 2 and 3
(c) (x + 4)(x − 2) 16. 5(a+b)
24b 12. 3 and 4
(d) (x + 5)(x − 4) 17. af
13. (a) (a − 3)(a + 3)
(e) (x − 5)(x + 4) 18. 2z+4y+3x
xyz (b) (m + 6)(m − 6)
(f) 2(x + 10)(x + 1) 19. 5
(c) (3b − 9)(3b + 9)
3. (a) (3x + 1)(x + 6) 20. 2(k−1)
(k2 +2)(k+2) (d) (4b + 5a)(4b − 5a)
(b) (6x + 1)(x + 1) 21. 5t+7
6q (e) (m + 13 )(m − 31 )
(c) (6x + 1)(2x + 1) 22. (5p−2)
(p−2)2 (p+2) (f) 5(1 − ab3 )(1 + ab3 )
(d) (2x + 1)(4x + 1) 23. −xy
x2 −y 2 (g) b(4a2 − 9)(2a +
4. (a) (3x + 1)(x + 6) 24. m+1
m2 −mn+n2 3)(2a − 3)
(b) (7x + 1)(x − 1) 25. f
h3 −f 3 (h) (a − 5)(a − 5)
(c) (4x − 1)(2x − 1) 26. 2x−1
6 (i) (4b + 7)(4b + 7)
(d) (6x + 3)(x − 3) 27. 0
x2 −3x−1
(j) (2a − 6b)(a − 3b)
28. − (x−1)2 (x2 +x+1)
(k) −4b2 (6b3 − 1)(6b3 −
3(p2 −pq+q 2 )
29. p2 1)
a2 +4b−4b2
30. (l) (2−x)(2+x)(4+x2 )
Exercise 1-8 (a−2b2 )(a+2b)
(m) 7(x − 2)(x + y)
(n) (y − 10)(y + 3)
1. (x + 2)(x2 − 2x + 4) (o) (1 − x)2 (1 + x)
2. (3 − m)(9 + 3m + m2 ) End of chapter exercises
(p) (p − 1)(−3p − 2)
3. 2(x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) (q) (x+y)(1−x2 +xy −
4. 3(k + 3q)(k2 − 3kq + 9q 2 ) 1. (a) Rational y2 )
5. (4t − 1)(16t2 + 4t + 1) (b) Irrational (r) x(x−2)+(1+y)(1−
6. (8x − 1)(8x + 1) (c) Irrational y)(1 + y 2 )
7. (5x + 1)(25x2 − 5x + 1) (d) Irrational (s) (x − 1)(x2 + x +
8. No solution 2. (a) 3
1)(4b − x)
5
9. z(1 − 5z)(1 + 5z + 25z 2 ) (b) 3
(t) 3(p − 31 )(p2 + p3 + 19 )
500
10. (2m2 + n3 )(4m4 − (c) 59
1 100 (u) (2x2 − 5y 3 )(4x4 +
2m2 n3 + n6 ) (d) 221
10x2 y 3 + 25y 6 )
18
11. (p5 − 21 y 4 )(p1 0 + 21 p5 y 4 + 4. 78
(v) (−p)(12+18p+7p2 )
90
1 8
4
y 5. (a) 0,5 14. (a) −8a + 4
12. [1 − x + y][1 + x − y + x2 − (b) 1,00 (b) 125a3 − 64b3
2xy + y 2 ] (c) 0,11

32x3 +x+2
(c) 16m4 − 81 (h) 2x3
16. 5x
(d) a2 + 4ab + 4b2 − c2 (i) 4a−1
(2a+1)(2a−1)(a−1)
17. 8,85
(e) p2 − 2pq + q 2 (j) x(x+1)
x2 +x+6
18. a2 + 2ab + 4b2
2
(f) 12−x
6x 15. (3x − 4)(x + 2) 19. 9x2 − 3x + 1
−14
(g) (a+7)(a−7)
2. Equations and inequalities EMAEW
Exercise 2-1
1. 5 29. − 61 Exercise 2-3

