1

Chapter 5
Relational
Algebra and SQL
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Father of Relational Model
Edgar F. Codd (1923-2003)

PhD from U. of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Received Turing Award in 1981.
More see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Codd
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Relational Query Languages
Languages for describing queries on a
relational database
Structured Query Language (SQL)
Predominant application-level query language
Declarative
Relational Algebra
Intermediate language used within DBMS
Procedural
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What is an Algebra?
A language based on operators and a domain of values
Operators map values taken from the domain into
other domain values
Hence, an expression involving operators and
arguments produces a value in the domain
When the domain is a set of all relations (and the
operators are as described later), we get the relational
algebra
We refer to the expression as a query and the value
produced as the query result
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Relational Algebra
Domain: set of relations
Basic operators: select, project, union, set
difference, Cartesian product
Derived operators: set intersection, division, join
Procedural: Relational expression specifies query
by describing an algorithm (the sequence in which
operators are applied) for determining the result of
an expression
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The Role of Relational Algebra in a DBMS
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Select Operator
Produce table containing subset of rows of
argument table satisfying condition
o
condition
(relation)
Example:
Person o
Hobby=stamps
(Person)

1123 John 123 Main stamps
1123 John 123 Main coins
5556 Mary 7 Lake Dr hiking
9876 Bart 5 Pine St stamps
1123 John 123 Main stamps
9876 Bart 5 Pine St stamps
Id Name Address Hobby Id Name Address Hobby
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Selection Condition
Operators: <, s, >, >, =, =
Simple selection condition:
<attribute> operator <constant>
<attribute> operator <attribute>
<condition> AND <condition>
<condition> OR <condition>
NOT <condition>
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Selection Condition - Examples
o
Id>3000 OR Hobby=hiking
(Person)
o
Id>3000 AND Id <3999
(Person)
o
NOT(Hobby=hiking)
(Person)
o
Hobby=hiking
(Person)

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Project Operator
Produces table containing subset of columns
of argument table
t
attribute list
(relation)
Example:
Person t
Name,Hobby
(Person)


1123 John 123 Main stamps
1123 John 123 Main coins
5556 Mary 7 Lake Dr hiking
9876 Bart 5 Pine St stamps
John stamps
John coins
Mary hiking
Bart stamps
Id Name Address Hobby Name Hobby
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Project Operator
1123 John 123 Main stamps
1123 John 123 Main coins
5556 Mary 7 Lake Dr hiking
9876 Bart 5 Pine St stamps
John 123 Main
Mary 7 Lake Dr
Bart 5 Pine St
Result is a table (no duplicates); can have fewer tuples
than the original
Id Name Address Hobby Name Address
Example:
Person t
Name,Address
(Person)
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Expressions
1123 John 123 Main stamps
1123 John 123 Main coins
5556 Mary 7 Lake Dr hiking
9876 Bart 5 Pine St stamps
1123 John
9876 Bart
Id Name Address Hobby Id Name
Person
Result
t
Id, Name
(o
Hobby=stamps OR Hobby=coins
(Person) )
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Set Operators
Relation is a set of tuples, so set operations
should apply: , , (set difference)
Result of combining two relations with a set
operator is a relation => all its elements
must be tuples having same structure
Hence, scope of set operations limited to
union compatible relations
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Union Compatible Relations
Two relations are union compatible if
Both have same number of columns
Names of attributes are the same in both
Attributes with the same name in both relations
have the same domain
Union compatible relations can be
combined using union, intersection, and set
difference
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Example
Tables:
Person (SSN, Name, Address, Hobby)
Professor (Id, Name, Office, Phone)
are not union compatible.

But
t
Name
(Person) and t
Name
(Professor)
are union compatible so
t
Name
(Person) - t
Name
(Professor)
makes sense.
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Cartesian Product
If R and S are two relations, R S is the set of all
concatenated tuples <x,y>, where x is a tuple in R
and y is a tuple in S
R and S need not be union compatible.
But R and S must have distinct attribute names. Why?
R S is expensive to compute. But why?

