121 Lec Delimited

Information Systems Fundamentals II
IS 121: Information Systems Fundamentals II
Data representations and encryptions; Basic logic used in programming.
IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2
Objectives
Understanding a computers basic data units such as binary numbers, bits, bytes, words, etc. and their conversions from and to octal, decimal, and hexadecimal digits Understanding basic concepts of computer internal data representation, focusing on numeric data, character codes etc Understanding proposition calculus and logical operations
Some Terminology
Data representation unit and processing unit
1. Binary Digits (Bits)

Two levels of status in computers electronic circuits
Whether the electric current passes through it or not

Whether the voltage is high or low
1 digit of the binary system represented by 1 or 0 Smallest unit that represents data inside the computer 1 bit can represent 2 values of data, 0 or 1 2 bits can represent 4 different values 00, 01, 10, 11
IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2 4
(or Table)
(or Row)
(or Column)
Bit representation
Switches
Current Lights
Open (0) or closed (1)

Not flowing (0) or flowing (1) Off (0) or on (1)
Numeric Conversion
2. Bytes

A byte is a unit that represents with 8 bits 1 character or number, 1 byte = 8 bits E.g. 00000000, 00000010, etc. 1 bit can be represented in 2 ways, i.e. combination of 8 bit patterns into 1 byte enables the representation of 28 = 256 types of information Using a 1-byte word, 256 different characters can be represented sufficient for most Western character sets
Numeric Conversion
2. Bytes
However, the number of kanji (Chinese characters) amounts to thousands of different characters, hence a 1-byte word system is insufficient Two bytes are connected to obtain 16 bits, 216 = 65,536 A 2-byte word
Numeric Conversion
3. Word
The smallest unit that represents data inside a computer Increase operation speed
Numeric Conversion
4. Number systems
Binary system is used to simplify the structure of electronic circuits that make up a computer Hexadecimal number is a numeric value represented by 16 numerals from 0 to 15 to ease the representation of binary numbers for humans computers are capable of only using binary numbers
10
Numeric Systems
Also known as Base Systems or Radix Systems Available digits:

Decimal system (base 10) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Binary system (base 2) 0, 1 Octal system (base 8) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Hexadecimal (base 16) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F where A=10,B=11,C=12,D=13,E=14,F=15
Numeric Data Representation
The true value of numbers are the same The representation of numbers vary

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

Numeric data representation

DECIMAL number (Radix/Base = 10) Weight Value Final (true) value BINARY number (Radix/Base = 2) Weight
2 104 2*104
1 103 2*103
9 102 2*102
9 101 9*101
8 100 8*100
20000 + 1000 + 900 + 90 + 8 = 2199810 1 24 1 23 0 22 0 21 1 20
Value
Final (true) value
1*24
1*23
0*22
0*21
0*20
16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 252

OCTAL number (Radix/Base = 8) Weight Value Final (true) value HEXA number (Radix/Base = 16) Weight Value Final (true) value
Binary Arithmetic
Addition and subtraction of binary numbers
Addition

0 + 0 = 0 (or 010) 0 + 1 = 1 (or 110) 1 + 0 = 1 (or 110) 1 + 1 = 10 (or 210) 00=0 0 1 = -1 10=1 11=0
Subtraction

15
Binary Addition
Result = 1001102
16
Binary Subtraction
Result = 10102
17
Hexadecimal arithmetic
4. Addition and subtraction of hexadecimal numbers
Addition

Performed starting at the lowest (first from the right) digit A carry to the upper digit is performed when the result is higher than 16 Performed starting at the lowest (first from the right) digit A borrow from the upper digit is performed when the result is negative
Subtraction

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Hexadecimal Addition
First column from right

D + 7 = (In the decimal system: 13 + 7 = 20) = 16 (carried 1) + 4 The sum of the first column is 4 and 1 is carried to the second column.
Second column from right

1 + 8 + 1 = (In the decimal system: 10) = A Carried from the first column
Third column from right

A + B = (In the decimal system: 10 + 11 = 21) = 16 (carried 1) + 5 The sum of the third column is 5 and 1 is carried to the fourth column.
The result is (15A4)16.

Hexadecimal Subtraction
First column from right

Since 3 4 = 1, a borrow is performed from D in the second digit (D becomes C). 16 (borrowed 1) + 3 4 = F (In the decimal system: 19 4 = 15)
Second column from right

C 7 = 5 (In the decimal system: 12 7 = 5)
Third column
61=5
The result is (55F)16.

