Transport Canada

Quebec Region
Civil Aviation

Transports Canada
Rgion du Qubec
Aviation civile

Sophie Lanoix
System Safety Specialist
System Safety
700 Leigh Capreol
Dorval QC H4Y 1G7

Tel.: 514 633-2967

Fax: 514 633-3705

E-mail: lanoixs @ tc.gc.ca

Flying: Risk Factors

and Decision Making
Personal Minimums Checklist
Risk factors

Pilot
Aircraft
enVironment
External pressures

Why?
Humans make mistakes.
70-85% of all aircraft accidents and
incidents are due to human factors.
Most accidents and incidents occur
because the pilot failed to consider one
or more critical factors during the preflight planning phase.

Those Most Likely to be

Involved in an Accident:

are between 35 and 39 years of age;

have between 100 and 500 flight hours;

are on a personal flight;

are under visual flight rules (VFR).

D
?
N
?
?
A

Phase of Flight Exposure

vs. Accidents
Percentage of Exposure Time (per flight)

16%

60%

Takeoff
and climb

Cruise

22%

17%

24%

Descent, approach and

landing

61%

Percentage of Accidents (per phase of flight)

NASA Survey
Percentage of respondents who said:
Our fist mistake was in the

10%

63%

Pre-flight planning phase

Start up, taxi, pre-takeoff

phases

27%

All other phases of flight

Accidents where time factor was reported

Personal Minimums
Checklist
Your personal minimum
checklist ensures that you
recognize and manage all
risk factors that can
influence your flight.

Personal Minimums
Checklist
The decision to carry out a flight is based
on the pilots personal and safety criteria,
which are adapted to the situation.
The regulations are minimums and do not
account for the differences between
pilots.

Personal Minimums
Checklist
Identify risk factors for each flight.
Determine methods for controlling
each of the risk factors.

Personal Minimums
Checklist
Not all items will apply to every flight;
no checklist can cover every situation.
Remember that your checklist should
be updated periodically.

Risk Factors
There are 4 categories of risk factors:
Pilot
Aircraft
enVironment
External Pressures

Pilot
Examples of questions to ask yourself:
How current am I?
Am I well rested?
Am I familiar with the type of airspace I will be
flying in?
Do I have experience with the terrain?

Training, Knowledge
and Experience
A lack of:
Training and knowledge
Experience
Recency and proficiency

will increase:
Workload
Reaction time
Errors

CARs
401.05 and
421.05

Procedures
Do you know the most upto-date operational
procedures and the current
regulations?

Beware of
Overconfidence
Overconfidence in a pilot occurs when they are
lulled into a sense of self-satisfaction
accompanied by:

a failure to recognize changes in their

situation; or

a failure to assess the actual dangers or

deficiencies in their situation.

Avoiding
Overconfidence

Do thorough pre-flight planning.

Anticipate and continually assess the
situation.
Stay busy: pre-plan, file a PIREP,
think about the What ifs . . .
Always have an escape route (an
alternate plan of action or a plan B).

Fatigue
A fatigued pilot:
is susceptible to visual and kinaesthetic
illusions and has a reduced field of vision;
may forget or ignore checks and procedures;
is easily distracted and fixates on details;
is easily preoccupied;
has limited situational awareness;
exhibits poor communication skills;
is likely to doze off.

Preventing Fatigue

Get 8 hours of sleep if possible.

If you are unable to fall asleep in 30 minutes, get up.
Take a power nap, if possible (45 minutes max.).
Stay in good physical condition (aerobic) and eat
sensibly.
Avoid using artificial stimulants, sleep aids, alcohol
and tobacco.
Drink enough water.

Preventing In-Flight
Fatigue
If you are fatigued while flying:

ventilate the cockpit;

engage in constructive conversation;

file a PIREP with ATS;

review emergency procedures;

think about the What ifs ? and your plan B;

move around.

