Particle Physics

2nd Handout

Feynman Graphs of QFT

•Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
•QED
•Standard model vertices
•Amplitudes and Probabilities
•QCD
•Running Coupling Constants
•Quark confinement
http://ppewww.ph.gla.ac.uk/~parkes/teaching/PP/PP.html

Chris Parkes
 • See Advanced QM option

Adding Relativity to QM
Free particle p2 Apply QM prescription p → − i∇
=E
2m
2
∂ψ
Get Schrödinger Equation − ∇2Ψ = i
2m dt
Missing phenomena:
Anti-particles, pair production, spin
1 2 p2
Or non relativistic E = mv =
2 2m
Whereas relativistically
E 2 − p 2c 2 = m 2c 4
Applying QM prescription again gives:
2
Klein-Gordon Equation 1 ∂ψ2
 mc 
− 2 2
+ ∇ 2
ψ =  ψ
c dt  
Quadratic equation → 2 solutions
One for particle, one for anti-particle
Dirac Equation → 4 solutions 2
particle, anti-particle each with spin up +1/2, spin down -1/2
 Positron
KG as old as QM, originally dismissed. No spin 0 particles known.
Pion was only discovered in 1948.
Dirac equation of 1928 described known spin ½ electron.
Also described an anti-particle – Dirac boldly postulated existence of positron

Discovered by Anderson in 1933 using a cloud chamber (C.Wilson)

Track curves due to magnetic field F=qv×B

3
 Transition Probability
reactions will have transition probability
How likely that a particular initial state will transform to a specified final state

e.g. decays Interactions

≡ IVρ

Transition rate≡Proby of decay/unit time ≡cross-section x incident flux

We want to calculate the transition rate between initial state i and final state f,
We Use Fermi’s golden rule
This tells us that Γfi (transition rate) is proportional to the
transition matrix element Tfi squared (Tfi 2)
f H ' k k H 'i
T fi = f H ' i + ∑ + ....
k ≠i Ei − Ek
This is what we calculate from our QFT, using Feynman graphs 4
Quantum ElectroDynamics (QED)
• Developed ~1948 Feynman,Tomonaga,Schwinger
• Feynman illustrated with diagrams
annhilation
Photon emission e- Pair production
e- e-
e-

γ γ e+ e+ γ

Time: Left to Right. Anti-particles:backwards in time. c.f. Dirac hole theory

M&S 1.3.1,1.3.2
Process broken down into basic components.
In this case all processes are same diagram rotated

We can draw lots of diagrams for electron scattering (see lecture)

Compare with f H ' k k H 'i
T fi = f H ' i + ∑ + ....
k ≠i Ei − Ek 5
 Orders of α
• The amplitude T is the sum of all
amplitudes from all possible diagrams
Feynman graphs are calculational tools, they have terms associated with them
Each vertex involves the emag coupling (α=1/137) in its amplitude

So, we have a perturbation series – only lowest order terms needed

More precision → more diagrams

There can be a lot of diagrams!

N photons, gives αn in amplitude
c.f. anomalous magnetic moment:

After 1650 two-loop

Electroweak
diagrams -
Calculation accurate
at 10-10 level
and experimental6
precision also!
The main standard model vertices

αs α αW

α s ≈ 0.1
1
At low energy: α =
137
1
αW =
Strong: 29
All quarks (and
EM:
anti-quarks) Weak neutral current: Weak charged current:
All charged particles
No change of All particles All particles 7
No change of flavour
flavour No change of flavour Flavour changes
 Amplitude→ Probability
The Feynman diagrams give us the amplitude,
σ ∝|Tfi|2 c.f. ψ in QM whereas probability is |ψ|2

(1)
So, two emag vertices:
e.g. e-e+ →µ-µ+ amplitude gets factor from each vertex α α =α

And xsec gets amplitude squared ∝α2

for e-e+ →qq with quarks of charge q (1/3 or 2/3) ∝ ( q α α ) = q α
2 2 2

•Also remember : u,d,s,c,t,b quarks and they each come in 3 colours

•Scattering from a nucleus would have a Z term
(2)

If we have several diagrams contributing to same process,

we much consider interference between them e.g.
(a) (b) e- e-
e-
e-
e+ e+
e+ γ 8
e+
Same final state, get terms for (a+b)2=a2+b2+ab+ba
 Massive particle exchange
Forces are due to exchange of virtual field quanta (γ,W,Z,g..)

E,p conserved overall in the process but not for exchanged bosons.

You can break Energy conservation -

as long as you do it for a short enough time that you don’t notice!

i.e. don’t break uncertainty principle.