Exercises
Compute the following

a) b) c) d)
2710 + 1510 110112 + 11112 338 + 178 1B16 + F16
Compute the following

a) b) c) d)
5010 2210 1100102 - 101102 628 268 3216 - 1616
21

Radix/Base
300010 = 3 * 10
Exponent
Representation of numeric data

1. Radix and weight
Decimal numbers weight and its meaning

10 is called Radix upper right of 10 (in this example, 4) is called exponent
Binary digits weight and its meaning Used to represent big, small amounts, and exponent to which the radix is raised
2. Auxiliary units and power representation
Radix/Base Conversion

In order to process numeric values in a computer, decimal numbers are converted into binary or hexadecimal numbers However, since we ordinarily use decimal numbers, it would be difficult to understand the meaning of the result of a process if it were represented by binary or hexadecimal numbers. This operation is called radix conversion The following radix/base conversion techniques will be discussed:
1.
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Decimal to Binary Binary to Decimal Binary to Hexadecimal Hexadecimal to Binary Octal to Binary Binary to Octal
1. Decimal to Binary (Integer)

1. 2. 3.
4.
Decimal integer is divided into 2 The quotient and remainder are obtained The quotient is divided into 2 again until the quotient becomes 0 The binary value is obtained by placing the remainder(s) in reverse order
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1. Decimal to Binary (Integer)
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1. Decimal to Binary (Fraction)
Decimal fraction is multiplied by 2

Resulting integer portion is extracted (always be 0 or 1) Resulting fraction portion is multiplied by 2 Operation is repeated until the fraction portion becomes 0
When decimal fractions are converted into binary fractions, most of the times, the conversion is not finished, since no matter how many times the fraction portion is multiplied by 2, it will not become 0. Most decimal fractions become infinite binary fractions.
26
1. Decimal to Binary (Fraction)
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2. Binary to Decimal (Integer)
Performed by adding up the weights of each of the digits of the binary bit string
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2. Binary to Decimal (Fraction)
Same technique as for binary integers.
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3. Binary to Hexadecimal
4-bit binary strings are equivalent to 1 hexadecimal digit The binary number is divided into groups of 4 digits starting from the decimal point In the event that there is a bit string with less than 4 digits, the necessary number of 0s is added and the string is considered as a 4-bit string
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3. Binary to Hexadecimal (Integer)
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3. Binary to Hexadecimal (Fraction)
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4. Hexadecimal to Binary (Integer)
1 digit of the hexadecimal number is represented with a 4-digit binary number
33
4. Hexadecimal to Binary (Fraction)
Same technique as per integer
34
5. Octal to Binary
Convert 1038 to its binary form
35
6. Binary to Octal
Convert 10000112 to Octal
36
Exercises
Convert into binary, octal and hexa

a) b)
c)
2710 1510 50.2210 110112 338 1B.F16
Convert into decimal

a) b) c)
37
Octal-Binary Conversions
Binary to/from Octal conversion

Conversion of binary to/from octal (whole numbers) Conversion of octal fractions
In decimal, 26.9210 = (2 * 101) + (6 * 100) + (9 * 10-1) + (2 * 10-2) 0.48 means 4 * 8-1 = (4/8) 10 = 10 = 0.510 0.2118 means (2 * 8-1) + (1 * 8-2) + (1 * 8-3)
Binary fractions can be converted in a similar manner to octal as that of octal fractions The number can then be converted to decimal by adding up the whole numbers and convert the fractions to decimals
Conversion of binary fractions

38
Quiz
Try this
A.
What number does the next digit position represent in the hexadecimal system?
?
B.
256
16
C.
D.
Use the answer to evaluate the decimal equivalent of 2A9D16 What is the highest decimal number which may be represented by four hexadecimal digits? What is the highest decimal number which may be represented by four octal digits?
Numeric Presentation
Fixed Point (Integers) Numeric Data Data Character Data Decimal Numbers Unpacked Decimal
Represented using decimal arithmetic
Binary Numbers Floating Point (Real Numbers)
Packed Decimal
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Decimal digit representation

Binary coded decimal Unpacked decimal format Packed decimal format
41

o
Binary-coded decimal (BCD) code
Uses 4-bit binary digits (correspond to numbers 0 to 9 of decimal system)
42

BCD code Example:
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Unpacked decimal format

Uses 1 byte for each digit of decimal number Represents values from 0 to 9 in least significant 4 bits of 1 byte and in most significant 4 bits (zone bits) Half of a byte is used (excepting the least significant byte) where the least significant half-byte is used to store the sign

