PNEUMATIC DETECTORS

The receiving element in a Pneumatic Detector is placed inside an air tight

Chamber.
Radiation falling on the element causes the air temperature inside the
chamber to rise and hence the air pressure increases and this increase can
be detected in several ways. One of the scheme is by GOLAY CELL.
The Golay Cell consist of a Pneumatic Chamber. Radiation is allowed to pass
through the chamber from one side and the wall on the other side has a
hole in it covered by a flexible membrane silvered on its out side.
This acts as a mirror whose focal length depends on the pressure within the
chamber.
A beam of light originating from a source S passes through a grating, is
then reflected from the flexible mirror to repass through the grating, and
finally directed onto the detector D .
When no radiation is being absorbed within the chamber, the optics are
arranged so that the image of the transmitting region of the Grating is
superimposed on the Non-Transmitting region, and there is then no output
from D .
However, if the mirror changes its curvature slightly. light will be
transmitted through the grating and is recorded by the detector D .
The output from D is proportional to the amount of Radiation absorbed
within the chamber.
Golay Cells are available which can detect radiation powers down to 10 -11 W.

PYROELECTRIC DETECTORS

In this type of detectors, the incident radiation is allowed to be absorbed in a

Ferroelectric Material which has molecules with a permanent Electric Dipole
Moment.
Below a critical temperature called the CURIE TEMPERATURE Tc ,the dipoles
are aligned along a particular crystallographic axis giving raise to a net
polarization of the crystal as a whole.
When the material is heated, the increased thermal agitation of the dipoles
decreases the net polarization ,which eventually becomes zero above Tc .
The most sensitive material in use is TRIGLYCINE SULPHATE(TGS).But it has a
low value of Tv of only 49 Degrees Celsius.
More commonly used materials are Ceramic based, such as LEAD ZIRCONATE,
PZT, etc, which have Curie temperatures of several hundreds of centigrade.
The detector consists of a thin slab of Ferroelectric material cut such that the
spontaneous polarization direction is normal to the large area faces.
Transparent electrodes are evaporated on to these faces and connected
together with a load resistor (R=1011).
A temperature change of the Ferroelectric causes spontaneous polarization to
vary, and hence the capacitive charge on the faces.
Changes in the surface charge induce corresponding changes in the charge on
the electrodes, thus causing a current to flow through the load resistor.
This in turn results in a changing voltage signal appearing across the load
resistor.

Radiation of constant intensity of irradiation will not cause any

change in the charge stored on the electrodes and will
consequently not give raise to an output signal.
The equivalent circuit of the pyroelectric detector may be taken to
be a current source i feeding into a parallel combination of
capacitor C and a Load Resistor RL.
If P is the dipole moment per unit volume of the pyroelectric
material, the surface charge will be PA, where A is the area of the
surface.
d ( PA
) as dP dT
Hence,the current can
be
written
i
A
.

dt

dT

dt

w w cos( 2ft )

Where T is the temperature of the detector and dT/dt is the rate of

o
f
increase of temperature with time due to absorption of radiation.
If the detector completely absorbs radiation of
,then
L the voltage responsivity of the device Rs can
besexpressed as
2 2 2
2 1/ 2
2 2 2 1/ 2
L

dP R
2f
1
R A
.
dT G (1 4 f H / G ) (1 4 f R )

At low frequencies, the output rises from zero to reach a plateau when f>
1/2H.
where H is the thermal time constant.
At higher frequencies, the electrode capacitance C acts as a signal shunt
across the load resistor RL and the output voltage falls to 1/2 of its
value at cut-off frequency fc given by

1
fc
2RL C

As the voltage output is proportional to R L, there is a trade off between

the sensitivity and the frequency response. A detector with a frequency
bandwidth of
1 Hz at an operating frequency of 100 Hz can detect radiation powers of
about W
Because of the comparatively large values of Load Resistor encountered
in Pyroelectric detectors, an impedance matching circuit is usually built
into the detector. A source follower circuit using JFET is commonly used.
Pyroelectric detectors can be made with response times in the
nanosecond region and with wavelength response extending upto
100m.
They have proved very useful as low cost, Roubst IR detectors in such
uses as fire detection and intruder alarms.

VACUUM PHOTODIODES
In vacuum photodiode,the photoemissive surface(Photocathode)is placed
in a vacuum tube with another electrode called the Anode placed nearby
to it and biased positive with respect to it.
When the photocathode is illuminated with Light,the emitted electrons
will be collected by the anode and a current will flow in the external
circuit.
If the bias voltage is large enough,all the emitted electrons will be
collected and the current will be almost independent of the bias
voltage,but proportional to the intensity of light falling on the
photocathode.
If monochromatic light of wavelength o and power P is incident on a
photocathode,then the number of photons N p incident per second is given
by

Np =

P/(hc/o) = (P o)/hc

If the quantum efficiency of the photocathode is , thenthe current

flowing through the external circuit is given by

I = ( ePo)/hc

This current will be very small and thus often requires external
amplification.