2. 0 30. −3
−7
3. 8
4. 12
5. 11 Exercise 2-2
117 1. (a) y = −3 and x = −7
6. 20
2
(b) y = 3 and x = 5
7. 15 −2 4
1. 3
or 3 (c) x = −1 and y = −1
9
8. 10 2. 9
or −6 (d) a = 5 31 and b = 1 13
5
9. 100
−3 3 (e) x = 71 and y = − 14
26 3. 2
or 2
10. 1 2. (a) x = 9 and y = −4
y
4. − 12 or 9
2 2
y = − 23 x + 2
11. 3 3
y = − 21 x + 1
2
1
5. 2
x
−4 −1
−2 2 4 6 8 10
12. 6
−4 −2
17
6. 0 or 5 −3
13. 12 −4 b
−3
20 7. 4 or 2
14. 3
6 8
8. or
15. 26 5 3
(b) x = 7
and y = 3
2 2
y
16. 5 9. 4 or 11 5
y = −x + 5
4
17. 4 10. 2 3
2 b
36 3 1
18. − 11 11. 5
or 3 x
0
−2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y =x−2
19. 2 12. 0 or 3 −2
−3
20. No solution 13. 5

−4
21. 5 √ √
14. 18 or − 18
1 3
22. 24 (c) x = 5
and y = 10
15. −1 or 7 y
y = 32 x
4
23. −6
16. 7 or − 11
4
3
−7
24. 3
2
y = 14 x + 1
4
3
17. 7
or − 21 1
b
x
25. 2 0
−2 −1
−1 1 2 3
17 18. −2 or 3
26. − 13 −2
19. 1 or −5 83
27. −12,5
2
28. − 17 20. 0 or 3 (d) x = 4
and y = 2 52
3 5

y
pV
5
y = 12 x + 2
2. n = RT End of chapter exercises
4
3 2b2
2
b 3. x = 2b−1
1
y = −2x + 4
√
x 4. r = V πh 1. (a) −8
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4
1
−2 5. h = Eλ (b) 2
−3 C
−4 A−2πr
(c) No solution
6. h = 2πr (d) −2
(e) x = 2 and y = 1 7. λ = D
(e) 1
ft
6 y
5
y= 3
−2 8. m = E
1V2
(f) 10
4
2 gh+ 2
3 (g) 5
2
9. x = −a or x = −b 1
1 b √ (h) 3
x 10. b = ± c2 − a2 (i) x = 2 or x = 1
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4
vw
−2
11. u = w−v (j) y = 2 or y = −3
−3 y = −2x − 5
−4
q
A (k) x = 2 or x = −9
2
12. r = ± R2 − π
(l) 4
160
13. C = 9
− 59 F (m) x≥2
14. r = sqrt[3] 3V (n) x < −1
Exercise 2-4 4π
(o) x > 588
10
(p) a ≤ − 57
1. t = 2 hrs (q) −3 ≤ k < 2
2. L = 18 and S = 2 Exercise 2-6
(r) x = 7 or x = 6
3. w = 28, l = 45 and d = 53 2. (a) I = VP
4. −34 1. x < −2
E
5. 30◦ and 60◦ (b) m = c2
2. x ≥ −3
6. l = 16 cm and b = 8 cm (c) t = v−u
−5 a
3. x <
7. x = 7 or x = −3 4
uv
4. x > 2 (d) t =
8. l = 6 cm and w = 4 cm 5
u+v
19
9. 50 5. 0 (e) C = 59 (F − 32)
10. 9 and 11
1
6. −1 ≤ x < 4 (f) y = mx + c
11. 2
7. −1 < x ≤ 5 3. (a) x = 1 and y = 2
12. 8 years old
(b) x = 4 and y = 2
13. Murunwa is 7 and 8. x > 2
(c) x = 5 and y = −2
Tshamano is 35 9. x ≥ 1 (d) No solution
10. −12 ≤ x ≤ 1 4. (a) x = 120
13
6 (b) Ruler: R 5; pen: R 3
Exercise 2-5 11. y < 7 5
(c) 9
km
12. −4 ≤ y ≤ 0
(d) 8 km and 12 km
2(s−ut)
1. a = t2
13. −20 < x < 7 (e) R 20,00
3. Exponentials EMAEX
27
Exercise 3-1 2. 16 5. 8
3. 1
36
6. x3t+3
1. 1 4. 40 7. 32a+3