A B C D A B C D
x1 x2 y1 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2
x3 x4 y3 y4 x1 x2 y3 y4
x3 x4 y1 y2
R S x3 x4 y3 y4
R S
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Renaming
Result of expression evaluation is a relation
Attributes of relation must have distinct names.
This is not guaranteed with Cartesian product
e.g., suppose in previous example A and C have the
same name
Renaming operator tidies this up. To assign the
names A
1
, A
2
, A
n
to the attributes of the n
column relation produced by expression expr use
expr [A
1
, A
2
, A
n
]
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Example
This is a relation with 4 attributes:
StudId, CrsCode1, ProfId, CrsCode2
Transcript (StudId, CrsCode, Semester, Grade)
Teaching (ProfId, CrsCode, Semester)

t
StudId, CrsCode
(Transcript)[StudId, CrsCode1]
t
ProfId, CrsCode
(Teaching) [ProfId, CrsCode2]

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Derived Operation: Join
A (general or theta) join of R and S is the expression
R
c
S
where join-condition c is a conjunction of terms:
A
i
oper B
i

in which A
i
is an attribute of R; B
i
is an attribute of S;
and oper is one of =, <, >, > =, s.
Q: Any difference between join condition and selection
condition?
The meaning is:
o
c
(R S)
Where join-condition c becomes a select condition c
except for possible renamings of attributes (next)
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Join and Renaming
Problem: R and S might have attributes with the
same name in which case the Cartesian
product is not defined
Solutions:
1. Rename attributes prior to forming the product and
use new names in join-condition.
2. Qualify common attribute names with relation names
(thereby disambiguating the names). For instance:
Transcript.CrsCode or Teaching.CrsCode
This solution is nice, but doesnt always work: consider
R
join_condition
R
In R.A, how do we know which R is meant?
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Theta Join Example

Employee(Name,Id,MngrId,Salary)
Manager(Name,Id,Salary)
Output the names of all employees that earn
more than their managers.
t
Employee.Name
(Employee
MngrId=Id AND Employee.Salary> Manager.Salary

Manager)
The join yields a table with attributes:
Employee.Name, Employee.Id, Employee.Salary, MngrId
Manager.Name, Manager.Id, Manager.Salary
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Equijoin Join - Example
t
Name,CrsCode
(Student
Id=StudId
o
Grade=A
(Transcript))
Id Name Addr Status
111 John .. ..
222 Mary .. ..
333 Bill .. ..
444 Joe .. ..
StudId CrsCode Sem Grade
111 CSE305 S00 B
222 CSE306 S99 A
333 CSE304 F99 A
Mary CSE306
Bill CSE304
The equijoin is used very
frequently since it combines
related data in different relations.
Student
Transcript
Equijoin: Join condition is a conjunction of equalities.
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Natural Join
Special case of equijoin:
join condition equates all and only those attributes with the
same name (condition doesnt have to be explicitly stated)
duplicate columns eliminated from the result
Transcript (StudId, CrsCode, Sem, Grade)
Teaching (ProfId, CrsCode, Sem)
Transcript Teaching =
t
StudId, Transcript.CrsCode, Transcript.Sem, Grade, ProfId

( Transcript
Transcipt.CrsCode=Teaching.CrsCode
AND Transcirpt.Sem=Teaching.Sem
Teaching )
[StudId, CrsCode, Sem, Grade, ProfId ]
Q: but why natural join is a derived operator? Because
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Natural Join (contd)
More generally:
R S = t
attr-list
(o
join-cond
(R S) )
where
attr-list = attributes (R) attributes (S)
(duplicates are eliminated) and join-cond has
the form:
R.A
1
= S.A
1
AND AND R.A
n
= S.A
n

where
{A
1
A
n
} = attributes(R) attributes(S)
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Natural Join Example
List all Ids of students who took at least two
different courses:
t
StudId
( o
CrsCode = CrsCode2
(
Transcript
Transcript [StudId, CrsCode2, Sem2, Grade2] ))

We dont want to join on CrsCode, Sem, and Grade attributes,
hence renaming!
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Division
Goal: Produce the tuples in one relation, r,
that match all tuples in another relation, s
r (A
1
, A
n
, B
1
, B
m
)
s (B
1
B
m
)
r/s, with attributes A
1
, A
n
, is the set of all tuples
<a> such that for every tuple <b> in s, <a,b> is
in r
Can be expressed in terms of projection, set
difference, and cross-product
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Division (contd)
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Division - Example
List the Ids of students who have passed all
courses that were taught in spring 2000
Numerator:
StudId and CrsCode for every course passed by
every student:
t
StudId, CrsCode
(o
Grade= F
(Transcript) )
Denominator:
CrsCode of all courses taught in spring 2000
t
CrsCode
(o
Semester=S2000
(Teaching) )
Result is numerator/denominator