1100 = +ve 1101 = -ve
Waste of resources (eliminated by packed decimal format)
44
Unpacked decimal format
+78910 = F7F8C916
-78910 = F7F8D916

o
Packed decimal format

1 byte represents a numeric value of 2 digits the least significant 4 bits represent the sign bit pattern for the sign is the same as per unpacked decimal format
+78910 = 789C16
-78910 = 789D16
Questions
A) Represent 7089310

in Unpacked Decimal Format in Packed Decimal Format

in Unpacked Decimal Format in Packed Decimal Format
B) Represent 789310

C) F3F9C116 is represented in standard Unpacked Decimal Format

What is its equivalent in decimal? Possible solution?
D) 3F9C16 is represented in standard Packed Decimal Format

What is its equivalent in decimal? Possible solution?


o
Packed decimal format versus Unpacked decimal format
A numeric value can be represented by fewer bytes The conversion into the binary system is easy
48
Binary Representation
Representation of negative integers

Absolute value representation
0 for positive, 1 for negative
Complement representation
Decimal complement 9s complement 10s complement Binary complement 1s complement 2s complement
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Absolute value representation
Examples

(00001100)2 = (+12)10 (10001100)2 = (-12)10 (00000000)2 = +0 (10000000)2 = -0
Issues

Range of values (assumption: 7-bit absolute value representation used)
-63 to +63 equivalent to (26-1) to +(26-1)

Complement representation of negative numbers

Decimal complement The subtraction of each of the digits of a numeric value from the complement
51
Binary complement
1s complement of a given numeric value is the result of the subtraction of each of the digits of this numeric value from 1, as a result, all the 0 and 1 bits of the original bit string are switched.
52
Binary complement
2s complement is 1s complement + 1
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1s complement and 2s complement representation of negative numbers
54
Advantages of 2s complement
Less complicated (only one zero value) Range of values to be represented is wider Subtractions can be performed with addition circuits, simplifying hardware structure
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1s complement and 2s complement representation of negative integers
range of represented numeric values when n-bit binary number is represented by adopting the 1s complement method:
-(2n-1 1) to (2n-1 1)
range of represented numeric values when n-bit binary number is represented by adopting the 2s complement method:
-(2n-1) to (2n-1 1)
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Addition circuits only
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Binary Representation (Fixed Point)
Fixed point
Integer representation
Fixed point is a data representation format used mainly when integer type data is processed One word is represented in a fixed length (e.g. 16 bits and 32 bits) Overflow problem when attempt is made to represent a numeric value that exceeds the fixed length allocated
Decimal point is considered to be immediately preceded by the sign bit
Fraction representation
58
Binary Representation (Fixed Point)
Fixed point
Integer representation Range of values

-(2n-1) to (2n-1 1)
59
Binary Presentation (Fixed Point)
Fixed point
Fraction representation
60
Binary Representation (Floating Point)
Floating point
Used to represent real number type data Used to represent extremely large or small size of data
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Bit Shift Operations
Using bit shifts, the multiplication and division of numeric values can be easily performed
Shifting a binary digit 1 bit to the left, its value is doubled.

When a binary number is shifted n bits to the left, its former value is increased 2n times When a binary number is shifted n bits to the right, its former value decreases 2-n times (divided by 2n)
Arithmetic Shift
To calculate numeric values in the fixed point format using 2s complement representation Rules

Sign bit is not shifted Bit shifted out is lost Bit to be filled into the bit position is vacated as a result of the shift is

For left shifts, insert 0 For right shifts, insert the same bit as the sign bit
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Logical Shift

To change the bit position Rules

Sign bit is also shifted (moved) Bit shifted out is lost Bit to be filled into the bit position vacated as a result of the shift is 0.
64
Bit Shifts

