Conductioni in Media

Waktu : 2x50 menit (2 sks)
Isi:
- Media gas sebagai isolator.
- Proses ionisasi.
- Kriteria Townsend untuk breakdown.
-Teori streamer dari breakdown dalam gas.
- Hukum Paschen.
- Pertimbangan praktis dalam menggunakan gas untuk tujuan
isolasi.
Interaksi : Tanya-jawab, tugas
Minggu-11: Conduction and breakdown in gases (1)
Dr. Ir. Hermagasantos Zein
Week-11 : Conduction and breakdown in gases (1)

Topic: Gases as insulating media
Gases as dielectrics is the simplest and the most commonly
Most of electrical apparatus use air as insulating medium
Gases as insulating media such as:
-Nitrogen (N
2
)
-Carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
-Freon (CCl
2
F
2
)
-Sulfhur hexafluoride (Sf
6
)

Various phenomena occur in gaseous dielectrics: When the applied voltage is
1. Low: small current flow between electrodes and the insulation retains its
electrical properties
2. Large: The current flow in the insulation increases very sharply and an
electrical breakdown occurs.
3. A strongly conducting spark formed during breakdown practically produces
a short circuit between electrodes.
4. The maximum voltage applied to the insulation at moment of breakdown is
called the breakdown voltage.
5. Phenomena breakdown in gases as electric properties that produce high
current is essential.


The electrical discharges in gases are of two type:
-Non-sustaining
-Self-sustaining

Definition: -The breakdown in gases is called spark breakdown is as the transition
of a non-sustaining discharges into a self-sustaining discharges.

-The build-up of high currents in a breakdown is due to the process
known as ionization in which electrons and ions are created from
neutral atoms or molecules, and their migration to the anode and
cathode respectively leads to high currents.

Occur two theories:
-Townsend theory and
-Steamer theory (mechanism for breakdown)

The various physical conditions of gases: Presure, temperature, electric
configuration, nature of electrodes surfaces and the availability of initial conducting
particles are known to govern the ionization process.
Topic: Gases as insulating media

A gas in its normal state in almost a perfect insulator. The high voltage applied, the gas
becomes a conductor and an electrical breakdown occurs

The processes of breakdown are ionization by collision, photo ionization and the secondary
ionization process.
In insulating gases (called electron attaching gases) the process of attachment also plays an
important role.

Ionization by collision.

Photo ionization: called radiation.
The process of radiation can be absorbed by atom or molecules:
-excitation of the atom to a higher energy state
-continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or dislocation of
diatomic molecule or direct ionization, etc

Topic: Ionization process
e A e A e + + +
+
i
E
h
c A A hv s + when occurs ionization ,
*

Where: h is the Planks constant
c is the volocity of light
is the wavelength of incident radiation
E
i
is the ionization energy of atom

Substitution value of h and c, We get

cm
E
i
6
10
27 , 1

s
E
i
is in eletron volts (eV): The higher the ionization energy, the shorter will be
the wavelength of the radiation capable of causing ionization.

If a wavelength of radiation 1250 A(amtrong) is capable of causing photo-ionization
of almost all gases.

Secondary ionization process.
By which secondary electrons are produced are the one which sustain a
discharge after it is established due to ionization by collision and photo-
ionization. They are briefly described below:
a. Electron emission due to positive ion impact.
Positive ions are formed due to ionization by collision or photo ionization
and being positively charged, they travel towards the cathode.
b. Electron emission due to photos
To cause an electron to escape from a metal, it should be given enough
energy to overcome the surface potential barrier.
Electron emission from a metal surface at critical condition:

0
A 2755 frequecy threshold and eV 4,5 with surface nickel clean a : example
frequecy. threshold the as known is
ip relationsh by the given is it and frequency the is
electrode metallic the of fuction work the is ,
=
=
>

h
f
f
hf

Electron attachment process
The type of collisions in which electrons may become attached to atoms or molecules
To from negative ions are called attacthment collisions.
Electron attachment process depands on the energy of the electron and the nature of
the gas. It is a very important process from the engineering point of view.

