Chapter 9

Introduction to Formation Evaluation

GOALS OF FORMATION EVALUATION
To evaluate the presence or absence of commercial
quantities of hydrocarbons in formations penetrated by, or
lying near, the wellbore.
To determine the static and dynamic characteristics of
productive reservoirs.
To detect small quantities of hydrocarbon which
nevertheless may be very significant from an exploration
standpoint.
To provide a comparison of an interval in one well to the
correlative interval in another well

Methods
Mud logging
Coring
Wireline Logging
Testing
Sampling

Mud Log
Immediate interpretation of what the drill bit has
penetrated and whether there are any hydrocarbons
present (a show).
Making maps of the subsurface geology.
Coring - Conventional
Taking a core requires that the regular
drill bit be removed from the hole. It is
replaced with a "core bit", which is
capable of grinding out and retrieving the
heavy cylinder of rock.

The core bit is usually coated with small,
sharp diamonds that can grind through
the hardest rock. A core bit cuts very
slowly.

A core is a solid cylinder of rock about 4-
5 inches in diameter, and a single core
will usually be about 30 feet long.
Coring - Conventional
Whole Core
Slab Core
Coring - Sidewall
This method is cheaper than the
conventional coring.

Cores can be taken in hours, instead
of days.

In sidewall coring, a slim wireline
coring tool is run into the hole. The
tool may be of two general types;
either "rotary sidewall" or
"percussion".

Typically, cores about 1" in diameter
and 1" to 2" long can be retrieved
with this method.
Coring - Sidewall
Coring - Sidewall
INTRODUCTION - WHAT
IS LOGGING?
In situ meas. (vs. depth) of
Rock properties
Fluid properties
When
Openhole (before casing)
While drilling (LWD / MWD)
After drilling (wireline)
Cased hole
Interpretation for
Geological properties
Petrophysical properties
Production properties
Baker-Atlas
Casing
Open hole
VALUE AND LIMITATIONS OF WELL
LOG DATA

Strengths
Provides remotely sensed values of reservoir properties and
fluids
Among the most abundant reservoir data
Presentation results fairly well standardized
Allows evaluation of lateral (map) and vertical (cross
section) changes in reservoir properties
and fluids

Limitations
Indirect measurements
Vertical resolution
Depth of investigation
OPEN HOLE LOGGING
MEASUREMENTS
Passive
Caliper
Gamma Ray
Spontaneous Potential
(SP)
Active
Acoustic
- t
c
, t
s
, A
c
, A
s

Nuclear
-
b
,
N
, Pe,
1
,
2

Electromagnetic
- R, t
PL
, EATT
L
O
G
G
I
N
G

T
O
O
L

CASED HOLE LOGGING
MEASUREMENTS
Passive
Gamma Ray
Temperature
Flow Velocity
Caliper
Active
Acoustic
Nuclear
Electromagnetic
Mechanical
SOME QUESTIONS ADDRESSED BY
LOG INTERPRETATION
Geophysicist / Geologist
Are the tops as predicted?
Are potential zones porous?
Formation intervals?
Lithology?
Hydrocarbons?
What type of hydrocarbons?
Commercial quantities?


Reservoir Engineer
How thick is the pay zone?
How homogeneous is the
zone?
Porosity?
Permeability?
Production Engineer
Which zone(s) to complete?
What production rates?
Any water production?
Is zone hydraulically
isolated?
Will well need stimulation?
What stimulation would be
best?
WHAT DOES AN OPEN HOLE LOG COST?
IT DEPENDS ON...
Well type
Vertical/Deviated
Deep/Shallow
Hot/Normal
Measurements
Depth charge
Survey charge
Time / location / special procedures
Land/offshore
Service charge
Equipment availability
Rig time
Wireline/LWD
TYPICAL OPEN HOLE WIRELINE
COSTS
Service Charge $1-3K
$6-10K
30-50 50-100
$4K/day
$12-25K/day jack-up
$100K+/day floater
30-50 50-100
Land Offshore
Depth Charge
(per msmt-foot)
Survey Charge
Rig Time
LOGGING IS COMPARITIVELY
INEXPENSIVE!
Vertical Land Well Costs
Mud
20%
Rig Time
25%
Steel
25%
Wireline
Logging
8%
Trouble
15%
Misc.
7%
Total cost to drill a well: $75 to $200 per foot!
WIRELINE
LOGGING
EQUIPMENT
DETAILS OF WIRELINE LOGGING RIGUP
Modified from Halliburton (EL-1007)
LOGGING CABLE
LOG PRESENTATION - THE
HEADING
Well location
Depth references
Well depth
Date of log
Casing shoe depth
Bit size
Mud data
Type
Properties
Resistivities
Max. Temperature
LOG PRESENTATION -
LINEAR GRID
Track 1
Depth
track Track 2 Track 3
LOG PRESENTATION - LOG GRID
Track 1
Depth
track
Track 2 Track 3
2x10
n
2x10
n+4