Fitness of Flight Crew

Members (CAR 602.02)
No operator of an aircraft shall require any person to
act as a flight crew member and no person shall act as
a flight crew member, if either the person or the
operator has any reason to believe, having regard to
the circumstances of the particular flight to be
undertaken, that the person
(a) is suffering or is likely to suffer from fatigue; or
(b) is otherwise unfit to perform properly the person's duties
as a flight crew member.

Diet

Simple
Carbohydrates

Blood Sugar
Level

High

Low

Complex
Carbohydrates

Danger Zone

Time

Alcohol:
is a sedative;
decreases the brains ability to use
oxygen;
affects our senses;
affects our judgement;
distorts our perception.
The effects of alcohol are increased in altitude
because the partial pressure of oxygen is decreased.

Alcohol vs. Senses

Reduction in visual and auditory sharpness.
Susceptibility to visual illusions.
Susceptibility to vestibular illusions (internal
ear).
Loss of balance.

Alcohol vs. Judgment

Alcohol impairs our judgment by:
increasing our reaction time;
clouding our memory;
making us accept a higher level of risk
than normal;
making us underestimate the risks
involved.

Alcohol vs. Judgment

The most serious
effect of alcohol is that
we are unable to judge
our own impairment.

Alcohol vs.
Metabolism

Alcohol is a diuretica hangover is the

result of dehydration.

Alcohol disrupts sleep patterns, causing

fatigue.

Alcohol that accumulates in the inner ear

remains longer than the alcohol that
accumulates in the rest of the body.

Alcohol vs.
Metabolism
Even after alcohol is completely
eliminated from the body, the
effects can last for 48 to 72 hours
after the last drink.
CAR 602.03

Illness and
Medication
Medication covers up symptoms,
but does not
cure the underlying problem.

Always consult a Civil Aviation Medical Examiner.

Educate yourself on the side effects of
prescription and over-the-counter medications.
Before flying, wait double the recommended
amount of time between doses.

Stress vs. Performance

High
Performance

Peak Performance
Danger

Medium
Performance
Low
performance

Low
Stress

Medium
Stress

High
Stress

Stress Management

Identify, recognize and manage stressors.

Get sufficient rest, proper nutrition and

exercise.

Check your attitude, sense of humour and

emotional state.

Stress Management
Be pro-active towards stressors:

Know all the elements

Keep the big picture in mind . . . what is

the worst-case scenario?

Communicate your problems to people

who can help.

Three Human Factors Books

from Transport Canada

1 800 305-2059
http://www.tc.gc.ca/CivilAviation/communications/publications.htm

Coffee Break
The three most useless
things to a pilot:
The altitude above you,
the runway behind you, and
a tenth of a second ago.

Aircraft
Examples of questions to ask yourself:
Is the aircraft adequately equipped?
Does the aircraft have any maintenance

problems?
What are the aircraft performances?
What is the aircrafts fuel consumption?

Airworthiness
Make sure your aircraft is airworthy:
Check all aircraft documents.
Do a complete walk-around.
Make sure weight and balance is within
the limits.

Time in Your Tanks...

Calculate the amount of fuel you burn

from engine start up to engine shut
down, plus required reserves.

Do not rely on a forecasted tailwind;

anticipate headwinds.

Be conscientious about your howgoes-it checkpoints!!

CAR 602.88
Every aircraft shall carry an amount of
fuel that is sufficient to provide for:
taxiing and foreseeable delays prior to
takeoff;
meteorological conditions;
foreseeable air traffic routings and traffic
delays;

CAR 602.88
landing at a suitable aerodrome in the event of loss of cabin
pressurization or, in the case of a multi-engined aircraft,
failure of any engine, at the most critical point during the
flight; and
any other foreseeable conditions that could delay the landing
of the aircraft.

Plus a reserve supply of at least:

day VFR: 30 min
night VFR: 45 min

Competency and
Experience on Type
Are you up-to-date on the aircraft you intend to fly?
How is your:
flying ability (hands and feet);
knowledge of the aircraft;
knowledge of the emergency procedures.