Photomultipliers
In the photomultiplier,the photoelectrons are accelerated towards a
series of electrodes called the DYNODES,which are maintained at
successively higher potentials with respect to the cathode.
On striking a dynode surface,each electron causes the emission of
several secondary electrons,which inturn are accelerated towards
the next dynode and continue the multiplication process.
Thus,if an average of secondary electrons are emitted at each
dynode surface for each incident electron,and if there are N
dynodes,the total current amplification factor between the cathode
and the anode is given by

G=N

If =5 and N=9, we obtain G= 2x106

There are four most common photomultiplier dynode configurations
1) Venetian blind
2)Box and Grid
3)Linear focussed
4)Circular Cage focussed.

 1) In the venetian blind type,electrons strike a set of obliquely

placed dynode slats at each dynode stage.
Electrons are attracted to the next set of slats by means of the
interdynode potential applied between a thin wire grid placed
infront of the slats.
This arrangement is compact,relatively in expensive to manufacture
and is very suitable for large area cathodes.
2) The Box and Grid type is somewhat similar in in performance.In
both these cases,no attempt is made to focus the electrons.
3) In the case of linearly focussed and circular cage type,some
degree of electron focussing is achieved by careful shaping and
positioning of the dynodes.
Thus,the focussed types have somewhat higher electron collection
efficiencies and much better response to high modulation
frequencies
4)The circular cage focussed type is very compact and usually used
in conjunction with a side window geometry.
In this,the photocathode material is deposited on a metal substrate
within the glass envelope and the photoelectrons are emitted from
the same side of the cathode as that stuck by the incident
radiation.

 The dynode potentials are usually

provided by means of potential divider
circuit as shown.Care must be taken to
ensure that the voltage between the
Cathode and the first dynode is large
enough .
The intermediate stages work quite
satisfactorily over a wide range of
voltages provided the voltage is
distributed uniformly.
The photomultiplier responds to the light
input by delivering charge to the anode.
This charge may be allowed to flow
through a resistance RL or to charge a
capacitor.The corresponding voltage
signal then provides a measure of the
input optical signal.
If individual pulses need to be
examined,then it is important to ensure
that the response time of the external
circuitary must be less than the pulse rise
time. This usually implies a low value of
Load Resistor or Low RC time constant .

Image Intensifiers

Basic principle

The basic principle of image intensification is identical for all

different intensifier versions.

An image - ultraviolet, visible light, or near infrared - is projected onto the

transparent window of the vacuum tube as shown in Fig. 1. The vacuum
side of this window carries a sensitive layer called the photocathode.
Light radiation causes the emission of electrons from the
photocathode into the vacuum which are then accelerated by an applied
DC voltage towards a luminescent screen (phosphor screen) situated
opposite the photocathode. The screens phosphor in turn converts high
energy electrons back to light (photons), which corresponds to the
distribution of the input image radiation but with a flux amplified many

The image intensifiers are designed to boost very low intensity optical
images to a point where they become useful. They can also act as
wavelength down converters as they can convert near IR radiation into
visible radiation.
The terminology "image intensifier" and "image converter" are frequently
confused. In particular, image conversion refers to the transfer from an
invisible to a visible spectral range, such as image converters used in
night vision. On the other hand, image intensifiers which perform as the
name suggests often also function as image converters.
Image intensifiers are classified in three categories: first, second, and
third generation. Each generation has specific advantages and
disadvantages.

The First Generation Image Intensifiers (Intensifier

Dodes)

Intensifier tubes in this category feature especially high image

resolution, a wide dynamic range (the ability to reproduce the ratio
between the bright and dark parts of an image), and low noise. They
possess moderate gain in the range of some hundreds of Lumens per
Lumen (Im/Im).
First generation tubes utilize only a single potential difference to
accelerate electrons from the cathode to the anode (screen). Focusing is
achieved by two methods:

by placing the screen

in close proximity to
the photocathode
(proximity diode), see
Fig. 2,

Fig. 2: Proximity focus

image intensifier
diode

by using an electron lens to focus

electrons originating from the
photocathode onto the
screen (inverter diode), Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: Inverter image intensifier

diode

The electrons can be focussed onto the screen by either electrostatic or

magnetic means. Usually.the electrostatic focussing is used for simplicity.
An accelerating potential is applied between the cathode and the phosphor
screen,thus increasing the electron energy from a few electron volts to about
10KeV. Or so. Luminance gains of upto 2000 may be achieved quite
readily,while higher gains or possible by cascading two or more units with
fiberoptic coupling between them.