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Schema for Student Registration System
Student (Id, Name, Addr, Status)
Professor (Id, Name, DeptId)
Course (DeptId, CrsCode, CrsName, Descr)
Transcript (StudId, CrsCode, Semester, Grade)
Teaching (ProfId, CrsCode, Semester)
Department (DeptId, Name)
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Query Sublanguage of SQL
Tuple variable C ranges over rows of Course.
Evaluation strategy:
FROM clause produces Cartesian product of listed tables
WHERE clause assigns rows to C in sequence and produces
table containing only rows satisfying condition
SELECT clause retains listed columns
Equivalent to: t
CrsName
o
DeptId=CS
(Course)
SELECT C.CrsName
FROM Course C
WHERE C.DeptId = CS
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Join Queries
List CS courses taught in S2000
Tuple variables clarify meaning.
Join condition C.CrsCode=T.CrsCode
relates facts to each other
Selection condition T.Semester=S2000
eliminates irrelevant rows
Equivalent (using natural join) to:
SELECT C.CrsName
FROM Course C, Teaching T
WHERE C.CrsCode=T.CrsCode AND T.Semester=S2000
t
CrsName
(Course o
Semester=S2000
(Teaching) )
t
CrsName
(o
Sem=S2000
(Course Teaching) )
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Correspondence Between SQL and
Relational Algebra
SELECT C.CrsName
FROM Course C, Teaching T
WHERE C.CrsCode = T.CrsCode AND T.Semester = S2000
Also equivalent to:
t
CrsName
o
C_CrsCode=T_CrsCode AND Semester=S2000

(Course [C_CrsCode, DeptId, CrsName, Desc]
Teaching [ProfId, T_CrsCode, Semester])
This is the simplest evaluation algorithm for SELECT.
Relational algebra expressions are procedural.
Which of the two equivalent expressions is more easily evaluated?
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Self-join Queries
Find Ids of all professors who taught at least two
courses in the same semester:
SELECT T1.ProfId
FROM Teaching T1, Teaching T2
WHERE T1.ProfId = T2.ProfId
AND T1.Semester = T2.Semester
AND T1.CrsCode <> T2.CrsCode
Tuple variables are essential in this query!
Equivalent to:
t
ProfId
(o
T1.CrsCode=T2.CrsCode
(Teaching[ProfId, T1.CrsCode, Semester]
Teaching[ProfId, T2.CrsCode, Semester]))
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Duplicates
Duplicate rows not allowed in a relation
However, duplicate elimination from query
result is costly and not done by default;
must be explicitly requested:

SELECT DISTINCT ..
FROM ..
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Equality and comparison operators apply to
strings (based on lexical ordering)


WHERE S.Name < P
Use of Expressions
Concatenate operator applies to strings
WHERE S.Name || -- || S.Address = .
Expressions can also be used in SELECT clause:
SELECT S.Name || -- || S.Address AS NmAdd
FROM Student S
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Set Operators
SQL provides UNION, EXCEPT (set difference), and
INTERSECT for union compatible tables
Example: Find all professors in the CS Department and
all professors that have taught CS courses
(SELECT P.Name
FROM Professor P, Teaching T
WHERE P.Id=T.ProfId AND T.CrsCode LIKE CS%)
UNION
(SELECT P.Name
FROM Professor P
WHERE P.DeptId = CS)
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Nested Queries
List all courses that were not taught in S2000
SELECT C.CrsName
FROM Course C
WHERE C.CrsCode NOT IN
(SELECT T.CrsCode --subquery
FROM Teaching T
WHERE T.Sem = S2000)
Evaluation strategy: subquery evaluated once to
produces set of courses taught in S2000. Each row
(as C) tested against this set.
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Correlated Nested Queries
Output a row <prof, dept> if prof has taught a course
in dept.
(SELECT T.ProfId --subquery
FROM Teaching T, Course C
WHERE T.CrsCode=C.CrsCode AND
C.DeptId=D.DeptId --correlation
)
SELECT P.Name, D.Name --outer query
FROM Professor P, Department D
WHERE P.Id IN
-- set of all ProfIds who have taught a course in D.DeptId
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Correlated Nested Queries (cont)
Tuple variables T and C are local to subquery
Tuple variables P and D are global to subquery
Correlation: subquery uses a global variable, D
The value of D.DeptId parameterizes an evaluation of
the subquery
Subquery must (at least) be re-evaluated for each
distinct value of D.DeptId