8. a2x (f) − 12 (i) 1

27
4
9. 8
p6
(g) 5 (j) 8x6a y 3b
10. 8t12 (h) 3 (k) 4x+3
11. 32n+6 (i) 1 (l) 22
3
12. 1 (j) 2
or 0 (m) −27
27
(k) 1 (n) 6
5
(l) −3 12 (o) 1
3
Exercise 3-2 (m) −3 1
(p) 8
(n) −3 (q) 14
1. 3t2
(o) −1 or 3
(r) 22p − 2p + 1
2. 8x 2. 7 2. (a) −3
1
3. 2
(b) 1
1
4. 3 2
(c)
5. 3p3 End of chapter exercises 3
1
(d) 2
1. (a) 2t3 (e) −1
Exercise 3-3 (b) 55x+y+3z (f) 16

2 1
(c) bk +k (g) 16
1. (a) 0 (d) 864p (h) −1

(b) − 25 (e) 27m t (i) 1 or 16
(c) −7 (f) 1
3x5
(j) 2
5 1 1
(d) 9 (g) 625
(k) 81
27
(e) 4 (h) 4
(l) 81
4. Number patterns EMAEY
Exercise 4-1 36; T50 = 196; 2. (a) Tn = 4n − 1

T100 = 396 (b) Tn = 3n − 5
(c) Tn = 5 − 3n; T10 = (c) Tn = 4n + 7
1. (a) 35; 45; 55 −25; T50 = −145; (d) Tn = n3
(b) 7; 12; 17 T100 = −295 3. 111
(c) 21; 18; 15 4. (a) 4
2. (a) 8 (b) 3
(b) −1 (c) Tn = 3n + 1
(c) −9 and −5
End of chapter exercises (d) 76
3. (a) Tn = 3n − 1; T10 = 5. 10
29; T50 = 149; 1. (a) 49 6. 77
T100 = 299 (b) −10 7. (c) 9 + (10x + y) =
(b) Tn = 4n − 4; T10 = (c) 18,9 10(x + 1) + (y − 1)

5. Functions EMAEZ
y
Exercise 5-1 y
8
(0; 25 ) b
P (1; 2)
b y= x +3
( 1 ; 0) (5; 0) x 8
b
3 b 3 y=
0 (−4; 1)
x
b
(0; −1)
1. (a) {x : x ∈ R, x ≤ 7} b
x
0
(b) {y : y ∈ R, −13 ≤
y < 4} 3. y 2.
h(x)
(c) {z : z ∈ R, z > 35} b
(1; 6)
(d) {t : t ∈ R, 43 ≤ t <
21} b
(0; 3) g(x)
(e) {p : p ∈ R, − 12 ≤ b
(3; 2)
Exercise 5-5
b
(1; 0)
p ≤ 12 } b b
x
(−3; 0) 0
f (x)
(f) {m : m ∈ R, m > 4.
√
− 3} y
2. (a) (−∞; 6]
1x
y= y = 2x
(b) (−5; 5) 2
(c) ( 15 ; ∞) Exercise 5-3 x

0
(d) [21; 41) 1.
y
b (0; 4) (a) Asymptote
x
y = −x2 − 4 (b) y = 21
(c) (0; 1)
(−2; 0) b
(2; 0) xb
0
Exercise 5-2 2. (a) f (x) = 3x
2. (b) h(x) = −3x
3. (a) a = 1 and p = −9 (c) Range: (−∞; 0)
1. (a) (0; 1) and (−1; 0); (b) b = −1 and q = 23 (d) g(x) = 3−x
increasing (c) x ≤ −4 or x ≥ 4 (e) j(x) = 2.3x
(b) (0; −1) and (1; 0); (d) x≥0 (f) k(x) = 3x − 3
increasing
(c) (0; −1) and ( 21 ; 0);
increasing
(d) (0; 1) and ( 13 ; 0); Exercise 5-4
Exercise 5-6
decreasing
(e) (0; 2) and (−3; 0); y
y
increasing 2 b
(f) (0; 3); b
x 0 180◦ 360◦ x
horizontal line 0
b
b
(g) (0; 0); y = − x6 1. (a)

y
4 b
increasing 1.
(h) (0; 3) and (2; 0); 0
180◦ 360◦ x
decreasing (a) Yes
(b)
2. (a) a(x) = − 34 x + 3 (b) y = −24 y
3 b
(b) b(x) = 23 x − 6 (c) Decrease

