Segmentals

Linguists
make use of the speech apparatus to classify and describe the sounds of speech. The stream of speech sound is cut up into segments according to the way the sound is produced. One basic classification is the distinction between vowels and consonants. Vowels are those segments of speech produced without any interruption or stoppage of the airstream. Passage of air is continuous and frictionless. Consonants, on the other hand, are segments marked by interruption of the airstream. All vowels are produced with vibration of the vocal cords, but consonants may be produced with or without such vibration.
The
answers to the following questions can tell us how the consonants are produced and also help us to classify or describe them.
Are the vocal cords vibrating? The answer to this question tells us whether the sound is voiced or voiceless. What point of articulation is approached by the articulator? The answer gives the adjective in naming the consonant. What is the manner of articulation? The answer supplies the noun in naming the consonant. Is the air issuing through the mouth or nose? The answer tells us whether it is an oral or a nasal sound.
1.
2.
3.
4.
[p] [b]
[m] [w]
[f] [v]
[] []
[t] [d]
[s] [z]
[n] [l] [r]
[] [3]
[t] [d3] [y]
[k] [g] []
[h]
Stops
are produced by stopping the passage of the breath stream, with a buildup of pressure behind the closure and then releasing the breath.
[p] [t] [k]
[b] [d] [g]
Fricatives
are produced when the air stream is not completely stopped but passes through with friction or a hissing sound.
[f]
[] [s]
[]
[r]
[v] [] [z] [3] [h]
An
affricate is produced when a stop combines with a fricative.
[t]
[d3]
These
sounds are produced with the air stream passing through the nose rather than the mouth.
[m] [n] []
In
the production of the lateral, the air stream is stopped in the center by the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, while the air passes along one or both sides of the tongue.
[l]
There
is lack of friction in the production of these sounds. Aside from that, the sounds are vowel-like in their voicing but they function as consonants.
[w] [y]
[b] [d] [g]
[v]
[] [z]
[3]
[d3]
[m] [n]
[] [l]
[w] [r] [y]
[p] [t] [k]
[f] [] [s]
[] [h] [t]
/p/ pat, clap 2. /b/ boy, cab 3. /t/ tan, sit 4. /d/ dog, bed 5. /k/ cry, sick 6. /g/ go, beg
1.
7. /f/
fine, safe 8. /v/ vein, have 9. // thumb, bath 10.// this, bathe 11./s/ sun, class 12./z/ zoo, does
13.//
shy, dish 14./3/ leisure, beige 15./h/ his, ahead 16./t/ cheek, match 17./d3/ just, bridge 18./m/ me, trim
19./n/
not, van 20.// sing, long 21./l/ last, ball 22./r/ rib, tar 23./w/ win, away 24./y/ yes, soya
Since
vowels are produced with free passage of the air stream, they are less easy to describe and classify than consonants. The two articulatory organs to be considered are the tongue and lips for these two organs can mold and change the shape of the vocal tract by their movements in the production of vowels. It is the general shape of the vowel tract that gives the distinctive quality of sound of any vowel.
The
tongue is very flexible. When we speak, there is a hump in the tongue that moves up and down as well as forward and backward in the mouth. Vowels are described mainly in relation to the highest point of the hump formed by the tongue. In order to say where this highest point lies in the mouth we must fix it on two axes at the same time. The horizontal axis is from front to the back of the mouth, and the vertical axis from the floor to the roof of the mouth.
The
three points on the horizontal axis are called front, central and back. This axis shows how far front or back the highest point is: front is beneath the hard palate, back is beneath the soft palate and central is beneath where the hard and soft palate meet. The three points on the vertical axis are high, mid and low. This axis shows how high the hump is.
The
lips provide a third dimension in the description of vowels. They can assume a great variety of shapes independently of the tongue. The lips can be rounded, when their corners are brought forward or unrounded, when the corners are pulled back. The tongue and lips together provide a three-term label for identifying vowels. In order to name the vowels, begin with the vertical axis, proceed to the horizontal axis and finally note the lip position.
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
/i/ leap, feel /I/ lip, fill /e/ bait, haven // set, then // fan, mad // hot, doll // taught, walk
/o/ code, low 9. /u/ pool, cooed 10./U/ pull, could 11.// gun, but 12./I/ line, fight 13./u/ pound, foul 14./I/ noise, boy 15./r/ bird, curtain
8.

Segmentals

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Linguists

[n] [l] [r]

[p] [t] [k]

[b] [d] [g]

[v] [] [z] [3] [h]

affricate is produced when a stop combines with a fricative.

[b] [d] [g]

[w] [r] [y]

[p] [t] [k]

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