Second Generation Image Intensifiers

The major difference between first and second generation tubes is the use of
electron multipliers, i.e., not only the energy but also the number of
electrons between input and output is significantly increased. Multiplication
is achieved by use of a device called microchannel plate (MCP).The
microchannel plate consists of a slab of insulating material (500m thick)
with many small holes are channels , typically 10 m diameter in it. It is in
these holes where successive, secondary electron emission occurs which
leads to multiplication factors of up to four orders of magnitude.
The inner surfaces of these channels are made slightly conducting and a
potential of 1KV is applied between the opposite faces of the slab.Electrons
entering one of the channels are accelerated downit and strike the walls
soon after entering since the axis of the channel is slightly inclined to the
electron trajectory.
As in the photomultiplier,secondary electrons are generated by the impact
and the process is repeated along the channel as shown in the Fig.

Focussing can be achieved most simply by placing the

microchannel plate in close proximity to both the photocathode
and the phosphor screen;this arrangement gives a compact
device.

Inverter MCP image

intensifier

 The achievable image resolution and dynamic range are less than those of
first generation intensifiers, whereas luminous gain is significantly
higher. Luminous gain ranges from 10.000 Im/Im for a single stage MCP
up to 107 Im/Im for intensifiers having two microchannel plates.
A number of improvements to the basic second generation schemes have
resulted in what are termed as the Third Generation Devices.
Third generation image intensifier tubes employ proximity focus MCP
intensifiers with Gallium-Arsenide photocathodes which have a peak
spectral response in the 0.8 0.9 m region where the night sky gives a
photon flux some Five to Seven times that at a wavelength of 0.5 m .

These have a luminous sensitivity of approximately 1.200 A/lm

instead of 300 A/lm found in the multialkali photocathodes normally used
in first and second generation intensifiers.
The main advantage is in the red and near infrared; they are not
appropriate for ultraviolet.The high infrared sensitivity also makes these
tubes more susceptible to high thermal noise.
Proximity focus intensifiers of first, second and third generation are of
compact mechanical construction with their length being smaller than their
diameter. Furthermore, they are completely free of geometric distortion and
feature high resolution over the photocathode's entire useful area. Image
magnification is exactly 1:1. Additional advantages include their immunity
against electrical and electromagnetical strayfields, and ability to function
as extremely fast optoelectronic shutters in the nanosecond range.

Photoconductive Devices

Photoconductive Devices

An electron can be raised valance band to conduction band by absorption of a

photon of energy
h Eg or hc/Eg.
As long as the electron remains in the conduction band, the conductivity of the
semiconductor will be increased. This is the phenomenon of Photoconductivity,
which is the basic mechanism operative in photoconductive devices.
If the semiconducting material is in the form of a slab of width W,length Land
thickness D; with electrodes on opposite ends applied with external potential
across the electrodes as shown,any change in the conductivity of the detector
results in an increased flow of current round the circuit;which will increase the
potential across the Load Resistor RL. This may be detected using a high
impedance voltmeter.
If we are interested only in the time varying part of the incident radiation, then
a blocking capacitor C may be inserted in the output line to remove any dc
component.
The optimum value of the RL in a particular situation is determined by the
fractional change in the resistance of the photoconductor when under
maximum illumination.
If this is small(< 5%),the largest sensitivity is obtained when RL = RD,where
RD id the photodetector resistance.
If it is relatively large,linearity of the output can only be maintained only when
RL<< RD

The
intensity of monochromatic radiation = rIo

n 1
The Fresnel reflection co-efficient at the surface
is

=
n 1
Then,the radiation just inside the surface of the slab is

I (O ) I o (1 r )

Now,the radiance at a point a distance x into the semiconductor

I(X) is

Where is the absorption coefficient of the material. Values of of

the order of per meter imply that most electron-hole pairs will be
generated within a few micrometers of the semiconductor
(1 r ) abs
surface.The fraction of the incident radiation which is actually
absorbed by the semiconductor can thus be written as
Where abs 1 exp( D )

I ( x) I (o) exp( x)

(1 r ) abs

If
,the total number of electron
hole pairs generated within the slab per second is given by

I oWL
h

The average generation rate rg of carriers per unit volume is

then given by

I oWL
I o
rg

hWLD
h D

, ofp the excess

The recombination ratenrr
depends on the
n carriers
p
densities of the excess carrier populations
(where
for charge neutrality) and the minority carrier life time c
n
p
via the equation
r