(c) p(x) = 3 (d) y = 0 and x = 0 0
180◦ 360◦ x
(d) d(x) = − 43 x (e) (−3; 2) (c)

y y y
8
6
(a)
0 180◦ 360◦ x 4
−2 b 2 (b) 2 b b
x
x
0 0
−8 −6 −4 −2
−2 2 4 6 8 180◦ 360◦
b
(d) −4 (c) (d)

y
y −6
1
−8 2
180◦ 360◦
x 4. 180◦ 360◦ x
0 b
−2 b b
5. (a) F (e) 0
(b) F 10. (a) y = 3x

(c) T (b) y = −2x2 + 3
(e)
y
(d) F (c) y = −3x
(e) F (d) y =x+2
0 360◦ x
180◦ (f) T (e) y = 5 sin x + 1
−3 b y
(f) 14 (f) y = 2.2x + 1
12
2. (a) y = 2 cos θ 10 (g) y = −tan x − 2
f (x)
(b) y = sin θ + 1 8
11. (a) M (0; 1), N (0; −1)
6
4 (b) M N = 2 units
2
x
(c) P Q = 1 unit
0
−4 −2
−2
2 4
(d) y = 2−x
−4 g(x)
6. (a) (e) Range y = 2x :
(b) (−3; 12) and (2; 2) (0; ∞);
(c) i. x ∈ Range y = −2x :
√
End of chapter exercises (−∞; 3) ∪ (−∞; 0)
√
( 3; ∞) 12. (a) q=1
ii. x ∈ (3; ∞) (b) 7 units.
y
iii. x ∈ [−3; 2] (c) y = −4x
4 (b) (d) y = 4x + 1
(c) 3
(d) y = −2x2 + 6
2 7. 1,6 units (e) x=0
1
x 8. (a) x+y = 15; y = x+3 (f) Range f (x): (0; ∞)
0 y
−3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 Range g(x):
18
(a) −2
−3 15 (−∞; 1]
y =x+3 y
1. y 12
5
9
7 4 h(x)
6 6
3
5
(b) 3
y = −x + 15
2
4 x 1
3 (a) −8−6−4−2
−3
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 x
0
2 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4
−6
1 −2
0
x (b) −9
−3 k(x)
−3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 −4
−2
(c) x = 6 and y = 9 13.
y
−3 (c) 4 b
−4 (b) y = x2 + 4
2. y 0
180◦ 360◦ x (c) Domain h:
7
9. (a) (−∞; ∞)
6 (a) y
5 Range h: [−4; ∞)
4
y
3
360◦ x 2 b
0 b 180◦
2
−2
1
x (b) b
0 180◦ 360◦ x
y
0
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4
3 b −2 b b
(b) −2 (c) 14.

−3 0
360◦ x
b
180◦
−4 (a) f (180◦ ) = 0
−5 (c)
3. (b) g(180◦ ) = −2

(c) g(270◦ )−f (270◦ ) = (d) EF = 2 units 90◦ ; 270◦ }

1 16. (a) A(−1; 0), B(1; 0) (b) Amplitude = 3
(d) Domain: [0◦ ; 360◦ ] and C(0; 3) (c) i. {0◦ ; 180◦ ; 360◦ }
Range: [−2; 0] ii. (0◦ ; 90◦ ) ∪
◦ ◦
(e) Amplitude = 2; (b) The two graphs in- (270 ; 360 )
Period = 360◦ tersect in the fourth iii. {θ : 90◦ <
quadrant. θ < 270◦ , θ 6=
√ √
15. (a) A( 8; 8) and (c) D(2; −9) 180◦ }
√ √
B(− 8; − 8) (d) y = −6x + 3 iv. (0◦ ; 90◦ ) ∪
√
(b) CD = 2 8 units 17. (a) Domain: {θ : 0◦ ≤ (270◦ ; 360◦ )
(c) AB = 8 units θ ≤ 360◦ , θ 6=
6. Finance and growth EMAFA
Exercise 6-1 Exercise 6-3 End of chapter exercises
1. R 4 025 1. R 4 044,69 1. R 1 840

