T cell

T cells or T lymphocytes belong to a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells(NK cells), by the presence of a T cell receptor (TCR) on the cell surface. They are called T cells because they mature in the thymus.

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Scanning electron micrograph of T lymphocyte (right), a platelet (center) and a red surja blood cell (left)

There are several subsets of T cells, each with a distinct function.

Helper T-cells Cytotoxic T-cells Memory T-cells Regulatory T-cells Natural killer T-cells T- cells (gamma delta)

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T helper cell (TH cells)

assist other white blood cells in immunologic processes, including maturation of B cells into plasma cells and memory B cells, and Activation of cytotoxic T cells and macrophages. These cells are also known as CD4+ T cells because they express the CD4 protein on their surface. Helper T cells become activated when they are presented with peptide antigens by MHC class II molecules, which are expressed on the surface of antigen presenting cells(APCs).
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 Once activated, they divide rapidly and secrete small proteins called cytokines that regulate or assist in the active immune response. These cells can differentiate into one of several subtypes, including TH1, TH2, TH3, TH17, or TFH, which secrete different cytokines to facilitate a different type of immune response.

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Cytotoxic T cells (TC cells, or CTLs)

destroy virally infected cells and tumor cells. And are also implicated in transplant rejection. These cells are also known asCD8+ T cells since they express the CD8 glycoprotein at their surface. These cells recognize their targets by binding to antigen associated with MHC class I, which is present on the surface of nearly every cell of the body.
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 Through IL-10, adenosine and other molecules secreted by regulatory T cells, the CD8+ cells can be inactivated to an anergic state, which prevent autoimmune diseases

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Memory T cells
are a subset of antigen-specific T cells that persist long-term after an infection has resolved. They quickly expand to large numbers of effector T cells upon re-exposure to their cognate antigen, thus providing the immune system with "memory" against past infections.

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 Memory T cells comprise two subtypes: central memory T cells (TCM cells) and effector memory T cells (TEM cells). Memory cells may be either CD4+ or CD8+. Memory T cells typically express the cell surface protein CD45RO.

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Regulatory T cells (Treg cells)

formerly known as suppressor T cells, are crucial for the maintenance of immunological tolerance. Their major role is to shut down T cellmediated immunity toward the end of an immune reaction and to suppress auto-reactive T cells that escaped the process of negative selection in the thymus.
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 Two major classes of CD4+ Treg cells have been described naturally occurring Treg cells and adaptive Treg cells. Naturally occurring Treg cells can be distinguished from other T cells by the presence of an intracellular molecule called FoxP3. Mutations of the FOXP3 gene can prevent regulatory T cell development, causing the fatal autoimmune disease . Adaptive Treg cells (also known as Tr1 cells or Th3 cells) may originate during a normal immune response
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Natural killer T cells (NKT cells )

bridge the adaptive immune system with the innate immune system. That recognize peptide antigens presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, NKT cells recognize glycolipid antigen presented by a molecule called CD1d.

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 Once activated, these cells can perform functions ascribed to both Th and Tc cells (i.e., cytokine production and release of cytolytic/cell killing molecules). They are also able to recognize and eliminate some tumor cells and cells infected with herpes viruses

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 T cells (gamma delta T cells)

represent a small subset of T cells that possess a distinct T cell receptor (TCR) on their surface. In T cells, the TCR is made up of one -chain and one -chain. This group of T cells is much less common (2% of total T cells) , but are found at their highest abundance in the gut mucosa. The antigenic molecules that activate T cells are still widely unknown.
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Development of T-cells
All T cells originate from haematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The earliest thymocytes express neither CD4 nor CD8, and are therefore classed as doublenegative (CD4-CD8-) cells. As they progress through their development they become double-positive thymocytes (CD4+CD8+),
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 and finally mature to single-positive (CD4+CD8- or CD4-CD8+) thymocytes that are then released from the thymus to peripheral tissues. About 98% of thymocytes die during the development processes in the thymus by failing either positive selection or negative selection, whereas the other 2% survive and leave the thymus to become mature immunocompetent T cells.
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T cell deficiency
Causes of T cell deficiency include lymphocytopenia (An abnormally small number of lymphocytes in the circulating blood) of T cells and/or defects on function of individual T cells. Complete insufficiency of T cell function can result from hereditary conditions such as severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Causes of partial insufficiencies of T cell function include acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and hereditary conditions . The main pathogens of concern in T cell deficiencies are intracellular pathogens, including Herpes simplex virus, Mycobacterium and Listeria. fungal infections are also more common and severe in T cell deficiencies.
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B-cells
B cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response . B cells are an essential component of the adaptive immune system. B cells, which are the precursors of plasma cells, are characterized by the presence of a Bcell receptor able to bind specifically an antigen.
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 Their principal functions are to make antibodies against antigens, perform the role of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and eventually develop into memory B cells after activation by antigen interaction. The abbreviation "B", in B cell, comes from the bursa of Fabricius in birds, where they mature. In mammals, immature B cells are formed in the bone marrow,