In equilibrium,the recombination rate must be equal to the

n p r
generation rate,and therefore, g c

The conductivity of the semiconductor material can be written as

Hence,under illumination,the dark conductivity will increase by an

amount where
e
h
g c
e
h

nee pe h

ne pe r e( )

The application of a voltage across the electrode will result in a

photoinduced current i given by

WD
i
V
L

Which can further be expressed as

WD
i
rg c e( e h )V
L

The quantum efficiency parameter,known as the photoconductive

gain G defined as the ratio of flow of electrons from the device to
the rate of generation of electron-hole pairs within the device is

c ( e h )V
i
1
G

e rgWDL
L2

Unlike the photoelectric effect,the G value can be greater than

unity.It may be increased by increasing V and decreasing L

The Iconoscope

The Iconoscope
The Iconoscope was developed by Vladimir Zworykin, and
used in electronic TV broadcasting from 1939 until it was
replaced by more advanced tubes.
Inside the Iconoscope, the image is projected on a mosaic
(M) consisting of granules of photo-emissive material.
Emission of photo-electrons from each granule in
proportion to the amount of light results in a charge image
being formed on the mosaic.
Each granule, together with the conductive plate behind
the mosaic, forms a small capacitor, all of these having a
common plate.
The capacitors are discharged in succession when the
mosaic is scanned by a high velocity electron beam (E) from
the electron gun, and the resulting changes in potential at
the metal plate constitute the picture signal.
The "sensitivity" is 75 000 lux.The picture shows RCA
1850A. The price in 1948 was USD 540,-

Image-Iconoscope
This has a kind of electron multipier to improve
the sensitivity which has been increased to 1000
lux.

P.E.S-Photikon

Here, a bias light further improves the sensitivity to 300-500 lux

IMAGE ORTHICON
Image orthicon makes use of the
photoemissive effect togrther with
image multiplication with
photomultiplier.
It has three sections:
1)Image section,
2) Scanning Section
3) Photomultiplier Section

Target section
Glass plate
Lens assembly

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 The Image section consists of a glass face plate,inside of which is

coated with photoemissive material(Silver antimoney sensitised
with cesium).Light is focussed on the photocathode by a lens
system,and the potical image thus formed results in the release of
electrons from each point on the photocathode in proportion to the
incident light intensity.the photocathode is semi transparent and
light rays penetrate it to reach the inner surface from which the
emission takes place.
Though the conversion efficiency of the photocathode is very
high,it cannot store the charge being a conductor.thus,the electron
image that is produced on the photocathode is made to move
towards a target plate located at a very short distance from it.
The target plate is made up of a very thin sheet of glass and can
store charge received by it.it is maintained at a voltage of 400
volts more positive with respect to the photocathode and this
gives desired acceleration and motion to the emitted
photoelectrons to move towards it.
To prevent the divergence effect of the photoelectrons, an axial
magnetic field is applied by means of a long focussing coil, which
imparts helical motion to the electrons and focusses the electrons
on to the target plate to form a well defined sharp image.

Image Orthicon

Orthicon

The electron beam

has a relatively low
speed and magnetic
focusing is needed to
keep the beam
narrow.
The anode is placed
in the same end as
the electron gun and
the return beam is
modulated according
to the light input.
Sensitivity 3000 lux

Image Orthicon

The Image Orthicon was a big step forward. It includes a five stage
electron multiplier. The picture shows the 3" RCA 5820.
Sensitivity 200 lux
Dimensions: 75 mm diam, 385 mm length, weight 400
grams.Vidicon
Sensitivity 500 lux
Picture shows:
Philips XQ1270 3/4", diam 19 mm, length 100 mm, weight 23 g.
Philips XQ1030 1", diam 27 mm, length 140 mm, weight 50 g.
Vidicon with magnetic deflection unit. The Spectraplex vidicon type
4445 was RCA's attempt to create a single tube color TV camera.
They made one camera model with this tube. Further history is
unknown.
The size is : diam: 25 mm, length 140 mm.
Weight: 50 grams.
Plumbicon
Philips improvement of the vidicon. The picture shows XQ1074
which were available in three versions, R, G and B for colour TV
camera.
And for comparison only:
A small solid state color TV camera "Mintron" with C-mount for
lens. Dimensions: 110 x 55 x 50 mm.Weight: 360 grams excl. lens,
470 grams incl. F1,4/16mm lens. Power needed: 12 VDC,
100mA.Sensitivity: 4 lux. Output signal: 1,0 Vpp composite
video.Can be externally synchronized. An ultra miniature solid state
pin hole color TV camera with 1/4" CCD sensor. Built in 4,3 mm
lens / f2,8. Dimensions: 19 x 33 x 29 mm.Weight: 50 grams. Power
needed: 5 VDC
Sensitivity: 2 lux, 330 lines resolution, 290 000 pixels. B/W version of
camera has 0,1 lux sensitivity !!! Output signal: 1,0 Vpp composite
video. Made by COP Security Taiwan.
(Yes, it is the same matchbox) A micro sized monochrome camera
for surveillance use, type CAMZWCMM. It measures 15 x 15 x 17
mm. Weight: 5 grams, Power needed 12 VDC. Sensitivity 0,5 lux.
Made somewhere in Taiwan.
(Still the same matchbox)
NEW 2002-01-27
HOME
2001, ke Holm, Sweden