2. (a) R 324 2. 8,45% p.a
2. (a) R 534,25
(b) R 3 937,50 3. R 59 345,13
(b) R 520
3. 19 years
4. 1,25% p.a 3. Bank B
Exercise 6-4
4. R 200
1. R 2 174,77 5. R 200
Exercise 6-2
2. R 38,64 6. (a) Simple interest
1. (a) R 3 825 3. 553 babies (b) Compound interest
(b) R 4 743
7. (a) R 205
(c) R 197,63
(b) R 286,52
(d) R 5 418 Exercise 6-5
(c) R 128
2. (a) R 12 962,50
1. (a) R 1 400 8. 1 AUD = 82,03 Yen
(b) R 4 462,50
(b) R 200
(c) R 360,07 9. 8,5% p.a
(c) R 100
3. (a) R 5 400 2. (a) USA 10. (a) 62,3 million people
(b) R 4 251,97 (b) Sollie (b) ≈ 1,7%
7. Trigonometry EMAFB

Exercise 7-1 (b) 1 12 Exercise 7-5

√
3−1
(c) 2
1. (a) a =adj; b =hyp; 1. 53,13◦
c =opp 2. 35,30◦
(b) a =opp; b =adj; 3. 26 m
c =hyp 4. 15,05 m
(c) a =hyp; b =opp; Exercise 7-3
c =adj
(d) a =opp; b =hyp; 1. (a) a = 37,31 units Exercise 7-6
c =adj (b) b = 8,91 units
(e) a =adj; b =hyp; √
(c) c = 10,90 units 1. (a) OB = 10 units
c =opp (d) d = 21,65 units
(b) √1
(f) a =adj; b =opp; (e) e = 41,04 units
10
√
10
c =hyp (f) f = 33,43 units (c) −3
2. (a) 2,14 (g) g = 29,46 units (d) −3
√
(b) 0,62 (h) h = 10,00 units 2. (a) − 5 21
(c) 0,28 2. (a) AC
sin B̂ = AB = AD
BD (b) −2
√
(d) 0,21 t2 +4
AD CD 3. (a)
(e) 0,90 (b) cos D̂ = BD
= AD
2
(b) 2t
(f) 1,15 AC AD
(c) tan B̂ = BC = AB (c) t24+4
(g) 0,23
3. M N = 12,86 units; (d) −1
(h) 2,52
N P = 15,32 units
(i) 0,67
3. (a) T
(b) F
End of chapter exercises
(c) T
(d) F Exercise 7-4 1. 1 12
y
4. (a) sin Â = CB
AC (−3; 5)
AB
(b) cos Â = AC 1. (a) 59,5◦
CB α x
(c) tan Â = AB (b) 53,1◦ 0
(d) sin Ĉ = AB
AC
(c) 71,3◦
(e) cos Ĉ = CB (d) 80,1◦ 2.
AC
AB (e) 41,8◦
(f) tan Ĉ = CB (a) −3
√
√ (f) No solution 34
5. (a) 23 (b) −1
(g) 41,4◦
1
(b) 2
√ (h) 18,1◦ 3. (a) 42,07◦
(c) 3 (i) 40,5◦ (b) 63,43◦
(d) 1
2
(j) 53,1◦ (c) 25◦
√
(e) 3 (k) 18,4◦ (d) 45◦
2
√1
(l) No solution 4. (a) a = 13,86 cm
(f) 3
√1
(m) 109,8◦ (b) b = 12,56 cm
6. (a) 2
(n) 26,6◦ (c) c = 4,30 cm
(b) √1
2 (o) 17,7◦ (d) d = 7,78 cm
(c) 1 2. (a) 24,0◦ (e) e = 5,34 cm
(b) 35,2◦ (f) f = 9,20 cm
(c) 50,6◦ (g) g = 1,65 cm
Exercise 7-2 (d) 26,3◦ 5. (a) 17,32 cm
(e) 37,0◦ (b) 10 cm
1. (a) 1 (f) 45,0◦ (c) 25,08◦
2