An electron attachmen process cn be represented as:
) (E ion atomic negative k e Atom
a
K + + + +
K is the kinetic energy
E
a
is the electron affinity

Townsends equation
Topic: Townsends criteria for breakdown
d
d
e I
e
I
o
o
0
) 1 ( 1
1

=
1 ) 1 ( =
d
e
o
If the current become un-finite,
breakdown
Self sustaining discharge
Non-sustaining discharge
Volt
T1
To
Ts
Vs
Io
Current
d
e I I
o
0
=

Topic: Streamer theory of breakdown in gases
Causing of Townsends theory fail
First : Current growth occurs as a result of ionization process only. But in practice,
breakdown voltage depend on pressure and geometry of gap.
Second: The mechanism predicts time lags of the order 10
-5
s. In actual practice,
breakdown was observed to occur at very short time of the order 10
-8
s.

So, The Townsend mechanism failed to explain all these observed phenomena.
Around 1940, Raether and, Meek and Loeb: independently proposed the streamer
theory.

It (Pita teori) predict the development of a spark discharge directly from a single
avalanche (longsoran) in which the space charge developed by the avalanche itself is
said to transform the avalanche into a plasma streamer.

-
+
E
E3>E
E1>E
+ Anode
-Cathode
1. A single electron start at cathode by ionization builds up an avalanche that
cross the gap
2. The in avalanche move very fast compared with the positive ions.
3. By the time the electron reach the anode the positive ions are virtually in
original position and form a positive space charge at anode.
4. The secondary avalanches are formed from the few electrons produced due to
photo ionization in the space charge region.
5. This occurs first near the anode where the space charge is maximum, in a
further increase in space charge.
6. This process is very fast and the positive space extends to the cathode very
rapidly resulting in the formation of a streamer.

+ Anode
-Cathode
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
A)
B)
C)

Meek proposed a criteria to estimate the electric field that transforms
an avalanche into a streamer:

Volt/cm
/
10 27 , 5
7
p x
e
x E
x
r
o
o
=
Where: r is radius
alpha is Townsends first ionization coefficient.
p is the gas pressure in torr
x is the distance to which the streamer has extended in the gap.

According Meek, the minimum breakdown voltage is obtained when Er=E
and x=d, the above equation become simple:
p
d
p
E
p
ad ln 5 , 0 ln 5 , 14 ln + + = +
o

Topic: Paschens law
Breakdown criteria in gases is given as
d
V
E also , and
p
let , 1 ) 1 (
2 1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
p
E
f
p
E
f e
d
o
Then: 1 1
1
2
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
pd
V
pdf
e
pd
V
f
Where: f
1
and f
2
are natural function

Let V= f(pd), it is known as Paschens law and important for high voltage engineering.

Topic: Paschens law
Gas Vs(min) pd at Vs min
(Volt) (torr-cm)
Air 327 0,567
Argon 137 0,900
H2 273 1,150
Helium 156 4,000
CO2 420 0,510
N2 251 0,670
N2O 418 0,500
O2 450 0,700
SO2 457 0,330
H2S 414 0,600
Minimum sparking potential for various gases

Topic: Example
1. In an experiment in a certain gas it was found that the steady state current is
5,5x10
-8
A at 8 kV at a distance of 0,4 cm between the plan electrodes. Keeping the
field constant and reducing the distance to 0,1 cm results in a current of 5,5x10
-9
A.
Calculate Townsends primary ionization coefficient alpha?

Solution: The current at the anode I is given by I=I
0
exp(ad)
For two conditions: we get I
1
/I
2
=exp a(d
1
-d
2
)
Substitute, 10=exp a(0,3) or 0,3 a=ln(10)
So a=7,676/cm.torr

2. What will the breakdown strength of air be for small gaps (1mm) and large gaps
(20 mm) under uniform field conditions and standard atmospheric conditions?

Solution: approximately standard atmospheric condition: E=24,22+6,08/d0,5 kV/cm.
For 1 mm gap : E=43,45 kV/cm
For 20 mm gap : E=25,58 kV/cm

Minggu-11 : Conduction and breakdown in gases (1)
Topic: Practical considerations in using gases for insulation purposes
The properties of a gaseous dielectric for high voltage applications:
1. High dielectric strength
2. Thermal stability and chemical inactivity towards materials of construction
3. Non-flammability (bakar) and physiological intertness (bersifat menghilangkan)
4. Low temperature of condensation
Home work:
1. Explain properties of the gas when in the gas media is applied low and high
voltage.
2. Why does Townsends theory fail to explain about gas phenomena.
3. What are advantages of the streamer theory in the gas insulation.
4. What is that mean with collision.
5. Why do the electrons move fast to compare the ions.
6. How will the gap distance of air be for breakdown strength (700 kV) under
uniform field conditions and standard atmospheric conditions?
Note: Approximately standard atmospheric condition: E=24,22+6,08/d
0,5
kV/cm

Thanks a milion
Isi:
- Cairan sebagai isolator.
- Oli trafo.
- Sipat-sipat listrik.
-Test tembus.
- Teori tentang dielectric cairan.
- Interaksi : Tanya-jawab, tugas
Minggu-11: Conduction and breakdown in liquid (2)
Liquid dielectric strangth is more than gas about 10 time. In practice it
commonly use as insulating materials than either salids or gases.