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Development of B cells
Immature B cells are produced in the bone marrow of most mammals. After reaching the IgM+ immature stage in the bone marrow, these immature B cells migrate to secondary lymphoid tissues (such as the spleen, lymph nodes, Peyer's patches, etc.) where they are called transitional B cells, and some of these cells differentiate into mature B lymphocytes
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B cell types
Plasma B-cells Memory B-cells B-1 cells B-2 cells Marginal-zone B-cells Follicular B-cells

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Plasma B cells (also known as plasma cells, plasmocytes, and effector B cells)
are large B cells that have been exposed to antigen and produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies, which assist in the destruction of microbes by binding to them and making them easier targets for phagocytes and activation of the complement system. An electron micrograph of these cells reveals large amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum, responsible for synthesizing the antibody, in the cell's cytoplasm. These are short lived cells and undergo apoptosis .

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Memory B cells
are formed from activated B cells that are specific to the antigen encountered during the primary immune response. These cells are able to live for a long time, and can respond quickly following a second exposure to the same antigen.

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B-1 cells
B-1 cells are present in low numbers in the lymph nodes and spleen and are instead found predominantly in the peritoneal and pleural cavities.

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B-2 cells
This term (also: B-2 B-cells) refers to a subset of B-cells , the majority of the B-cells in spleen and lymph nodes . These cells are small, long-lived resting cells that express low levels of surface IgM, high amounts of IgD, and a variety of surface markers.
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Marginal zone B-cell

Marginal zone B cells are non circulating mature B cells that segregate anatomically into the marginal zone (MZ border of red and white pulp of spleen) of the spleen. MZ B cells are not fully formed until 2 to 3 weeks after birth in rodents and 1 to 2 years in humans.[ The MZ B cells are especially well positioned as a first line of defence against systemic blood-borne antigens that enter the circulation and become trapped in the spleen
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follicular B-cells
Activated follicular B-cells can differentiate into short-lived plasma cells that do not migrate to distant sites. Follicular B-cells can accumulate around vascular sinusoids(Tiny endothelium-lined passages for blood in the tissue of an organ) in the bone marrow, where they can be activated by blood borne microbes and differentiate into IgM-secreting antibody-forming cells. This process is independent of T-cells
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Functions
The human body makes millions of different types of B cells each day that circulate in the blood and lymphatic system performing the role of immune surveillance. They do not produce antibodies until they become fully activated. Each B cell has a unique receptor protein (referred to as the B cell receptor (BCR)) on its surface that will bind to one particular antigen. The BCR is a membrane-bound immunoglobulin, and it is this molecule that allows the distinction of B cells from other types of lymphocyte, as well as being the main protein involved in B cell activation.

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 Once a B cell encounters its cognate antigen and receives an additional signal from aT helper cell, it can further differentiate into one of the two types of B cells (plasma B cells and memory B cells). The B cell may either become one of these cell types directly or it may undergo an intermediate differentiation step. Other functions for B cells include antigen presentation, cytokine production and lymphoid tissue organization.
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Activation of B cells
B cells that have not been exposed to antigen, also known as nave B cells, can be activated in two ways T cell-dependent or Independent,

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T cell-dependent activation
Most antigens are T-dependent, meaning T cell help is required for maximal antibody production. T dependent antigens contain proteins that are presented on B cell Class II MHC to a special subtype of T cell called a Th2 cell. the T cell secretes cytokines that activate the B cell. These cytokines trigger B cell proliferation and differentiation into plasma cells. memory cell generation occur in response to Tdependent antigens.
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T cell-independent activation
Many antigens are T cell-independent in that they can deliver the signals to the B cell. Many bacteria have repeating carbohydrate epitopes that stimulate B cells,

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B cell-related pathology
Aberrant antibody production by B cells is implicated in many autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis

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Natural killer cell

A cell that can react against and destroy another cell without prior sensitization to it. Abbreviated NK cell. NK cells are part of our first line of defence against cancer cells and virus-infected cells. NK cells are small lymphocytes that originate in the bone marrow and develop without the influence of the thymus. An NK cell attaches to a target cell, releases chemicals that breach its cell wall, and causes it to lyse (break up).
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