6. 19,47◦ 10. 23,96◦ 13. (a) 18◦

7. 53,54◦ 11. 8,35 mm; 9,96 mm (b) 23◦
8. 11,88 units 12. (a) 5 cm 14. 97,12◦
9. 33,69◦ (b) 4,83 cm; 1,29 cm 15. 5,65 cm; 8,70 cm
8. Analytical geometry EMAFC
y
B(1; 7)
Exercise 8-1 Exercise 8-4 7 b
6
C(4; 5)
√ 5 b
1. (a) 29 1. (a) (−1; 6)

√ 4
(b) 52 (b) (14; 32) 3 b
√ D(1; 3)
(c) 17 (c) ( 2x−3 ; 2y−5 ) 2 b
A(3; 2)
2 2
1
2. (a) x = 3 or x = 9 2. P (8; 13)
x
(b) y = 3 or y = −5 3. S(4; −5) 3. (a)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
√
(b) AB = 10;BC =
√
13; CD =
√
Exercise 8-2 4;DA = 5
√
End of chapter exercises 5. (b) i. 10
1. (a) 1 ii. 3
(b) 11
y
(c) Trapezium
8
4 F 6. H(3; 3)
(c) 3
4 √
−10 O N 7. (a) 34
2. (a) 3
3
(a)
(c) 2
H
D E (b) 13
(b) 5
P 1
M (c) ( 23 ; − 12 )
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 8. a = 0; b = 92
(b) y
−1 G
C(6; 4)
Exercise 8-3 I −2 W Z 4 b
−3 (d)
X J 3 b
A(1; 3)
−4 2
Y
1. (a) AB k CD 1.
√ 1 b
B(4; 1)
(b) Neither 2. (a) F G = 26; IH = x
√ √ 9. (a)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(c) Neither 41; GH = 8;

√ (c) ( 27 ; 72 )
2. (a) On same line F I = 29
(b) On same line (b) No (d) −2
3
(c) Not on same line (c) No 10. (a) y = 31 x + 3

√
3. 1
(d) Ordinary quadrilat- (b) 40
2
4. 6 eral
9. Statistics EMAFD

Exercise 9-1 Exercise 9-3 3. 3; 5; 7; 13; 16

4. (a) 15; 22; 25; 28; 35
1. 53; 50 < m ≤ 55; 50 < (b) 88; 92; 98; 100; 101
1. (a) Mean = 13,2; Me-
dian = 11; Mode = m ≤ 55
8 2. 71,66; 65 < t ≤ 75; 65 <
(b) Mean = 26; Median t ≤ 75
= 25; Mode = 24 3. (a) 700 < x ≤ 800 End of chapter exercises
(c) Mean = 11,2; Me- (b) 33 600
dian = 11; Mode = (c) 700
1. 44
11 (d) 750
2. 6
(d) Mean = 34,29; Me- (e) R 588 000
3. (a) Mean and Mode
dian = 32; No mode (b) Bike 1= 1,02 s and
2. Mean = 38,3; Median = Bike 2 = 1,0 s
38; Mode = 33 and 42 Exercise 9-4 (c) Bike 2
3. (a) 5 4. (a) 19,9
(b) 7 1. 9 (b) i. 38%
2. Q1 = 6,2; Q2 = 18; Q3 = ii. 14%
29 iii. 50%
3. R = 70; Q1 = 41,5; Q2 = 11
10
9
49,5; Q3 = 66,5; IQR = 25
Count
8
Exercise 9-2 4. (a) 15; 9; 16

7
6
5
(b) 12; 7,5; 15,5 4

3
2
(c) 10; 8; 7,5 1
Group Freq
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
(d) 5; 4; 3,75 −1
11 − 20 6 (c) Distance (km)
(e) 14; 12; 19
1. (a)
21 − 30 13 5. (a) 129; 144
31 − 40 15
(f) 22; 15,5; 23
(b) 7; 10
41 − 50 9
(c) Trained employees:
51 − 60 7
Exercise 9-5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
118 125 129 132 137
14
Untrained employ-
12
1. 3; 17,5; 27; 44; 65
ees:
Count
10
8
| | | | | | | | | | | |
6 3 17.5 27 44 65 ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
126 139 144 149 157
4
2. 1; 12; 28,5; 46,5; 60
2 6. (a) R 182 222,22
10 20 30 40 50 60
(b) R 100 000
| | | | | | | | | | | |
(b) Range of guesses 1 12 28.5 46.5 60 (c) R 100 000
10. Probability EMAFE
1 1
Exercise 10-1 (b) 3
2. (a) 52
5 1
(c) 6
(b) 2
1 1 3
1. (a) 2
(d) 3
(c) 13