Correlated queries can be expensive to evaluate
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Division in SQL
Query type: Find the subset of items in one set that
are related to all items in another set
Example: Find professors who taught courses in all
departments
Why does this involve division?
ProfId DeptId DeptId
All department Ids
Contains row
<p,d> if professor
p taught a
course in
department d
t
ProfId,DeptId
(Teaching Course) / t
DeptId
(Department)
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Division in SQL
Strategy for implementing division in SQL:
Find set, A, of all departments in which a
particular professor, p, has taught a course
Find set, B, of all departments
Output p if A _ B, or, equivalently, if BA is
empty
But how to do this exactly in SQL?


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Division Solution Sketch (1)
SELECT P.Id
FROM Professor P
WHERE P taught courses in all departments

SELECT P.Id
FROM Professor P
WHERE there does not exist any department that P has
never taught a course

SELECT P.Id
FROM Professor P
WHERE NOT EXISTS(the departments that P has never
taught a course)
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Division Solution Sketch (1)
SELECT P.Id
FROM Professor P
WHERE NOT EXISTS(the departments that P has never
taught a course)

SELECT P.Id
FROM Professor P
WHERE NOT EXISTS(
B: All departments
EXCEPT
A: the departments that P has ever taught a course)
But how do we formulate A and B?
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Division SQL Solution in
details
SELECT P.Id
FROM Professor P
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(SELECT D.DeptId -- set B of all dept Ids
FROM Department D
EXCEPT
SELECT C.DeptId -- set A of dept Ids of depts in
-- which P taught a course
FROM Teaching T, Course C
WHERE T.ProfId=P.Id -- global variable
AND T.CrsCode=C.CrsCode)

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Aggregates
Functions that operate on sets:
COUNT, SUM, AVG, MAX, MIN
Produce numbers (not tables)
Aggregates over multiple rows into one row
Not part of relational algebra (but not hard to add)
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Professor P
SELECT MAX (Salary)
FROM Employee E
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Aggregates (contd)
SELECT COUNT (T.CrsCode)
FROM Teaching T
WHERE T.Semester = S2000
SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT T.CrsCode)
FROM Teaching T
WHERE T.Semester = S2000
Count the number of courses taught in S2000
But if multiple sections of same course
are taught, use:
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Grouping
But how do we compute the number of courses
taught in S2000 per professor?
Strategy 1: Fire off a separate query for each
professor:
SELECT COUNT(T.CrsCode)
FROM Teaching T
WHERE T.Semester = S2000 AND T.ProfId = 123456789
Cumbersome
What if the number of professors changes? Add another query?
Strategy 2: define a special grouping operator:
SELECT T.ProfId, COUNT(T.CrsCode)
FROM Teaching T
WHERE T.Semester = S2000
GROUP BY T.ProfId
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GROUP BY
Values are the same for all
rows in same group
Values might be different
for rows in the same group,
need aggregation!
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GROUP BY - Example
SELECT T.StudId, AVG(T.Grade), COUNT (*)
FROM Transcript T
GROUP BY T.StudId
Transcript
Attributes:
students Id
avg grade
number of courses
1234 3.3 4
1234
1234
1234
1234
-Finally, each group of rows is aggregated into one row
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HAVING Clause
Eliminates unwanted groups (analogous to
WHERE clause, but works on groups instead of
individual tuples)
HAVING condition is constructed from attributes
of GROUP BY list and aggregates on attributes
not in that list
SELECT T.StudId,
AVG(T.Grade) AS CumGpa,
COUNT (*) AS NumCrs
FROM Transcript T
WHERE T.CrsCode LIKE CS%
GROUP BY T.StudId
HAVING AVG (T.Grade) > 3.5
Apply to each group not to the whole table
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Evaluation of GroupBy with Having
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Example
Output the name and address of all seniors
on the Deans List
SELECT S.Id, S.Name
FROM Student S, Transcript T
WHERE S.Id = T.StudId AND S.Status = senior

