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    Folds, Faults, and Other Records of Rock Deformation

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    Abdul Moeed Kalson
    1) Folds and faults are the two most common types of rock deformation resulting from the forces that shape the Earth's crust. 2) Structural geology studies how rocks deform through folding and faulting. Key concepts include strike, dip, and distinguishing between hanging walls and footwalls. 3) The type of deformation that occurs depends on factors like temperature, pressure, and rock type - brittle deformation involves fracturing while ductile deformation involves bending or recrystallization.

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    Folds, Faults, and Other Records of Rock Deformation

    Uploaded by

    Abdul Moeed Kalson
    92 views90 pages
    1) Folds and faults are the two most common types of rock deformation resulting from the forces that shape the Earth's crust. 2) Structural geology studies how rocks deform through folding and faulting. Key concepts include strike, dip, and distinguishing between hanging walls and footwalls. 3) The type of deformation that occurs depends on factors like temperature, pressure, and rock type - brittle deformation involves fracturing while ductile deformation involves bending or recrystallization.

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    GEOLOGY

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    Maps Structure

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    1) Folds and faults are the two most common types of rock deformation resulting from the forces that shape the Earth's crust. 2) Structural geology studies how rocks deform through folding and faulting. Key concepts include strike, dip, and distinguishing between hanging walls and footwalls. 3) The type of deformation that occurs depends on factors like temperature, pressure, and rock type - brittle deformation involves fracturing while ductile deformation involves bending or recrystallization.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    92 views90 pages

    Folds, Faults, and Other Records of Rock Deformation

    Uploaded by

    Abdul Moeed Kalson
    1) Folds and faults are the two most common types of rock deformation resulting from the forces that shape the Earth's crust. 2) Structural geology studies how rocks deform through folding and faulting. Key concepts include strike, dip, and distinguishing between hanging walls and footwalls. 3) The type of deformation that occurs depends on factors like temperature, pressure, and rock type - brittle deformation involves fracturing while ductile deformation involves bending or recrystallization.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    of 90

    Folds, Faults, and other Records of Rock Deformation

    How Do You Fold Hard Rock?


    18th and 19th century geologists were puzzled by how hard, solid rocks could be bent, tilted and fractured What forces could deform hard rocks in such a manner?

    Deformation of Rocks
    Folding and faulting are the most common forms of deformation in the sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks that compose the Earths crust
    Structural Geology is the study of the deformation of rocks and its effects.

    Orientation of Deformed Rocks


    We need some way to describe the geometry of geologic structures. So we use the terms strike and dip. Strike: compass direction of a rock layer as it intersects with a horizontal surface.

    Dip: acute angle between the rock layer and the horizontal surface, measured perpendicular to strike.

    Strike and Dip on a Rooftop

    Strike and Dip in a Rock Structure

    Displaying Strike and Dip on a Map


    N

    35O
    W
    Direction of strike
    Direction of down dip

    Creating a Geological Map and Cross Section


    A geological map is a convenient tool which is commonly used by geologists for recording such information and the location of outcrops, the nature of their rocks, and the dips and strikes on inclined layers

    What determines if a rock Folds (bends) or faults (breaks)?


    Type of force applied
    Pressure Temperature

    Rock (mineral) composition

    Depth at Which the Deformation Occurs is a Direct Factor


    At shallow crust depths, rock has a greater probability of breaking At deeper crust depths, rock usually deforms

    Strength
    Ability of an object to resist deformation

    In lab, marble was tested


    Fractured Deformed

    Strain
    Any change in original shape or size of an object in response to stress acting on the object

    Three Major Types of Directed Stress


    Compression Extension Shear

    Compression
    Action of oppositely directed forces acting towards each other at the same time

    Tension
    Action of coinciding and oppositely directed forces acting away from each other

    Shear
    Action of coinciding and oppositely directed forces acting parallel to each other across a surface

    Deformation Textures
    As rocks along a fault plane shear past each other, they grind and mechanically fragment solid rock and promote recrystallization under the high pressures

    Fault breccias:
    Along the fault, the rocks fragment and then are lithified into breccias composed of angular fragments of various sizes

    Mylonites
    When the deformation along a fault occurs, if the temperature and/or pressure is high enough, you can form metamorphic rocks called mylonites A mylonite rock can display minerals that have been texturally changed by physical movement