1
(d) 13
3. (a) 0,11 (b) 10
(e) 3 (b) 0,33 (c) 4
13 S
3. 1 (c) 0,16
5
(d) 0,01
(e) 0,80
Exercise 10-2 (f) 0,55 11. (a)
(g) 0,16 S
(h) 0,01
Y S
X 3 5
4
6 11
7 8 2 (b)
10 13
12 14
16 15 End of chapter exercises 13. (a) {deck of cards with-
1 9 out clubs}
1.
M : 30 1. 0,18 (b) P = {J; Q; K of
8 1 hearts, diamonds or
2. (a)
G : 41 6
16 3 spades}
(b) 14
6 S (c) N = {A; 2; 3; 4;
16
5 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10 of
2. (a) H : 36 2
4 1 hearts, diamonds or
(b) 6 6 3
spades}
(c) 29 3. N
P 7♦
(d) 2 J♦
A♦
Q♠
6♦
A♥ 7♥
1
{1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12} (a)
7♠
J♥ A♠
3. (a) 6
J♠
Q♦
Q♥
5♦
10♦
6♠
6♥
1 5♥ 9♦
(b) {1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 12} (b) 2 K♠
K♦
5♠ 8♦
10♥
9♥
K♥ 8♥ 10♠ 9♠
1
(c) {2; 3; 5; 7; 11} (c) 3
4♦
4♥
8♠
2♦
2♥
4♠ 3♦ 2♠
B S 4. 125 (d) 3♥ 3♠
A 5
1 2 7 5. (a) 19 (e) Mutually exclusive
30
4 3 11 and complementary
6 (b) 11
30
12 10 4
8 9 6. (a) 9 V
50
(d)
5
(b) 300
(e) i. 12 9 100 200
1
ii. 6 (c) 9 S
iii. 5 (d) 8
14. (a)
9
(e) 5 (b) i. 30,8%

9
4 ii. 46,2%
(f)
Exercise 10-3 9
11 iii. 7,7
7. (a) 21
iv. 15,4%
11
(b)
1. (a) 0,21 14 v. 92,3%
3
8. (a) 56
(b) 0,64 10
D/S
(c) 0 (b) 53
56
40
(d) 0,72 9. (a) 103 5
25
19
2. (a) 0,5 (b) i. 30 D/B
58
(b) 0,23 ii. 103
14
(c) 0,67 (c) 19 15. (a) 50%
2
(d) 0 10. (a) i. 5 (b) 31,25%
3
(e) 0,67 ii. 5 (c) 6,25%
1
(f) 0,67 iii. 7