GROUP BY


HAVING AVG (T.Grade) > 3.5 AND SUM (T.Credit) > 90
S.Id -- wrong
S.Id, S.Name -- right
Every attribute that occurs in
SELECT clause must also
occur in GROUP BY or it
must be an aggregate. S.Name
does not.
> The DB has not used the information that S.Id S.Name.
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Aggregates: Proper and Improper
Usage
SELECT COUNT (T.CrsCode), T. ProfId
makes no sense (in the absence of
GROUP BY clause)
SELECT COUNT (*), AVG (T.Grade)
but this is OK
WHERE T.Grade > COUNT (SELECT .)
aggregate cannot be applied to result
of SELECT statement
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ORDER BY Clause
Causes rows to be output in a specified order
SELECT T.StudId, COUNT (*) AS NumCrs,
AVG(T.Grade) AS CumGpa
FROM Transcript T
WHERE T.CrsCode LIKE CS%
GROUP BY T.StudId
HAVING AVG (T.Grade) > 3.5
ORDER BY DESC CumGpa, ASC StudId
Descending
Ascending
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Query Evaluation with GROUP BY,
HAVING, ORDER BY
1 Evaluate FROM: produces Cartesian product, A, of tables in
FROM list
2 Evaluate WHERE: produces table, B, consisting of rows of
A that satisfy WHERE condition
3 Evaluate GROUP BY: partitions B into groups that agree on
attribute values in GROUP BY list
4 Evaluate HAVING: eliminates groups in B that do not
satisfy HAVING condition
5 Evaluate SELECT: produces table C containing a row for
each group. Attributes in SELECT list limited to those in
GROUP BY list and aggregates over group
6 Evaluate ORDER BY: orders rows of C
A

s



b

e

f

o

r

e

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Views
Used as a relation, but rows are not physically
stored.
The contents of a view is computed when it is used
within an SQL statement
Each time it is used (thus computed), the content might
different as underlying base tables might have changed
View is the result of a SELECT statement over
other views and base relations
When used in an SQL statement, the view
definition is substituted for the view name in the
statement
As SELECT statement nested in FROM clause
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View - Example
CREATE VIEW CumGpa (StudId, Cum) AS
SELECT T.StudId, AVG (T.Grade)
FROM Transcript T
GROUP BY T.StudId
SELECT S.Name, C.Cum
FROM CumGpa C, Student S
WHERE C.StudId = S.StudId AND C.Cum > 3.5

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View - Substitution
SELECT S.Name, C.Cum
FROM (SELECT T.StudId, AVG (T.Grade)
FROM Transcript T
GROUP BY T.StudId) C, Student S
WHERE C.StudId = S.StudId AND C.Cum > 3.5

When used in an SQL statement, the view
definition is substituted for the view name in the
statement. As SELECT statement nested in FROM clause
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View Benefits
Access Control: Users not granted access to
base tables. Instead they are granted access
to the view of the database appropriate to
their needs.
External schema is composed of views.
View allows owner to provide SELECT access
to a subset of columns (analogous to providing
UPDATE and INSERT access to a subset of
columns)
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Views Limiting Visibility
CREATE VIEW PartOfTranscript (StudId, CrsCode, Semester) AS
SELECT T. StudId, T.CrsCode, T.Semester -- limit columns
FROM Transcript T
WHERE T.Semester = S2000 -- limit rows

Give permissions to access data through view:
GRANT SELECT ON PartOfTranscript TO joe

This would have been analogous to:

GRANT SELECT (StudId,CrsCode,Semester)
ON Transcript TO joe
on regular tables, if SQL allowed attribute lists in GRANT SELECT
Grade projected out
61
View Benefits (contd)
Customization: Users need not see full
complexity of database. View creates the
illusion of a simpler database customized to
the needs of a particular category of users
A view is similar in many ways to a
subroutine in standard programming
Can be reused in multiple queries
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Nulls
Conditions: x op y (where op is <, >, <>, =, etc.)
has value unknown (U) when either x or y is null
WHERE T.cost > T.price
Arithmetic expression: x op y (where op is +, , *,
etc.) has value NULL if x or y is NULL
WHERE (T. price/T.cost) > 2
Aggregates: COUNT counts NULLs like any other
value; other aggregates ignore NULLs
SELECT COUNT (T.CrsCode), AVG (T.Grade)
FROM Transcript T
WHERE T.StudId = 1234
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WHERE clause uses a three-valued logic T, F,
U(ndefined) to filter rows. Portion of truth table:





Rows are discarded if WHERE condition is F(alse)
or U(nknown)
Ex: WHERE T.CrsCode = CS305 AND T.Grade > 2.5
Q: Why not simply replace each U to F?
Nulls (contd)
C1 C2 C1 AND C2 C1 OR C2
T U U T
F U F U
U U U U
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Modifying Tables Insert
Inserting a single row into a table
Attribute list can be omitted if it is the same as
in CREATE TABLE (but do not omit it)
NULL and DEFAULT values can be specified

INSERT INTO Transcript(StudId, CrsCode, Semester, Grade)
VALUES (12345, CSE305, S2000, NULL)
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Bulk Insertion
Insert the rows output by a SELECT
INSERT INTO DeansList (StudId, Credits, CumGpa)
SELECT T.StudId, 3 * COUNT (*), AVG(T.Grade)
FROM Transcript T
GROUP BY T.StudId
HAVING AVG (T.Grade) > 3.5 AND COUNT(*) > 30
CREATE TABLE DeansList (
StudId INTEGER,
Credits INTEGER,
CumGpa FLOAT,
PRIMARY KEY StudId )
66
Modifying Tables Delete
Similar to SELECT except:
No project list in DELETE clause
No Cartesian product in FROM clause (only 1 table
name)
Rows satisfying WHERE clause (general form,
including subqueries, allowed) are deleted instead of
output
DELETE FROM Transcript T
WHERE T.Grade IS NULL AND T.Semester <> S2000
67
Modifying Data - Update
Updates rows in a single table
All rows satisfying WHERE clause (general
form, including subqueries, allowed) are
updated
UPDATE Employee E
SET E.Salary = E.Salary * 1.05
WHERE E.Department = R&D
68
Updating Views
Question: Since views look like tables to users, can
they be updated?
Answer: Yes a view update changes the
underlying base table to produce the requested
change to the view
CREATE VIEW CsReg (StudId, CrsCode, Semester) AS
SELECT T.StudId, T. CrsCode, T.Semester
FROM Transcript T
WHERE T.CrsCode LIKE CS% AND T.Semester=S2000
69
Updating Views - Problem 1
Question: What value should be placed in
attributes of underlying table that have been
projected out (e.g., Grade)?
Answer: NULL (assuming null allowed in the
missing attribute) or DEFAULT
INSERT INTO CsReg (StudId, CrsCode, Semester)
VALUES (1111, CSE305, S2000)
Tuple is in the VIEW
70
Updating Views - Problem 2
Problem: New tuple not in view
Solution: Allow insertion (assuming the
WITH CHECK OPTION clause has not
been appended to the CREATE VIEW
statement)
INSERT INTO CsReg (StudId, CrsCode, Semester)
VALUES (1111, ECO105, S2000)
71
Updating Views - Problem 3
Update to a view might not uniquely specify the
change to the base table(s) that results in the desired
modification of the view (ambiguity)
CREATE VIEW ProfDept (PrName, DeName) AS
SELECT P.Name, D.Name
FROM Professor P, Department D
WHERE P.DeptId = D.DeptId
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Updating Views - Problem 3 (contd)
Tuple <Smith, CS> can be deleted from
ProfDept by:
Deleting row for Smith from Professor (but this
is inappropriate if he is still at the University)
Deleting row for CS from Department (not
what is intended)
Updating row for Smith in Professor by setting
DeptId to null (seems like a good idea, but how
would the computer know?)
73
Updating Views Restrictions
Updatable views are restricted to those in which
No Cartesian product in FROM clause, single table
no aggregates, GROUP BY, HAVING

For example, if we allowed:
CREATE VIEW AvgSalary (DeptId, Avg_Sal ) AS
SELECT E.DeptId, AVG(E.Salary)
FROM Employee E
GROUP BY E.DeptId
then how do we handle:
UPDATE AvgSalary
SET Avg_Sal = 1.1 * Avg_Sal
Relational Algebra and SQL
Exercises
Professor(ssn, profname, status)
Course(crscode, crsname, credits)
Taught(crscode, semester, ssn)