B Consider exchange of particle X, mass mx, in CM of A:

A(m A ,0) → A( E A , p) + X ( E X ,−p)
∆E = E X + E A − m A
X
∆E → 2 p : p → ∞
A ∆E → m X : p → 0
∆E ≥ m X For all p, energy not conserved
Uncertainty principle
Particle range R cτ ≈ c / ∆E = / m x c
So for real photon, mass 0, range is infinite
For W (80.4 GeV/c2) or Z (91.2 GeV/c2), range is 2x10-3 fm 9
 Virtual particles
This particle exchanged is virtual (off mass shell)
e.g.
e-
γ µ- Eγ = 2 E
symmetric (E,p)
Electron-positron
pγ = 0
collider (E,-p) e
+ µ+
*2 2 2
mγ = Eγ − pγ ≠ 0
(E γ, pγ)

Yukawa Potential
Strong Force was explained in previous course as neutral pion exchange
Consider again:
•Spin-0 boson exchanged, so obeys Klein-Gordon equation
See M&S 1.4.2, can show solution is
g 2 e−r / R Can rewrite in terms of dimensionless
V (r ) = − R is range
4π r strength parameter g2
αX = −
2
e 1 4π c
For mx→0, get coulomb potential V (r ) = − 10
4πε 0 r
7.1 M&S
Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)
QED – mediated by spin 1 bosons (photons) coupling to conserved electric charge
QCD – mediated by spin 1 bosons (gluons) coupling to conserved colour charge

u,d,c,s,t,b have same 3 colours (red,green,blue), so identical strong interactions

[c.f. isospin symmetry for u,d], leptons are colourless so don’t feel strong force

•Significant difference from QED:

• photons have no electric charge
• But gluons do have colour charge – eight different colour mixtures.
Hence, gluons interact with each other. Additional Feynman graph vertices:

Self-interaction

αs
3-gluon 4-gluon

These diagrams and the difference in size of the coupling constants are responsible
11
for the difference between EM and QCD
Running Coupling Constants - QED

+
+ Charge +Q in dielectric medium
- +

-
- Molecules nearby screened,
At large distances don’t see full charge
+ - +Q - + Only at small distances see +Q
- - +
+
-
+

Also happens in vacuum – due to spontaneous production of virtual e+e- pairs

e+ And diagrams with

γ
γ two loops ,three loops….
e+ e- each with smaller effect: α,α2….
γ α QED – small variation
e-
1/128
As a result coupling strength grows with |q2| of photon,
1/137
higher energy ⇒smaller wavelength gets closer to bare charge 0 |q2| (90GeV)2
12
 Coupling constant in QCD
•Exactly same replacing photons with gluons and electrons with quarks
•But also have gluon splitting diagrams

This gives anti-screening effect.

g
Coupling strength falls as |q2| increases
g g
Grand Unification ?
g

Strong variation in strong coupling

From αs≈ 1 at |q2| of 1 GeV2
LEP data To αs at |q2| of 104 GeV2

Hence:
•Quarks scatter freely at
high energy

•Perturbation theory converges very

Slowly as αs ≈ 0.1 at current expts
And lots of gluon self interaction diagrams
13
 Range of Strong Force
Gluons are massless, hence expect a QED like long range force
But potential is changed by gluon self coupling

Qualitatively:
QED QCD Form of QCD potential:
αs
VQCD =− 4
3+ kr
r
+ - q q Coulomb like to start with,
but on ~1 fermi scale energy
sufficient for fragmentation
Field lines pulled into strings
Standard EM field
By gluon self interaction
QCD – energy/unit length stored in field ~ constant.
Need infinite energy to separate qqbar pair.
Instead energy in colour field exceeds 2mq and new
q qbar pair created in vacuum

This explains absence of free quarks in nature.

Instead jets (fragmentation) of mesons/baryons
NB Hadrons are colourless, Force between 14
hadrons due to pion exchange. 140MeV→1.4fm
Formation of jets
1. Quantum Field Theory – calculation
2. Parton shower development
3. Hadronisation

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 Summary
• Add Relativity to QM →anti-particles,spin
• Quantum Field Theory of Emag – QED
• Feynman graphs represent terms in perturbation series in powers
of α
• Couples to electric charge
3. Standard Model vertices for Emag, Weak,Strong
• Diagrams only exist if coupling exists
• e.g. neutrino no electric charge, so no emag diagram
4. QCD – like QED but..
• Gluon self-coupling diagrams
• α strong larger than α emag
5. Running Coupling Constants
• α strong varies, perturbation series approach breaks down
6. QCD potential – differ from QED due to gluon interactions
• Absence of free quarks, fragmentation into colourless hadrons

Now, consider evidence for quarks, gluons…. 16