    Texture deformation in mylonite

    Types of Deformation

    Elastic Ductile (plastic) Brittle (rupture)

    Elastic Deformation

    Temporary change in shape or size that is recovered when the deforming force is removed (Like squeezing a piece of rubber)

    Ductile (Plastic) Deformation


    Permanent change in shape or size Under goes smooth and continuous plastic deformation under stress Does NOT recover original shape

    Brittle Deformation (Rupture)


    As the applied force is increased, the rock undergoes little change until it suddenly breaks Usually along a zone of weakness

    Brittle Versus Ductile


    Some rocks are naturally brittle Some rocks are naturally ductile A rock that is brittle at shallow depths can be ductile at greater depths

    Factors that Affect Deformation


    Temperature
    Pressure

    Strain rate
    Rock type
    The variation of these factors determines whether a rock will fault or fold

    Effects of Rock Type on Deformation


    Some rocks are stronger than others. Competent: rocks that deform only under great stresses Incompetent: rocks that deform under moderate to low stresses

    How Rocks Fracture

    Joints Faults

    Joints

    Cracks in rocks along which there has been no appreciable displacement.

    Definition of Fault
    Fractures in rocks created by tectonic processes (Movement of the rock on both sides of the fault)

    Faults
    Regardless of size, all faults are classified by the direction of relative movement (which is called slip)

    Types of Faults
    Dip-slip faults Normal Reverse Strike-slip faults Right-lateral Left-lateral Oblique-slip faults

    Faults
    Hanging Wall: Term used by miners. They could hang their light on this side of the fault because it was above them. Footwall: Also from the miners, this side of the wall upon which they could stand below the hanging wall.

    Dip-slip Faults
    Motion of the fault blocks is parallel to the dip direction

    Two types:
    Normal movement is down dip

    Reverse movement is up dip

    Foot wall

    Hanging wall

    Normal Fault
    hanging wall hanging wall

    footwall

    footwall

    Before

    After
    cross section

    Normal Fault

    hanging wall

    footwall

    cross section

    Foot wall

    Hanging wall

    Reverse Fault
    hanging wall

    footwall

    cross section

    Rift Valley

    Rift Valley

    Thrust Fault
    Thrust faults are low-angle reverse faults
    hanging wall

    footwall

    cross section

    Strike-slip Faults
    Motion of the fault blocks is parallel to the strike direction

    There are 2 types Right-lateral Left-lateral

    Left-lateral

    Left-lateral Strike Slip Fault

    aerial (map) view

    Right-lateral Strike Slip Fault

    aerial (map) view

    San Andreas Fault (right-lateral)

    Displacement both vertically and horizontally

    Folding of Rocks
    Produced by tectonic forces

    Very common form of deformation that is viable in layered rock


    Scale can be from centimeters to hundreds of kilometers

    Fold Terminology
    Axial plane: the plane of mirror symmetry dividing the fold into two limbs Axis: the line formed by the intersection of the axial plane and a bedding plane Horizontal fold: fold where the axis is horizontal Plunging fold: fold where the axis is not horizontal

    More Fold Terminology

    Syncline: a sequence of folded rocks with the youngest rocks on the inside of the fold Anticline: a sequence of folded rocks with the oldest rocks on the inside of the fold

    Some More Fold Terminology


    Symmetrical folds: have beds dipping symmetrically on each side of axial plane Asymmetrical folds: have the bed on one side of fold dipping more steeply than other Overturned folds: one or both sides of fold dipping beyond vertical

    Asymmetrical folds

    Overturned folds

    In the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern U.S., most anticlines and synclines are plunging folds rather than horizontal folds

    And Even More Fold Terminology

    Dome: a sequence of folded rocks in which all the beds dip away from a central point Basin: a sequence of folded rocks in which all the beds dip towards a central point

    Syncline exposed in a quarry near Middletown, Virginia

    Folds are Clues to a Regions Tectonic History

    Valley and Ridge Province Near Appalachian Mountains: Remnants of a Folded Mountain Belt

    Dating the Order of Deformation


    Use geometry:
    Inclusions

    Cross-cutting relationships
    Combine with fossils and radiometric dating

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