Query 1
Return those professors who have
taught csc6710 but never csc7710.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
ssn
(o
crscode=csc6710
(Taught))-
t
ssn
(o
crscode=csc7710
(Taught))
SQL Solution
(SELECT ssn
From Taught
Where crscode = CSC6710)
EXCEPT
(SELECT ssn
From Taught
Where crscode = CSC7710))
Query 2
Return those professors who have
taught both csc6710 and csc7710.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
ssn
(o
crscode=csc6710 . crscode=csc7710
(Taught),
wrong!
t
ssn
(o
crscode=csc6710
(Taught))
t
ssn
(o
crscode=csc7710
(Taught)), correct!
SQL Solution
SELECT T1.ssn
From Taught T1, Taught T2,
Where T1.crscode = CSC6710 AND T2.crscode=CSC7710 AND
T1.ssn=T2.ssn
Query 3
Return those professors who have never
taught csc7710.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
ssn
(o
crscode<>csc7710
(Taught)), wrong
answer!
t
ssn
(Professor)-t
ssn
(o
crscode=csc7710
(Taught)),
correct answer!
SQL Solution
(SELECT ssn
From Professor)
EXCEPT
(SELECT ssn
From Taught T
Where T.crscode = CSC7710)
Query 4
Return those professors who taught
CSC6710 and CSC7710 in the same
semester
Relational Algebra Solution
t
ssn
(o
crscode1=csc6710
(Taught[crscode1, ssn,
semester])
o
crscode2=csc7710
(Taught[crscode2, ssn,
semester]))
Relational Algebra Solution
SQL Solution
SELECT T1.ssn
From Taught T1, Taught T2,
Where T1.crscode = CSC6710 AND T2.crscode=CSC7710 AND
T1.ssn=T2.ssn AND T1.semester=T2.semester
Query 5
Return those professors who taught
CSC6710 or CSC7710 but not both.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
ssn
(o
crscode<>csc7710 v
crscode=csc7710
(Taught))-
(t
ssn
(o
crscode=csc6710
(Taught))
t
ssn
(o
crscode=csc7710
(Taught)))

SQL Solution
(SELECT ssn
FROM Taught T
WHERE T.crscode=CSC6710 OR T.crscode=CSC7710)
Except
(SELECT T1.ssn
From Taught T1, Taught T2,
Where T1.crscode = CSC6710) AND T2.crscode=CSC7710 AND
T1.ssn=T2.ssn)
Query 6
Return those courses that have never
been taught.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
crscode
(Course)-t
crscode
(Taught)
SQL Solution
(SELECT crscode
FROM Course)
EXCEPT
(SELECT crscode
FROM TAUGHT
)
Query 7
Return those courses that have been
taught at least in two semesters.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
crscode
(o
semester1 <> semester2
(
Taught[crscode, ssn1, semester1]
Taught[crscode, ssn2, semester2]))
SQL Solution
SELECT T1.crscode
FROM Taught T1, Taught T2
WHERE T1.crscode=T2.crscode AND T1.semester <> T2.semester
Query 8
Return those courses that have been
taught at least in 10 semesters.
SQL Solution
SELECT crscode
FROM Taught
GROUP BY crscode
HAVING COUNT(*) >= 10
Query 9
Return those courses that have been
taught by at least 5 different professors.
SQL Solution
SELECT crscode
FROM (SELECT DISTINCT crscode, ssn FROM TAUGHT)
GROUP BY crscode
HAVING COUNT(*) >= 5
Query 10
Return the names of professors who
ever taught CSC6710.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
profname
(o
crscode=csc6710
(Taught)
Professor)
SQL Solution
SELECT P.profname
FROM Professor P, Taught T
WHERE P.ssn = T.ssn AND T.crscode = CSC6710
Query 11
Return the names of full professors
who ever taught CSC6710.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
profname
(o
crscode=csc6710
(Taught)
o
status=full
(Professor))
SQL Solution
SELECT P.profname
FROM Professor P, Taught T
WHERE P.status = full AND P.ssn = T.ssn AND T.crscode =
CSC6710
Query 12
Return the names of full professors
who ever taught more than two courses
in one semester.
SQL Solution
SELECT P.profname
FROM Professor P
WHERE ssn IN(
SELECT ssn
FROM Taught
GROUP BY ssn, semester
HAVING COUNT(*) > 2
)
Query 13
Delete those professors who never
taught a course.
SQL Solution
DELETE FROM Professor
WHERE ssn NOT IN
(SELECT ssn
FROM Taught
)
Query 14
Change all the credits to 4 for those
courses that are taught in f2006
semester.
SQL Solution
UPDATE Course
SET credits = 4
WHERE crscode IN
(
SELECT crscode
FROM Taught
WHERE semester = f2006
)
Query 15
Return the names of the professors who
have taught more than 30 credits of
courses.
SQL Solution
SELECT profname
FROM Professor
WHERE ssn IN
(
SELECT T.ssn
FROM Taught T, Course C
WHERE T.crscode = C.crscode
GROUP BY T.ssn
HAVING SUM(C.credits) > 30
)
Query 16
Return the name(s) of the professor(s)
who taught the most number of courses
in S2006.
SQL Solution
SELECT profname
FROM Professor
WHERE ssn IN(
SELECT ssn FROM Taught
WHERE semester = S2006
GROUP BY ssn
HAVING COUNT(*) =
(SELECT MAX(Num)
FROM
(SELECT ssn, COUNT(*) as Num
FROM Taught
WHERE semester = S2006
GROUP BY ssn)
)
)
Query 17
List all the course names that professor
Smith taught in Fall of 2007.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
crsname
(o
profname=Smith
(Professor)
o
semester=f2007
(Taught)
Course)