(-16)2 to be shifted 2 bits to the right Arithmetic Shift
65
Bit Shifts
Logical Shift
66
Operation and Precision
Precision of the numeric value presentation

o
o
o
The precision of a number is the range of its error High precision = small error Single precision
Range of numeric values presentable with 16 bits (in the case of an integer without a sign)
Minimum value = (0000 0000 0000 0000)2 = 0 Maximum value = (1111 1111 1111 1111)2 = 65,535 (values higher than 65,535 cannot be represented)
Range of numeric values presentable with 16 bits (in the case of a fraction without a sign)
Minimum value = (0000 0000 0000 0001)2 = 2-16 = 0.0000152587890625000 Maximum value = (1111 1111 1111 1111)2 = 1 2 16 = 0.9999847412109370000 (values lower than 0.00001525878, and values higher than 0.99984741210937 cannot be represented)
68

o
Double precision
Number of digits is increased to widen the range of represented numeric values Represent 1 numeric value with 2 words 1 numeric value presentable with 32 bits (in the case of an integer without a sign)
Minimum value = (0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000)2 = 0 Maximum value = (1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111)2 = 4,294,967,295 (values up to 4,294,967,295 can be represented)
Range of numeric values presentable with 16 bits (in the case of a fraction without a sign)
Minimum value = (0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001)2 = 2-32 = 0.00000000023283064365387 Maximum value = (1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111)2 = 1 2 32 = 0.99999999976716900000000
70
Operation precision
o
Precision of fixed point representation

Range of presentable numeric values depends on the computer hardware (number of bits in one word) Range of represented numeric values differs depending on the number of bits in one word Step size of the integer part is always 1 (regardless of number of bits), and only the maximum value changes In the fraction part, the smaller the step size becomes, the error is also reduced Overflow and underflow
Precision and underflow
Overflow occurs when product is higher than the maximum value that can be represented with the exponent portion (Maximum absolute value < Overflow) Underflow occurs when product is lower than the minimum absolute value (0 < Underflow < Minimum absolute value)
71
Cancellation

When subtraction of 2 floating point numbers of almost equal values is performed Result becomes extremely small, it is left out of the range of numeric values which can be represented Addition of extremely small value and extremely large value is performed Exponents adjusted to the exponent of the largest value (mantissa portion of the small value is shifted largely to the right), leading to the loss of information that should have been presented
Loss of information

72
Non-numeric Value Representation
In order to represent characters using binary digits, codes are used
ASCII, ANSI, UNICode 0 to 9 10 types Uppercase: A to Z Lower case: a to z 52 types Symbolic keys: 40 types Control character keys: 34 types (Space key etc) Numeric keys: Character keys:
Character Representation

To assign a unique bit pattern corresponding to these 136 types of characters and symbols, 256 types of bit patterns i.e. 8 bits are used.
Character codes
o
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) code

Character code of 8 bits (alphabet, numeric characters, etc.) Used in PCs and data transmission 7-bit character code Base of the character codes used in all countries of the world Represents 1 character with 2 bytes (16 bits)
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) code

JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) code
74

o
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
Established to be used as standards Represents 1 character with 2 bytes 2-byte code system unified to all countries To smooth the exchange of data amongst PCs
Shift JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards) code
Unicode

75
Audio representation
o
o o
Multimedia audio
Audio analysis is performed using a numeric formula and once it is converted into digital codes it is processed in the computer. Word processors that accept audio input and speaker recognition are examples of its recent applications.
Image representation
o o o
Image data must be processed to support current multimedia Image data is processed as a set of dots Example
o o
1 bit is used to register the information of each dot (black, white) The representation method that combines the basic colors in each dot is used. Systems that combine the three primary colors (Red, Green and Blue) in 256 levels respectively and represent approximately 16,000,000 colors. In this case, since 8 bits are needed for 1 color, in order to register the information of 1 dot, 24 bits are used.
Information and Logic
Proposition Logic Logical operation
77
Proposition Logic
A proposition is an assertion that something is the case. We use sentences to express propositions. Examples:
(i) The following sentences express the same proposition: - It is raining (ii) The following sentences express the same proposition: - John loves Mary - Mary is loved by John
Proposition Logic

Proposition will always be either true or false Philosophers argue a lot about what constitutes truth. For now, we'll keep it simple:
o
"P" is true if and only if P. "P" is false if and only if not P.
Examples: (i) The proposition "Snow is white" is true if and only if snow is white. (ii) The proposition "Snow is white" is false if and only if snow is not white.
Proposition Logic
Truth table
Proposition 1 The wind is blowing True True Proposition 2 If the wind It is raining blows it rains True False True False
False
False
True
False
False
False
80
Proposition Logic
Examples
p T T F F q T F T F
p T T F F
q T F T F
p and q T F F F
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Logical Operation
A logical operator joins two propositions to form a new, complex, proposition. The truth value of the new proposition is determined by the truth values of the two propositions being joined and by the operator that joins them.
82
Logical Operation
Negation
o
Any proposition p can be converted into its negation with a negation operator, producing the new, complex, proposition:

p means Not p The proposition Not p is true if and only if p is false It is false only if p is true
83
Logical Operation
o
Truth tables for Negation
p T F
p F T
p T T F F
q T F T F
Not p F F T T
84
Logical Operation
Logical Product
o
Any two propositions p and q can be connected with the conjunction AND, producing the new, complex, proposition:

p and q (p q) The proposition p and q is true if and only if both p and q are true It is false otherwise
85
Logical Operation
o
Truth tables for Logical product
p T T F F
q T F T F
pq T F F F
86
Logical Operation
Logical Sum
o
Any two propositions p and q can be connected with the conjunction OR, producing the new, complex, proposition:

p or q (p q) The proposition p and q is true if and only if either p or q are true It is false only if both p and q are false
87
Logical Operation
o
Truth tables for Logical sum
p T T F F
q T F T F
pq T T T F
88
Logical Operation
Exclusive OR
o
Any two propositions p and q can be connected with the conjunction EOR, producing the new, complex, proposition:
p eor q (p q) The proposition p eor q is true only if when p or q is true It is false when both p and q are true or false
89
Logical Operation
o
Truth tables for Exclusive OR
p T T F F
q T F T F
p
F T T F
90
Logical Operation
Negative AND (NAND)

o
Any proposition p can be converted into its negation with a negation operator, producing the new, complex, proposition:

Not p The proposition Not p is true if and only if p is false It is false only if p is true
91
Logical Operation
o
Truth tables for Negative AND (NAND)
P T T F F
Q T F T F
P.Q T F F F
Not (P.Q) F T T T
92
Logical Operation
Negative logical sum (NOR)

Negation of the logical sum o (p q) Summary of the truth table for the logical operations
o
Q NOT p
P AND q
P OR q
P EOR q
P NAND q
P NOR q
T T F F
T F T F
F F T T
T F F F
T T T F
F T T F
F T T T
F F F T
93
Logical Operation
Logical expression laws

o
Logical symbols
Symbols Notation example XY + X+Y X Y
94
Meaning Negation Logical product Logical sum Exclusive OR
NOT AND
OR EOR
Logical Operation - Laws of logical expressions

Logical product law
Logical sum law Exclusive OR law Commutative law Associative law Distributive law Absorption law Restoring law De Morgans law
X X = X, X
X + X = X, X + X X = 0, X
= 0, X 0 = 0, X 1 = X
= 1, X + 0 = X, X + 1 = 1 = 1, X 0 = X, X 1=
X + Y = Y + X, X Y = Y X X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z, X (Y Z) = (X Y) Z X + (Y Z) = (X + Y) (X + Z) X (Y + Z) = (X Y) + (X Z) X + (X Y) = X, X (X + Y) = X =X = , = +
95
Exercises
Use the Laws of Logical Propositions to simplify each of the propositions below to one of the propositions F, T, p, q, p.q, p+q
a) p + q + -p b) p + (q + p) + -q
96

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Information Systems Fundamentals II

IS 121: Information Systems Fundamentals II

Data representations and encryptions; Basic logic used in programming.

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

Data representation unit and processing unit

1. Binary Digits (Bits)

Whether the electric current passes through it or not

Open (0) or closed (1)

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

Also known as Base Systems or Radix Systems Available digits:

Numeric Data Representation

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

Numeric data representation

20000 + 1000 + 900 + 90 + 8 = 2199810 1 24 1 23 0 22 0 21 1 20

Numeric data representation

Addition and subtraction of binary numbers

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

First column from right

Second column from right

Third column from right

The result is (15A4)16.

First column from right

Second column from right

The result is (55F)16.

Compute the following

2710 + 1510 110112 + 11112 338 + 178 1B16 + F16

Compute the following

5010 2210 1100102 - 101102 628 268 3216 - 1616

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

Numeric data representation

Representation of numeric data

Decimal numbers weight and its meaning

10 is called Radix upper right of 10 (in this example, 4) is called exponent

2. Auxiliary units and power representation

1. Decimal to Binary (Integer)

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

1. Decimal to Binary (Integer)

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

1. Decimal to Binary (Fraction)

Decimal fraction is multiplied by 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

1. Decimal to Binary (Fraction)

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

2. Binary to Decimal (Integer)

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

2. Binary to Decimal (Fraction)

Same technique as for binary integers.

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

3. Binary to Hexadecimal (Integer)

IT 121: Information Technology Fundamentals 2 ICS 121: Introduction to Computer Science 2

3. Binary to Hexadecimal (Fraction)