Example: used mainly as high voltage cable, capacitor, filling up transformers
and circuit breaker, atc.

Composition of liquid dielectric: Mixtures of:
Hydrocarbons and weakly polarised
Free from moisture, products of oxidation and other contaminants
Affect the electrical strangth of oil is the presence of water, even 0,01% water in
oil tranformer reduce its electrical strangth to 20%.

Week-12 : Conduction and breakdown in liquid (2)
Topic: Liquids as insulators
Composition of liquid dielectric: Mixtures of:
Hydrocarbons which include paraffins, iso paraffins, naphthalenes and
aromatics.

Become darker due to the formation of acids and resins or sludge
Some of the acids are corrosive to solid insulating material and metal parts.
Deposit of slugde on the transformer core, the coil and inside the oil ducts
reduce circulation of oil

Topic: Transformer oil
Essential in determining the electric performance of liquid
its capacitance per unit volume or its relative permittivety
Its resistivity
Its loss tangen or its power factor which is an indication of the power
loss under ac voltage application
Its ability to withstand high electric stresses.
Topic: Electrical properties
relative permittivity (50 Hz) :
Transformer oil : 2,2 -- 2,3
Cable oil : 2,3 -- 2,6
Capacitor oil : 2,1
Askerels : 4,8
Silicone oil : 2 -- 73
In case of non-polar liquids, permittivity is independent of frequency.
But for polar liquids, such as water, it changes with frequency. Example
permittivity of water is 78 at 50 Hz and reduces to about 5 at 1 MHz.

Resistivities: for application in high voltage should be more than 10
16
ohm-
metre.
Topic: Electrical properties
Power factor : Under ac voltage will determine its performance under load
conditions. It is a measure of the power loss and an important parameter in
cable and capacitor systems. In transformer, the dielectric loss in the oil is
negligible when compared to copper and iron losses.

Dielectric strength: is the most important parameter in the choice of a given
liquid dielectric for a given application. It depends on the atomic and molecular
properties. However, under practical conditions of dielectric strength depends
on the material of electrodes, temperature, type of applied voltage, gas content
in liquid, atc. Which change the dielectric strength by changing the molecular
properties of the liquid.

Topic: Breakdown tests
Breakdown test use electrodes spheres of 0,5 to 1,0 cm in diameter with gap
spacing of about 100-200 micro-metre. The test voltages required for these
tests are usually low, of the order of 50-100 kV. DC conductivities obtained in
pure liquids are very high of 10
-18
10
-20
mho/cm.
Liquid
Maximum breakdown
strength (MV/cm)
Hexane 1,1 - 3
Benzene 1,1
Transformer oil 1,0
Silicone 1,0 - 1,2
Liquid oxygen 2,4
Liquid nitrogen 1,6 - 1,9
Liquid hydrogen 1,0
Liquid helium 0,7
Liquid argon 1,10 - 1,42
Topic: Theory about dielectric liquid
It is to explain the breakdown in the liquid, proposed any theory:

Suspended partical theory:
In commercial liquids, the presence of solid impurities can not be avoided, like
fibres or dispersed solid particles. Permittivity of these particles will be different
from the permittivity of the liquid.

Let the particles is spherical with radius r, in the field is E, a force F.