RCA Image Orthicon(1948) and

Hitachi single tube colour camera

VIDICON

Vidicon camera pick-up tube is based on the principle of

Photoconductivity, where the resistance of the target material shows
marked decrease when exposed to light and came into use in the
early 1950.
In this tube, the Target consists of a thin photoconductive layer of
either Selenium or Antimony compounds. This is deposited on a
transparent conductive film, coated on the inner surface of the face
plate. The conductive coating is known as the signal electrode or
plate.
Image side of the photo layer, which is in contact with the signal
electrode, is connected to DC power supply through the load
resistance RL. The beam that emerges from the electron gun is
focused on the surface of the photocathode layer by the combined
action of uniform magnetic field of an external coil and the
electrostatic field of the Grid N0.3.
Grid No.4 provides a uniform decelerating field between itself and the
photo conducting layer, so that the electron beam approaches the
layer with a low velocity to prevent any secondary emission.
Deflection of the beam, for scanning the Target is obtained by vertical
and horizontal deflecting coils placed around the tube.

Target section
Glass plate
Lens assembly

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Electron gun assembly

Electron gun

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Scanning section

Fine electron beam

Focus ,alignment coil
Deflection coil
1. Horizontal deflection

2. Vertical deflection

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THE CHARGE IMAGE

The photo layer has a thickness of about 0.0001cm and behaves like an
insulator with a resistance of approximately 20M when in dark. With
the light focused on to it, the photon energy enables more electrons to
go to the conduction band, and its resistivity reduces drastically and
hence the resistance of the layer. With bright light falling, the resistance
across the thickness of the layer gets reduced to about 2M.
Thus, with an image on the Target, each point on the Gun side of the
photo layer assumes a certain potential with respect to the DC supply
depending on its resistance to the signal plate. For example, with a DC
source of 40V,an area with high illumination may acquire a potential of
39V on the beam side, while the dark areas, on account of their high
resistance of the photo layer, may raise to only about to 30V. Thus, a
pattern of positive potentials appears on the Gun side of the photo layer,
producing a charge image, that corresponds to the incident optical
image.
Since each element is scanned at intervals equal to the frame time, this
results in the storage action, and the net change in the resistance at any
point or element on the photo conducting layer depends on the time
that elapses between the two successive scannings and the intensity of
the incident light. Since the Storage time for all the points on the target
plate is the same, the net charge that is developed at any point depends
on the incident light intensity at that point.

Principle of operation

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Leaky Capacitor Concept.

The development of the charge image on the photo layer can be explained by
the leaky capacitor concept.
We can consider the target area consisting of an array of individual elements,
each consisting of a capacitor in parallel with a light dependent resistor, as
shown, one end of these target elements is connected to the signal electrode
and the other end is unterminated facing the scanning electron beam.
In the absence of any light image, the capacitors attain a charge almost equal
to the DC Voltage in due course of time.
However, when an image is focused on the target, the resistors in parallel
with the capacitors change in their value depending on the intensity of light
falling on each unit element.
For high light element, the resistance across the capacitor drops to a fairly low
value, and this permits a lot of charge from the capacitor to leak away. At the
time of scanning, more electrons are deposited on the unterminated end of
the capacitor to recharge it to the full Supply voltage. The consequent flow of
current that completes the path through the load resistance RL develops a
signal voltage across it.
Thus, Bright areas produce more signal voltage where as dark areas produce
less signal voltage.
Thus, the scanning electron beam sees the charge on each capacitor, while
scanning the target, and delivers more or less number of electrons to
recharge them to the supply voltage. This process is repeated every 40ms to
generate the video signal.

Application of vidicon
Close circuit TV system
Earlier type of vidicon were used only
where there was no fast movement ,
because of inherent lag

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Plumbicon Camera Tube

lower image lag.