LOG PRESENTATION - HYBRID GRID
Track 1
Depth
track Track 2 Track 3
2x10
n

2x10
n+2

LOG PRESENTATION - COMMON
DEPTH SCALES
Correlation
1:500 or 1:1000
2 in. (1:600) or 1 in. (1:1200)
Heavy lines every 100 ft. or
50m
Light lines each 10ft or 5m
Routine
1:200 or 1:240 (5 in)
Heavy lines every 50 ft. or 5 m
Medium lines each 10 ft. or 5 m
Light lines each 2 ft or 1 m
CHOOSING A LOGGING TOOL
It is necessary to choose the right tool to get the
desired measurement.

Considerations:
Type of well ( wildcat or development )
Hole conditions ( depth, deviation, hole size, mud
type )
Examples:
Oil based mud : Induction tool
Water based salty mud : Laterolog Tool
Formation fluid content (fresh/salt connate water)
Economics (cost of the job, rig time involved)

TYPES OF LOGS TO BE RUN
Logging suites generally include one resistivity and
one porosity device
The logging string will also have other tools like the
gamma ray, SP and caliper tools
However, logging suites usually have two porosity
devices to give more information about rock type,
hydrocarbon type and porosity
Other considerations to estimate permeability or
to take fluid samples require other special tools
like the formation testers
NOMENCLATURE FOR ZONES IN
AND AROUND THE BOREHOLE
Modified from Halliburton (EL-1007)
TOOL CALIBRATIONS
A logging tool collects data that are converted to
porosity, resistivity, and other values

Each tool is calibrated to an industry standard

This ensures that each tool, irrespective of the type
of tool or tool history or service company, reads the
same value when logging the same formation
(normalization may still be required between log)

Check tool calibrations before and after a logging
job to ensure good quality log data
LOG QUALITY CONTROL
Check all calibrations before and after job
Record a repeat section of about 200 ft to ensure
validity of data and to explain abnormal curve
response
Compare log response with offset well logs
Keep hole conditions (hole size, mud type, tool
centralization) in mind when interpreting log data
Ensure that logging speeds are as recommended
by the service company.
DRILLING DISTURBS FORMATION
Drilling and rock crushing
Damage zone
Mud systems and invasion
Oil based mud
Small conductivity mud
Shallow invasion
Thin cake
Water based mud
Moderate to very conductive
mud
Shallow to deep invasion
Thin to thick cake
Mudcake
Invading filtrate
Damaged zone
MUD FILTRATE INVASION
Modified from J. Jensen, PETE 321 Lecture Notes
Wellbore
Mud
(Rm)
Mud Cake
(Rmc)
Uninvaded
Zone
(R
t
)
Invaded
Zone (R
xo
)
Uninvaded
Zone
(R
t
)
Borehole
Rm : Borehole mud resistivity
Rmc : Mudcake resistivity
Invaded zone
Rmf : Mud filtrate resistivity
Rxo : Invaded zone resistivity
Sxo : Invaded zone water saturation
Uninvaded zone
Rw : Interstitial water resistivity
Rt : Uninvaded zone resistivity
Sw : Uninvaded zone water saturation

COMMON TERMINOLOGY

PASSIVE MEASUREMENTS
Caliper
Spontaneous Potential
Gamma Ray
Natural
Spectral

CALIPERS
Uses
Hole volume
Mudcake (permeability)
Tool corrections
Crude lithology indicator
Properties
two, three, or four arms
linked or independent
Calipers may disagree
(limitations)
non-circular hole
deviated wells

One electrode
Insulators on
either side
Surface ground
electrode at a
stable potential
THE SP TOOL
SHALE
SHALE
SAND
TYPICAL SP RESPONSES

BASED ON THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
Rw and Rmf.
1. Rmf >> Rw - Amplitude large and
negative
2. Rmf > Rw - Amplitude negative
but not large
3. Rmf = Rw - No SP deflection
4. Rmf < Rw - Amplitude positive but
not large
5. Rmf << Rw - Amplitude large and
positive
R
E
V
E
R
S
E
D

S
P

N
O
R
M
A
L

S
P

1
2
3
4
5
(+)
(-)
GAMMA RAY LOGS
Uses
Correlation
Lithology indicator; exploration
for radioactive materials
Evaluation of shale content
Paleoenvironmental indicator
Open or cased hole; any fluids
Fracture detection
Properties
Measures natural gamma
radiation
random fluctuations


