Physical Considerations in Job Design

Work physiology sets work-rest cycles

according to the energy expended in
various parts of the job. The harder the
work, the more the need for rest
periods.
Ergonomics is a term used to describe
the study of the physical arrangement
of the work space together with tools
used to perform a task. Fit the work to
the body rather than forcing the body to
conform to the work.
6A-10
Work Methods
Workers Interacting
with Other Workers
A Production
Process
Worker at a Fixed
Workplace
Worker Interacting
with Equipment
Ultimate
Job
Design
Ultimate
Job
Design
6A-11
Work Measurement Defined
Work measurement is a process of
analyzing jobs for the purpose of
setting time standards
Why use it?
Schedule work and allocate capacity
Motivate and measure work
performance
Evaluate performance
Provide benchmarks
6A-12
Work Measurement
Time is important in work systems because of its economic
significance.

Most workers are paid for the time they are on the job.

For any organization to operate efficiently and effectively, it is
important to know how much time should be required to
accomplish a given amount of work.

The terms time study and work measurement are often used
interchangeably. Both are concerned with how much time it
should take to complete a unit of work.

Some Definitions
Work measurement refers to a set of four techniques
that are concerned with the evaluation of a task in terms
of the time that should be allowed for an average worker
to perform that task:

1. direct time study,
2. work sampling
3. predetermined motion time systems, and
4. standard data systems

The objective of these work measurement techniques is
to determine a standard time for the task. Because of
its emphasis on time, work measurement is often called
time study.

Functions of Time Standards
They help to determine manpower
requirements and capacity limitations.
They provide an objective way to compare
alternative methods for accomplishing the
same task.
They provide a basis for wage incentives and
for evaluating worker performance.
They provide time data for
production planning and scheduling,
cost estimating,
material requirements planning,
Work Measurement Techniques
Direct time study (DTS)
Direct time study (DTS) involves direct observation of a task
using a stopwatch or other chronometric device to record the
time taken to accomplish the task.

The task is usually divided into work elements and each work
element is timed separately.

While observing the worker, the time study analyst evaluates
the workers performance (pace), and a record of this pace is
attached to each work element time. This evaluation of the
workers pace is called performance rating.

The observed time is multiplied by the performance rating to
obtain the normal time for the element or the task:

Work Measurement Techniques
Work Sampling
Work sampling uses random sampling techniques to study work situations so
that the proportions of time spent in different activities can be estimated with a
defined degree of statistical accuracy.

Examples of the activities in a work sampling study might include setting up for
production, producing parts, machine idle, and so on.

A large number of observations over an extended period of time are usually
made in order to achieve the desired level of statistical accuracy.

The period of the study must be representative of the activities normally
performed by the subjects (e.g., workers, machines), and the observations must
be made at random times in order to minimize unfairness: for example, if the
workers knew when the observations would be made, it might influence their
behavior.

The objectives in a work sampling study may be to measure machine utilization
in a plant or to determine an appropriate allowance factor for use in setting
standards in direct time study.
Work Measurement Techniques
Predetermined Motion Time System
(PMTS)
A predetermined motion time system (PMTS) relies on a database of
basic motion elements such as reach, grasp, and move that are
common to nearly all manual industrial tasks.

To use a predetermined motion time system to set a standard time for
a given task the analyst lists all of the basic motion elements that
comprise the task, noting their respective conditions, and recovers the
normal time for each element from the database.

The normal times for the motion elements are then summed to obtain
the normal time for the task.

Two advantages related to predetermined motion time systems:
(1) performance rating is not required and
(2) they can be applied to determine the time standard for a task
before production.
Methods Time
Measurement (MTM)
MTM is a procedure which analyzes any manual
operation or method into the basic motions required
to perform it, and assigns to each motion a
predetermined time standard which is determined by
the nature of the motion and the conditions under
which it is made.
MTM gives values for the fundamental motions of:
reach, move, turn, grasp, position, disengage, and
release.

The unit in which movements are
measured for MTM is TMU (time
measurement unit): 1 TMU = 36
milliseconds ; 1 hour = 100,000 TMU
1 TMU = 0.036 second

Work Measurement Techniques
Elemental data / Standard Data Systems
(SDS)
A standard data system (SDS) is a compilation of normal time values for work
elements used in tasks that are performed in a given facility.

These normal times are used to establish time standards for tasks that are
composed of work elements.

An advantage of a standard data system is that a time standard can be set before
the job is in production.

The normal time values in a standard data system are usually compiled from
previous direct time studies, but they may be based on predetermined motion time
data, work sampling data, or even historical time records.

To use a standard data system, the analyst first identifies the work elements that
make up the task together with the values of the work variables respectively for
each element.