It has fast response and produce high quality pictures
at low light level.
It has small size and light weight and has low power
operating characteristics .
It is similar to vidicon tube except small change in
target plate

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Akshay Jilowa GPCG

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Target plate
n-type layer sno2

Glass face
plate

p type layer PbO

Scanning beam

Light

Intrinsic layer
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THE PLUMBICON
Except for the Target, Plumbicon is similar to the Vidicon. The focus and
Deflection are both obtained magnetically.
Its Target operates effectively as a p-i-n Semicondoctor diode. The inner
surface of the face plate is coated with a thin transparent conductive
layer of TIN OXIDE(SnO2).This forms a strong N type layer(N+) and
serves as a signal plate of the target.
On the scanning side of this layer is deposited a photo conducting layer
of pure Lead monoxide(PbO) which is the Intrinsic or I Type.
Finally, the pure PbO is doped to form a P Type semiconductor on which
the scanning electron beam lands. The overall thickness of the target is
15xm.
The photoconductive target in Plumbicon functions similar to the
photoconductive target of the vidicon, except for the method of
discharging the storage element.
In the Vidicon, each element acts as a leaky capacitor in shunt with a
leakage resistance whose value varies with the incident light intensity.
However, in the Plumbicon, each element serves as a capacitor in
series with a reverse biased light controlled diode.
In the signal circuit, the conductance film of Tin Oxide(SnO2) is
connected to the target supply voltage of 40V through an external
resistance RL to develop the camera output signal voltage.

Light from the scene being televised is focused through the

transparent layer of Tin Oxide on to the photoconductive Lead
monoxide layer.
Without light, the target prevents any conduction because of the
absence of any charge carriers and so there is no output current.
The dark current will be very less of the order of around 4nA.
The incidence of light on the target results in photoconduction of
the semiconducting junction between the pure PbO and doped
layer. the resultant decrease in the resistance causes signal
current to flow which is proportional to the incident light intensity
on each photo element. The overall thickness of the target is 10 to
20m.
The current output verses target illumination response of
plumbicon is a straight line with a higher slope as compared to the
vidicon, thus giving higher value of current output, that is higher
sensitivity. This may be due to much reduced recombination of
photo generated electrons and holes in the intrinsic layer which
contains very few discontinuities.
The spectral response of Plumbicon is closer to that of the human
eye except in the red colour region.

ELEKTRONIKOS TAISAI

59

2009

DISPLAY DEVICES

VGTU EF ESK

stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt

60

Display devices
Display devices are used for the visual presentation of information.
1. Analog display devices (cathode-ray tubes)
Oscilloscope tubes
TV CRTs
2. Digital display devices
LED (including OLED) displays
VF (vacuum fluorescent ) displays
LCD (liquid crystal) displays
Nixie tube displays and PDPs (plasma display panels)
Electroluminescent displays (ELDs)
3. Others:
Electronic paper
Using principles of nanoelectronics (carbon nanotubes, nanocrystals)
Laser TV

61

Classification of electronic information technologies with high information content; highlighted technologies are treated in this article

Display devices
Electronic display devices based on various principles were
developed.
Active display devices are based on luminescence.
Luminescence is the general term used to describe the
emission of electromagnetic radiation from a substance due
to a non-thermal process. Luminescence occurs from a solid
when it is supplied with some form of energy.
Photoluminescence arises as a result of absorption of
photons.
In the case of cathodoluminescence material is excited by
bombardment with a beam of electrons.
Electroluminescence is a result of excitation from the
application of an electric field.
Fluorescence persists for a short lifetime of the transition between
the two energy levels.
Phosphorescence persists for much longer time (more than 108
s).
Passive display devices reflect or modulate light

Display devices.

Cathode ray tubes

Electron gun
Principles of focusing
Deflection of the beam
Cathodoluminescence
Oscilloscope tubes
Picture tubes

Flat panel displays

LED displays
Vacuum fluorescent displays
Gas discharge displays and plasma display
panels
Electroluminescent displays
Liquid crystal displays
Field emission displays
Other displays
Objectives: overview structures, principles of
operation and general properties of display devices.

Cathode-ray tubes
The cathode ray tube (CRT), invented by German physicist
Karl Ferdinand Braun in 1897, is an evacuated glass envelope
containing an electron gun (a source of electrons) and a fluorescent
screen, usually with internal or external means to accelerate and
deflect the electrons. When electrons strike the fluorescent screen,
light is emitted.
The electron beam is deflected and modulated in a way which
causes it to display an image on the screen. The image may
represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television,
computer monitor), echoes of aircraft detected by radar, etc.