Keep yourself current on aircraft systems, their

limits and operational procedures

Practical
Knowledge
Static simulation is a cheap and
effective means of familiarizing or
re-familiarizing yourself with the
aircraft's controls, instruments,
avionics and checklist procedures.

Practical
Knowledge

Take the time to practice flight

manoeuvres.

An occasional or, even better, annual

flight with an instructor is invaluable.

Develop your automatism!

Aircraft
Performance
Performances and fuel consumption
indicated in the pilot operating handbook
(POH) have been calculated in ideal
circumstances:
a new aircraft;
an experienced test pilot;
maximum performances;
optimal weather conditions.

Aircraft
Performance
Be conservative!
Add a percentage to your performance
calculations:
take-off distance;
obstacle clearance and climb;
landing distance.

When flight planning, ensure that you are using the

authorized documentation for your individual aircraft

Aircraft Equipment
Communication/Navigation:
required for the airspace you will be
flying in;
familiarity with the equipment.

Clothing and survival equipment:

appropriate for the season and the area.

Maintenance
Are you maintaining your aircraft
yourself?
Is your mechanic an aircraft
maintenance engineer (AME)?
Are all the parts approved for aviation
(no bogus parts)?

Avionics

Avionics technology is changing

rapidly.
Be aware that GPS receivers have
different control functions,
programming procedures and data
displays.

The time to learn how to operate the system is

when you are on the ground, not in the air!!

Environment
Examples of questions to ask yourself:
What will the weather be at destination?
Will it be a day flight or a night flight?
What terrain is involved?
Is the runway in good condition?

Airport Conditions
Prepare your approach as part of your preflight planning, check NOTAMs.
If you are unfamiliar with the airport, look at
the diagram in the CFS or the CAP plate.
Call ahead, airport/runway conditions vary
based on the weather and season.
Follow special procedures set out in the CFS.

Noise
Circuit

Airspace

Know the area radio frequencies and

monitor them.

Familiarize yourself with transition

routes and reporting points.

Look for, and monitor, other aircraft in

the area.

Weather
Check METARs, TAFs, FDs and GFAs.
Assess any meteorological hazards
such as:
reduced visibility, thunderstorms, wind
shear, icing, low ceilings etc.

Familiarize yourself with local weather

trends.

Weather
Determine how the weather will be
affecting your flight route and
duration.
Avoid bad weather conditions.

Terrain

Be familiar with obstacles and terrain.

Charts, CFS:
all the necessary information;
up-to-date;
organized.

External Pressures
Examples of questions to ask yourself:
What outside forces are pushing me?
Why am I making this trip?
Am I pressed for time?
What are the real consequences to my
decisions?

Time Pressure
The more you feel pressed for time,
the more you do things hastily,
the higher your chances of making
a mistake.

Time Pressure
Management
Do not put yourself under unnecessary
time pressure:
Allow sufficient time for unforeseen
delays.
Plan alternate means of travel to allow
for bad weather.

Time Pressure
Management
Do not rush:

Use your checklist and stick to the

procedures.

If you are interrupted, go three steps back

on the checklist or start at the beginning!

Managing External
Pressures
Beware of the effects of the I have to get
there no matter what syndrome.
Always have a plan B;
What is your way out?

Exaggerated
Exagerated
feeling
feeling of
of
emergency
emergency

Set limits (fuel, weather, etc.) at which

you will turn around or divert.

Do not exceed your limitsStick to them!!!

Peer and Passenger

Pressures

Do not ignore or minimize passenger

concerns before a flight.

Give your passengers a thorough preflight briefing.

Make use of all resources: ask

passengers to watch for traffic, read
maps and other publications.

Peer and Passenger

Pressures
Make decisions based on facts
and your limitations.
Do not get yourself into situations
that you did not plan. Beware of
last minute, unplanned changes!

Do not take unnecessary

risks under pressure!!!

Personal Minimums
Checklist
You need to commit to
using the checklist.
Make it a part of your
pre-flight routine and
have the discipline to
follow it through!!

Questions ?