11. Euclidean Geometry EMAFF
Exercise 11-1 Exercise 11-6 (e) T

(f) T
(g) T
1. a = 138◦ ; b = 42◦ ; c = 1. (a) x = 14 units
(h) F
138◦ ; d = 138◦ ; e = 42◦ ; (b) x = 3,5 units
(i) F
f = 138◦ ; g = 42◦ (c) x = 5 units
(d) x = 28 units; y = 3. (a) x = 25◦
2. B̂1 = 110◦ ; Ĉ1 = 80◦ ; (b) x = 145◦
80◦
Ĉ2 = 30◦ ; Ĉ3 = 70◦ ; (c) x = 10 units; y =
(e) x = 24◦ ;y = 12
D̂1 = 100◦ ; F̂1 = 70◦ ; 12,5 units
units
F̂2 = 30◦ ; F̂3 = 80◦ ; Ĝ1 = (d) x = 60◦
70◦ ; Ĝ2 = 30◦ ; Ĝ3 = 80◦ (e) x = 36◦
3. 70◦ (f) x = 6 units; y = 10
End of chapter exercises
units
5. (a) a = 107◦ ; b = 73◦ ;
1. (a) Straight angle c = 107◦ ; d = 73◦
Exercise 11-2 (b) Obtuse angle (b) a = 80◦ ; b = 80◦ ;
(c) Acute angle c = 80◦ ; d = 80◦
1. (a) x = y = 72◦ (d) Right angle (c) a = 50◦ ; b = 45◦ ;
(b) x = 98◦ (e) Reflex angle c = 95◦ ; d = 85◦
(c) x = 44◦ ; y = 112◦ (f) Obtuse angle 7. (a) x = 4,24 cm
(d) x = 19 units (g) Straight angle (b) x = 12 cm
(e) x = 25 units (h) Reflex angle (c) x = 7,28 cm
(f)x = 18 units; y = 4 2. (a) F (d) x = 40 mm
units (b) T 9. x = 2,75 units; y = 30◦
(g) x = 12 units; y = 13 (c) T 10. a = 5 units; b = 12 units
units (d) F
12. Measurements EMAFG
Exercise 12-1 8. 525 cm2 (b) 22 `
1. 25 cm2
2. 50 cm2
Exercise 12-2
Exercise 12-3
3. 79 cm2
4. 40 cm2 1. (a) 344 cm2
5. 128 cm2 (b) 471 cm2 1. 420 cm3
6. 17,5 cm2 (c) 533 cm2 2. 500 cm3
7. 60 cm 2. (a) 24 ` 3. 785,4 cm3

Exercise 12-4 3. 31 552 cm3 ; 96 112 cm2 (d) Cy= 13571,9 cm3
Tri prism = 6 480
cm3
1. a. 282,7 cm2
Rect prism = 1 080
b. 45,6 cm2 End of chapter exercises cm3
c. 180 cm2
2. (a) Cone= 225 cm2
d. 1 256,6 cm2
2. a. 108,33 cm3 1. (a) Cylinder= 352 cm2 Sq pyramid= 585
Tri prism= 384 cm2 cm2
b. 270 cm3
c. 144 cm3 Rect prism= 72 cm2 Half sphere= 100
(b) Cylinder= 502 cm3 cm2
d. 4 188,8 cm3
Tri prism = 240 cm3 (b) Cone= 94 cm3
3. 175 cm3 ; 190 cm2
Rect prism= 40 cm3 Sq pyramid= 900
(c) Cyl= 3166,7 cm2 cm3
Tri prism = 3 456 Half sphere= 134
Exercise 12-5 cm2 cm3
Rect prism= 684 3. Volume= 335 103,2 cm3
1. Volume doubles cm2 S.A= 35 185,9 cm3


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See introductory video by Dr. Mark Horner: VMiwd at www.everythingmaths.co.za

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(Q123) Questions or help with a specific question

2 Equations and inequalities 42

5.7 Interpretation of graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

6 Finance and growth 192

8 Analytical geometry 251

11 Euclidean geometry 349

11.2 The mid-point theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

13 Exercise Solutions 439

1.1 The real number system EMAA

We use the following definitions:

• N: natural numbers are {1; 2; 3; . . .}

• N0 : whole numbers are {0; 1; 2; 3; . . .}

Video: VMabo at www.everythingmaths.co.za

Focus Area: Mathematics 1

1.2 Rational and irrational numbers EMAB

DEFINITION: Rational number

A rational number (Q) is any number which can be written as:

where a and b are integers and b 6= 0.

The following numbers are all rational numbers:

DEFINITION: Irrational numbers

Examples of irrational numbers:

2 Focus Area: Mathematics

Decimal numbers EMAC

Focus Area: Mathematics 3

Example 1: Rational and irrational numbers

Which of the following are not rational numbers?

1. Irrational, decimal does not terminate and has no repeated pattern.

2. Rational, decimal terminates.

3. Irrational, decimal does not terminate and has no repeated pattern.

4. Rational, all integers are rational.

5. Rational, decimal has repeated pattern.

6. Rational, decimal has repeated pattern.

4 Focus Area: Mathematics

Converting terminating decimals into rational EMAD