A cathode ray tube (CRT) contains four basic parts:

electron gun,
focusing and accelerating systems,
deflecting systems, and

evacuated glass envelope with a phosphorescent screen that

glows visibly when struck by the electron beam.

Cathode-ray tubes. Electron gun

An electron gun consists of a series of electrodes
producing a narrow beam of high-velocity
electrons.
Electrons are released from the indirectly heated
cathode.
The intensity of the beam is controlled by
variation of the negative potential of the
cylindrical control grid surrounding the cathode.
This electrode is called the modulator.
The control grid has a hole in the front to allow
passage of the electron beam.
The electrons are accelerated and focused.

Cathode-ray tubes. Electron gun

Focusing:
electrostatic
electromagnetic

Deflection:
electrostatic
electromagnetic
Modulation characteristic

Cathode-ray tubes. Electrostatic focusing

Two or more
electrodes at
different potentials
are used to focus
the electron beam.
The electrostatic
field set up
between the
electrodes causes
the beam to
converge.

The system of
converging and
diverging lenses

The focusing effect is

controlled by varying the
potential of the focusing
electrode.
Due to the focusing action
electrons of the gun
bombard the screen of the
cathode ray tube at the
same point.

Cathode-ray tubes. Electrostatic focusing

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Cathode-ray tubes. Electromagnetic focusing

Focus coil
The focusing magnetic field is inhomogeneous and axial
symmetrical.

Cathode ray tube employing

electromagnetic focus and
deflection

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Cathode-ray tubes. Electrostatic deflection

Screen

Electron
beam

Sensitivity

H
S
U

U
E
d

d2 y
d t2

q
E
m

t12
qE
qE l ( L l / 2)
H vt2 h
t1t2
m
2
m
v02
S
VGTU EF ESK

H l ( L l / 2)

U
2dU 0
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Cathode-ray tubes. Electromagnetic deflection

Vertical
deflection
coil
Glass
balloon

H
l ( L l / 2)
k
NI
U0

NI is the number of ampere-turns

The sensitivity of a CRT with electrostatic deflecting system is in inverse ratio to

U0. In the case of electromagnetic deflection it is in inverse ratio to U 0 .
Using electromagnetic deflection we can obtain relatively great sensitivity and
great deflection angle at high accelerating voltage . For this reason
electromagnetic deflection is used in television picture tubes, requiring highvelocity electron beams necessary for bright display.

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Cathode-ray tubes. Electromagnetic deflection

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Cathode-ray tubes. Electromagnetic deflection

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Cathode-ray tubes. Electromagnetic deflection

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Cathode-ray tubes. Cathodoluminescence

The deflected and accelerated electron beam strikes a

phosphorescent material on the inside face of the tube. The
phosphor glows and the visible glow can be seen at the front of the
tube. So cathodoluminescence is used in cathode ray tubes.
Cathodoluminescent efficiency increases with increasing beam
voltage.
As a result of the screen bombardment free electrons are knocked
out. To collect these electrons the inside surface of the glass balloon
is coated by conducting aquadag layer. Usually this layer is
connected to the accelerating anode.
The screen of the CRT may be coated with aluminium on the inside
and this coating is held at anode potential. Such an aluminized
screen prevents the accumulation of charge on the phosphor and
improves its performance increasing the visible output and reducing
the effects of ion bombardment.
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Oscilloscope tubes

Brightness

Focus
Electrostatic focusing and electrostatic deflection

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Oscilloscope tubes
The most important
characteristics of an oscilloscope
tube are deflection sensitivity
(deflection on the screen per
volt), bandwidth (or rise time of
the step-function response), spot
diameter, useful scan and
maximum writing speed.

Waveforms of (a) signal voltage,

(b) sweep voltage, (c) blank
pulses, and (d) signal form on the
screen of the CRT
VGTU EF ESK

The high sensitivity and superwide-band of CRTs are achieved

using traveling-wave deflecting
systems. Electrons of the beam in
the travelling-wave deflecting
system are deflected by the
incident electromagnetic wave
propagating along the system
with the same velocity as
electrons of the beam.

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Picture (TV) tubes (kinescopes)

Deflecting system
Deflecting
system

Phosphor

Electrostatic focusing and

electromagnetic deflection
are usually used in picture
tubes.
Due to the rectilinear
scanning the electron beam
traverses the screen area in
both the horizontal and
vertical directions.
The electron beam is
intensity modulated by the
transmitted video signal that
is applied to the modulator.