SQL Solution
SELECT crsname
FROM Professor P, Taught T, Course C
WHERE P.profname = Smith AND P.ssn = T.ssn AND
T.semester = F2007 AND T.crscode = C.crscode

Query 18
In chronological order, list the number
of courses that the professor with ssn
ssn = 123456789 taught in each
semester.
SQL Solution
SELECT semester, COUNT(*)
FROM Taught
WHERE ssn = 123456789
GROUP BY semester
ORDER BY semester ASC

Query 19
In alphabetical order of the names of
professors, list the name of each
professor and the total number of
courses she/he has taught.
SQL Solution
SELECT P.profname, COUNT(*)
FROM Professor P, Taught T
WHERE P.ssn = T.ssn
GROUP BY P.ssn, P.profname
ORDER BY P.profname ASC

Query 20
Delete those professors who taught less
than 10 courses.
SQL Solution
DELETE FROM Professor
WHERE ssn IN(
SELECT ssn
FROM Taught
GROUP BY ssn
HAVING COUNT(*) < 10
)
Query 21
Delete those professors who taught less
than 40 credits.
SQL Solution
DELETE FROM Professor
WHERE ssn IN(
SELECT T.ssn
FROM Taught T, Course C
WHERE T.crscode = C.crscode
GROUP BY ssn
HAVING SUM(C.credits) < 40
)
Query 22
List those professors who have not
taught any course in the past three
semesters (F2006, W2007, F2007).
SQL Solution
SELECT *
FROM Professor P
WHERE NOT EXISTS(
SELECT *
FROM Taught
WHERE P.ssn = T.ssn AND (T.semester = F2006 OR
T.semester = W2007 OR T.semester=F2007))
)
Query 23
List the names of those courses that
professor Smith have never taught.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
crsname
(Course)-
t
crsname
(o
profname=Smith
(Professor)
(Taught)
Course)

SQL Solution
SELECT crsname
FROM Course C
WHERE NOT EXISTS
SELECT *
FROM Professor P, Taught T
WHERE P.profname=Smith AND P.ssn = T.ssn AND
T.crscode = C.crscode
)
Query 24
Return those courses that have been
taught by all professors.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
crscode, ssn
(Taught)/ t
ssn
(Professor)
SQL Solution
SELECT crscode
FROM Taught T1
WHERE NOT EXISTS(
(SELECT ssn
FROM Professor)
EXCEPT
(SELECT ssn
FROM Taught T2
WHERE T2.crscode = T1.crscode)
)
Query 25
Return those courses that have been
taught in all semesters.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
crscode, semester
(Taught)/ t
semester
(Taught)
SQL Solution
SELECT crscode
FROM Taught T1
WHERE NOT EXISTS(
(SELECT semester
FROM Taught)
EXCEPT
(SELECT semester
FROM Taught T2
WHERE T2.crscode = T1.crscode)
)
Query 25
Return those courses that have been
taught ONLY by junior professors.
Relational Algebra Solution
t
crscode
(Course) - t
crscode

(o
status=Junior
(Professor) Taught)
SQL Solution
SELECT crscode
FROM Course C
WHERE c.crscode NOT IN(
(SELECT crscode
FROM Taught T, Professor P
WHERE T.ssn = P.ssn AND P.status=Junior
)