Rock Formations
G
R

T
o
o
l

GR RESPONSE IN COMMON
FORMATIONS
Shales often radioactive
Clays
Trace and heavy minerals
Sandstones may be radio-
active
Non-clay minerals, e.g., mica,
feldspar
Clays
Units
GR calibrated to standard
Response in mid-continent
shale equals 200 API units
Calibration pits
0 50 100 API units
Shale
Shaly sand
Very shaly sand
Clean limestone
Dolomite
Shale
Clean sand
Coal
Shaly sand
Anhydrite
Salt
Volcanic ash
Gypsum
PASSIVE LOG
CORRELATION
GR, SP, and CAL
often correlate
different
measurements
different reasons
Correlation helps
GR instead of SP in
OBM
Easier detection of
shales
Facilitates zonation
POROSITY TOOLS
Sonic (acoustic)
Density
Neutron
SONIC PRINCIPLE
Ray, 2002
FAMILY OF NUCLEAR TOOLS
Density tools
GR tools
Neutron tool
Gas
Oil
GR
Neutrons
Natural GR Emitted GR
Emitted
Neutrons
Shaliness
Correlation
Porosity
Density
Lithology
Porosity
Particle
Source
Application
From Halliburton (EL 1007)
Uses
Density
Porosity
Lithology
Curves
Bulk density
(
b
and )
Pe

DENSITY & POROSITY MEASUREMENTS
COMPENSATED DENSITY LOG

c

D

e

b

DENSITY PRINCIPLE
Detect GRs from the source which have been
scattered back by the formation
Formation
Hydraulic
sonde
Caliper
arm
Skid
Detectors
Gamma ray
emitting source
Gamma rays
Low Density
Windows
Cesium
Source
Stabilizer
Tungsten
Bore Liner
Far Detector
Near Detector
Tungsten
Shield
PRINCIPLE
Gamma rays emitted from radioactive source
Gamma rays collide with electrons in formation,
losing energy
Detectors measure intensity of backscattered
gamma rays
High energy GR relate to - Density
Low energy GR relate to - Lithology
NEUTRON LOGS
Uses of neutron logs
Identify porous zones
Determine porosity
Identify gas in porous zones

Where neutron logs can be used
Any borehole
Open or cased
Liquid- or air-filled

Depth of investigation
6-12 inches for CN



NEUTRON MEASUREMENT
Uses
Lithology
Porosity
Curve
N


Pe

N

NEUTRON TOOL
PRINCIPLE
Detects neutrons from the
source which have been
scattered back by the formation
Source AmBe 15-20Cu 5MeV
The neutron tool
employs a dual
detector design to
compensate for
mudcake, lithology,
etc.
Still, corrections are
required for the NPHI
values
NOTE : The tool is
pressed against the
borehole wall to
minimize mud effects
LIFE OF A NEUTRON - 1
Neutrons emitted from source
Neutrons interact with Hydrogen in formation
Neutrons loose energy
Neutrons are absorbed or reflected back to
detectors
High counts = Low porosity
Low counts = High porosity
LIFE OF A NEUTRON - 2
Source AmBe 15-20Cu
5MeV neutrons
Collisions cause
neutrons to lose energy
Energy loss due mainly
to hydrogen
Therefore tool measures
amount of hydrogen in
formation, ie., water, oil
NEUTRON SCATTERING
Energy transfer to the nucleus is a maximum if the
collision is head-on and the nucleus has the same
mass as the neutron. The only atom that has the same
mass as a neutron is hydrogen.
Thermal Neutrons
The neutron tool responds primarily to the
presence of hydrogen
The more hydrogen, more neutrons
slowed to the thermal level and captured
by the formation
Other minerals also have a small effect
on the neutron tool, which requires
compensation

RESISTIVITY
Resistivity

The voltage required to cause one amp to pass
through a cube having a face area of one
square meter

Units are ohm-m / m; usually ohm-m (.m)
2
ty Conductivi
1
y Resistivit
RESISTIVITY DEFINITION OF THE
OHM-METER
From Halliburton (EL 1007)
RESISTIVITY OF EARTH MATERIALS
ty Conductivi
1
y Resistivit
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(1) Rock
(2) Gas
(3) Oil
(4) Fresh Water
(5) Salt Water
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

C
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y


Resistivity of water
Porosity of the formation,
Pore geometry - tortuosity
Lithology of the formation
Degree of cementation, and
Type and amount of clay in the rock

FACTOR AFFECTING RESISTIVITY
From J. Jensen, PETE 321 Lecture Notes
Rt
Ro
Rw
Cube of water
having resistivity,
Rw
Non-shaly rock, 100% saturated
with water having resistivity,
Rw
Rock containing pores saturated
with water and hydrocarbons
= 100%
Sw = 100%
= 20%
Sw = 100%
= 20%
Sw = 20%
m
w
o
a
R
R
F

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(1) Rock
(2) Gas
(3) Oil
(4) Fresh Water
(5) Salt Water
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

C
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y