2
2 1
1 2
3
grad
2 2
1
E
r
F
c c
c c
+
=
Note: Index 1: liquid and 2: particle
Solid particles: permittivity great than liquid
Gas bubbles : permittivity less than liquid
Calvitation and the bubble theory: the breakdown field is given as
Note: Index 1: liquid and 2: bubble
tho is the surface tension of liquid
Vb is the voltage drop in bubble
Where: R = initial radius of the bubbles and betha is ratio of the longer to the
shorter diameter of spherical, is about 1,85.
2
1
0
2 1
2 1
0
1
2 4
) 2 ( 2 1
(
=
rE
V
r
E
b
t c c to
c c
RT pv law gas , 600
2 1
1
1
=
(
= H G
R
E
c
c c
c
c
to
The critical field is
( ) (
(
=

1
1
cosh
1
1
2 / 1
2
1
2
|
| |
|
G
(
=
2
2
1
1 2
3
2
|
|
|
H
Thermal mechanism theory: to explain breakdown under pulse condions is
thermal breakdown. This mechanism is based on extremely large current just
before breakdown.
Stressed oil volume theory: the Impurity of liquid will determine breakdown
strength. The breakdown voltage is highly influenced by the gas content in the
oil, the viscosity of the oil, and the presence of other impurities. The stressed oil
volume is taken as the volume which is contained between the maximum stress
(Emax) contour and 0,9 Emax contour. By this theory the breakdown strength is
inversely proportional to the stressed oil volume. Increase in the stressed oil
volume consequently results in a reduction in the breakdown voltage.
The high current belived projections on cathode surface with densities of order of 1
A/cm cubit. These high density current pulse give rise to localised heating of the oil
which may lead to the formation of vapour bubble.
Questions:
1. Explain the phenomena of electrical conduction in liquid. How does it differ
from that gas?
2. What are commercial liquid dielectrics? How are they different from pure
liquid dielectrics?
3. What are the factors that imfluence conduction in pure liquid dielectrics and
in the commercial liquid dielectrics?
4. Explain the various theories that explain breakdown in commercial liquid
dielectrics.
5. What is the stressed oil volume theory and how does it explain brakdown in
large volume of commercial liquid dielectrics?

Thanks a milion
Isi:
- Lingkup
- Intrinsic or ionic nreakdown
- Electromehanical breakdown
- Failure due to treeing and tracking
- Thermal breakdown
- Electrochemical brealdown
- Breakdown due to internal discharges
- Interaksi : Tanya-jawab, tugas
Minggu-13: breakdown in solid dielectrics (3)
Introduction
1. Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electric circuits ad divices to insulate
one current carrying part fram another when they operate at different voltage.
2. Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown srength compared to liquids and gases.
3. Breakdown in solid dielectrics are of extreme importance in isullation studies.
4. The breakdown mechanism of solid is a complex phenomena, depand on the time of
voltage application. Shown in the ficture
Breakdown strength
Log Time
Intrinsic, electro-
mechanical
streamer
thermal
Erosion and electro
chemical
The various breakdown mechanism can be classified as
1. Intrisic or ionic breakdown
2. Electromechanical breakdown
3. Failure due to treeing and tracking
4. Thermal breakdownelectrochemical breakdown
5. Breakdown due to internal discharges
Intrisic or ionic breakdown
Difinition: The intrisic electric strength is when voltage applied only short
durations of the order of 10
-8
s, the dielectric strength of a solid dieletric
increases rapidly to an upper limit.
The hghest dieletric strength depands only on the structure of the material
and the temperature.
The maximum electric strength is 15MV/cm for polyvinyl-alcohol at -196
0
C.
And it is rangs from 5 MV/cm to 10 MV/cm.
Intrisic breakdown depands upon the presence of free electrons which are
capable of migration through the lattice of the dielectric. Usually, a small
number of conduction electrons are present in solid dielectrics, structural
imperfections and small amounts of impurities.
Trapped electrons are released, and these electrons participate in the
conduction procss. Base on this principle, two types of intrinsic breakdown
mechanisms: electronic and avalanche/sreamer breakdown.
Electronic breakdown
Free electrons are also assumed to be large, and electrons collisions occur
When an electric field is applied, electrons gain energy from electric field
and cross the forbidden energy gap fram the valency to the conduction
band.
When this process is repeated, more and more electrons become available
in the conduction band, eventually leading to breakdown.

Avalanche / steamer breakdown
This is similar to breakdown in gases due to cumulative ionization.
Conduction electrons gain sufficient energy above a certain critical electric
field and cause liberation of electrons from the lattice atoms by collisions.
An electron starts from the cathode will drift towards the anode and during
this motion gains energy from field and loses it during collisions.
In practice, breakdown does not occur by the formation of a single
avalanche itself, but occurs as a result of many avalanches formed within
the electric and extending step by step through the entire of the material.

Electromechanical brakdown


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