He then accesses the database to find the normal time for each element. The work
element values are summed to determine the normal time for the task.
As in the other work measurement techniques, an allowance is added to the
normal time to compute the standard time.
Task Hierarchy & Work Measurement
Allowances in Time Standards

In all of the work measurement techniques, the normal time is
adjusted by an allowance factor to obtain the standard time.
Allowances are used because there will be periods during the
regular work shift when the worker is not working.
The purpose of the allowance factor is to compensate for this lost
time by providing a small increment of allowance time in each
cycle. This way, even with the time losses, the operator will still
be able to complete a days work during the hours of the shift.
Normal time is adjusted by an allowance factor A
pfd
to obtain
the standard time
Standard time: T
std
= T
n
(1 + A
pfd
) where pfd =
personal time, fatigue, and delays
Reasons for Lost Time at Work
Work-related interruptions

Machine breakdowns
Waiting for materials or parts
Receiving instructions from
foreman
Talking to co-workers about
work-related matters
Rest breaks for fatigue
Cleaning up at end of shift
Non-work-related interruptions

Personal needs (restroom
breaks)
Talking to co-workers about
matters unrelated to work
Lunch break
Smoke break
Beverage break
Personal telephone call
How to Allow for Lost Time

Two approaches used by companies:

1. Scheduled rest breaks during the shift
Scheduled breaks are planned periods set aside during
the shift as break time from work. Lunch breaks (or
supper break for evening and night shifts) are almost
always handled this way. Many companies treat rest
breaks the same way.
There is a specified rest break in the morning and one
in the afternoon. The duration of these breaks is
typically 5 to 15 minutes. All workers take their breaks
during these specified times, and the workers are paid
during these breaks.

2. A PFD allowance is added to the normal time
PFD Allowance
Personal time
Rest room breaks, phone calls, water
fountain stops, cigarette breaks (5%
typical)
Fatigue
Rest allowance to overcome fatigue due
to work-related stresses and conditions
(5% or more)
Delays
Machine breakdowns, foreman
instructions (5% typical)
Other Types of Allowances
Contingency Allowance
Additional allowance due to a problem with the task (e.g.,
raw material problem ) - not greater than 5%

Policy allowance
These allowances are intended to cover special work
situations that are usually associated with a wage incentive
system.

Training allowance
for workers whose responsibilities include teaching other new
workers in their jobs.

Learning allowance
for workers who are learning a new task or new employees
who are just beginning to work.
PROBLEM # 1

The average observed time for a repetitive work cycle in
a direct time study was 3.27 min. The workers
performance was rated by the analyst at 90%. The
company uses a PFD allowance factor of 13%. What
is the standard time for this task?

Solution # 1
Normal time Tn = 3.27(0.90) = 2.943 min
Standard time Tstd = 2.943(1 + 0.13) = 3.326 min
PROBLEM # 2

The ABC Company uses a standard data system to set
time standards. One of the time study analysts listed
the three work elements for a new task to be
performed in the shop and then determined the
normal time values to be 0.73 min, 2.56 min, and
1.01 min. The company uses a PFD allowance
factor of 16%. Determine the standard time for the
task.

Solution # 2
Normal time Tn = 0.73 + 2.56 + 1.01 = 4.30 min;
Standard time Tstd = 4.30(1 + 0.16) = 4.988 min
PROBLEM # 3


Determine the personal time, fatigue, and delay (PFD) allowance to
be used for computing time standards in the following situation.
Second shift workers punch in at 3:30 p.m. and punch out at
12:00 midnight. They are provided one-half hour for supper at
6:00 p.m., which is not counted as part of the 8-hour shift. For
purposes of determining the allowance, 30 minutes of break time
(personal time and fatigue) are allowed each worker. In addition,
the plant allows 35 min for lost time due to unavoidable delays.
What should the PFD allowance factor be?

Solution # 3
Allowance time for
30 min of break time plus 35 min for lost time = 65 min
Allowance factor Apfd = 480/(480-65) 1 = 1.157 1 = 0.157
= 15.7%
PROBLEM # 4



The work shift at the ABC Company runs from 7:30 a.m. to 4:15
p.m. with a 45 min break for lunch from 11:30 to 12:15 p.m.
that does not count as part of the work shift (workers are not
paid for this time). The company provides two 12-min rest
breaks during working hours (paid time), one in the morning
and one in the afternoon. The company also allows 25 min
per day for personal needs (paid time). In addition, a work
sampling study has shown that on average, unavoidable
delays in the plant result in 20 min lost time per worker per
day (paid time). Determine the PFD allowance factor for the
following two management policies on allowances: (a) the
two 12-min breaks are both scheduled breaks that all
workers take at the same time and (b) the two 12-min
breaks are included in the allowance factor so that workers
can take their breaks whenever they please.

Solution # 4
(a) Allowance time consists of
25 min for personal time + 20 min for delay time = 45 min.
The two 12-min rest breaks are not figured into the allowance
factor, but they do reduce the total work time during the shift.
Total work time = 480 45 2(12) = 411 min.
Thus, Allowance factor Apfd = 45/411 = 0.1095 = 10.95%

(b) Allowance time consists of two 12 min rest breaks + 25 min for
personal time + 20 min for delay time = 69 min.

Total work time = 480 45 2(12) = 411 min. Thus,

Allowance factor Apfd = 69/411 = 0.1679 = 16.79%


Time Study Normal Time Formulas
Normal time(NT)=Observed performance time per unit
x (Performance rating)*
*The Performance Rating is usually expressed in
decimal form in these formulas. So a person
working 10% faster than normal would have a
Performance Rating of 1.10 or 110% of normal
time. Working 10% slower, 0.90 or 90% of
normal.
NT= Time worked _ x (Performance
rating)* Number of units produced
6A-36
Time Study Standard Time Formulas
Standard time = Normal time
+ (Allowances x Normal times)


Standard time = NT(1 + Allowances)

Standard time = NT .
1 - Allowances

6A-37
Time Study Example Problem
You want to determine the standard time for a
job. The employee selected for the time study
has produced 20 units of product in an 8 hour
day. Your observations made the employee
nervous and you estimate that the employee
worked about 10 percent faster than what is a
normal pace for the job. Allowances for the
job represent 25 percent of the normal time.

Question: What are the normal and standard
times for this job?

6A-38
Time Study Example Solution
Normal time = Time worked x (Perf. rating)
Number of units produced

= (480 minutes/20) x (1.10)

= 26.4 minutes

Standard time = NT .
1 Allowances

= (26.4)/(1-0.25)

= 35.2 minutes
6A-39
Work Sampling
Use inference to make statements
about work activity based on a
sample of the activity
Ratio Delay
Activity time percentage for
workers or equipment
Performance Measurement
Relates work time to output
(performance index)
Time Standards
Standard task times
6A-40
Advantage of Work Sampling over Time Study
Several work sampling studies may
be conducted simultaneously by one
observer
The observer need not be a trained
analyst unless the purpose of the
study is to determine a time standard
No timing devices are required
Work of a long cycle time may be
studied with fewer observer hours
6A-41
Advantage of Work Sampling over Time Study (Continued)
The duration of the study is longer,
which minimizes effects of short-
period variations
The study may be temporarily delayed
at any time with little effect
Because work sampling needs only
instantaneous observations (made
over a longer period), the operator
has less chance to influence the
findings by changing work method
6A-42
Question Bowl
A job is said to be enlarged vertically
if the employee is involved with
which of the following?
a. The jobs planning
b. The jobs organizing
c. The jobs inspecting
d. All of the above
e. None of the above
Answer: d. All of the above
6A-43
Question Bowl
Research on Sociotechnical Systems have found
that individuals or work groups require an
integrated pattern of work activities that
incorporates which of the following job
design principles?
a. Decreased task variety
b. Decreased skill variety
c. Decreased task autonomy
d. All of the above
e. None of the above
Answer: e. None of the
above (Increases in
task variety, skill
variety, and task
autonomy have all
been suggested in the
research.)
6A-44
Question Bowl
Which of the following activities requires
the most typical energy cost in
calories per minute?
a. Walking upstairs
b. Writing
c. Chopping wood
d. Typing on a computer
e. Digging
Answer: a. Walking
upstairs (According
to the Calorie
Requirements for
Various Activities
exhibit walking
upstairs requires the
most calories at 12
per minute.)
6A-45
Question Bowl
Which of the following is the Normal
Time for a job whose observed
performance time is 10 minutes and
whose performance rating is only
90%?
a. 90 minutes
b. 9 minutes
c. 1.10 minutes
d. 11.111 minutes
e. None of the above
Answer: b. 9 minutes (10 x 0.90=9 minutes)

6A-46
Question Bowl
Which of the following is the Normal
Time for a job whose observed
performance time is 35 minutes
and whose performance rating is
30% above normal time?
a. 40 minutes
b. 50 minutes
c. 60 minutes
d. 116.666 minutes
e. None of the above
Answer: e. None of
the above
(NT=35x(1.3)=45.5
minutes)

6A-47
Question Bowl
Which of the following is the Standard
Time for a job whose Normal Time is
20 minutes and whose Allowances are
5% of Normal Time?
a. 19.05 minutes
b. 21 minutes
c. 400 minutes
d. 450 minutes
e. None of the above
Answer: b. 21 minutes
(ST=NT(1+Allowances)
or 20(1.05)=21 minutes)

6A-48
End of Chapter 6A
6A-49