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Monochrome Picture
Tube

80

Picture Tube
The picture tube is very similar to the
cathode-ray tube used in an
oscilloscope.
The glass envelope contains an
electron Gun structure that produces a
beam of electrons aimed at the
fluorescent screen.
When the electron beam strikes the
screen, light is emitted.
Akshay Jilowa GPCG
Jalandhar

Punjab EDUSAT Society

81

The Picture Tube

A monochrome picture tube has one
electron gun and a continuous phosphor
coating that produces a picture in black
and white. For colour picture tubes the
screen is formed of three different
phosphors and there are three electron
beams, one for each colour phosphor.
The three colours are red, green and
blue produced by three phosphors
combined to produce different colours.

ELECTROSTATIC FOCUSSING
The electric field due to the positive potential at the
accelerating grid extends through the opening the of
the control grid right to the cathode surface.
The orientation of this field is such that besides
accelerating electrons down the tube. It also brings all
the electrons in the stream into a tiny spot called the
cross over. This is known as the first electrostatic lens
action.
The electrode voltages are so chosen or the electric
field is so varied that the second point where all the
electrons get focused is the screen of the picture tube.
Electrostatic focusing is preferred over magnetic
focusing because it is not affected very much by
changes in the line voltage.

Cathode-ray tubes. Electrostatic focusing

BEAM VELOCITY
In order to give the electrons stream
sufficient velocity to reach the screen
material with proper energy to cause it to
fluoresce, a second anode is included
within the tube.
This is a conductive coating with colloidal
graphite on the inside of the wide bell of
the tube.

This coating called aquadag usually

extends from almost half way into the
narrow neck to within 3 cm of the
fluorescent screen.

DEFLECTION YOKE
It may be noted that a perpendicular displacement
results because the magnetic field due to each coil
reacts with the magnetic field of the electron beam
to produce a force that deflects the electrons at
right angles to both the beam axis and the
deflection field.

Deflection Yoke

Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

87

BEAM DEFLECTION
As already stated the electron beam must
attain a very high velocity to deliver
enough energy to the atoms of the
phosphor coating. Because of this the
electrons of the beam remain under the
influence of the deflecting field for a very
short time.

This necessitates application of high

deflecting fields to achieve the desired
deflection. It is very difficult to generate
such high voltages at the deflection
frequencies. On the other hand with

BEAM DEFLECTION
Since it is more convenient to generate large currents
than high voltages. All picture tubes employ
electromagnetic
deflection.
With
electrostatic
deflection the beam electros gain energy. Thus, larger
deflection angles tend to defocus the beam.
The deflection plates need to be placed further apart
as a deflection angle is made larger. Thus requiring
higher voltages to produce the same deflection fields.
Magnetic deflection is free from both these
shortcomings and much larger deflection angles can
be achieved without defocusing or nonlinearities with
these consequent saving in tube length and cabinet
size.

Picture Tube
The beam is deflected by a pair of
deflecting
coils mounted on the neck of the picture
tube in the same way and rate as the
beam scans the target in the camera tube.
The amplitudes of the currents in the
horizontal and vertical deflecting coils are
so adjusted that the entire screen, called
raster, gets illuminated because of the fast
rate of scanning.
Akshay Jilowa GPCG
Jalandhar

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90

Scanning
The scene is scanned rapidly
both in the horizontal and
vertical directions simultaneously
to provide sufficient number of
complete pictures or frames per
second to give the illusion of
continuous motion.
Akshay Jilowa GPCG
Jalandhar

Punjab EDUSAT Society

91

Scanning
The scanning is process performed in
picture tube to convert optical
information into electrical signal.
The fine and sharp electronic beam is
used to scan the focused image and
beam convert optical information to
electrical signal ,element by element
and line after line , till entire
picture/image is scanned.
Akshay Jilowa GPCG
Jalandhar

Punjab EDUSAT Society

92

Scanning of the element is

done at a very fast rate and this
process is repeated a large
number of times per second to
create
an
illusion
of
simultaneously pick up &
transmission of picture detail
Akshay Jilowa GPCG
Jalandhar

Punjab EDUSAT Society

93

Scanning may be identified as a

particular process which permits the
conversion of information existing in
space and time coordinates into time
variations only.
The electrical information obtained from
the TV camera tube is generally
referred to as video signal

Akshay Jilowa GPCG

Jalandhar

Punjab EDUSAT Society

94

Horizontal Scanning

Akshay Jilowa GPCG

Jalandhar

Punjab EDUSAT Society

95

Vertical Scanning

Akshay Jilowa GPCG

Jalandhar

Punjab EDUSAT Society

96

Horizontal and Vertical

Scanning

Akshay Jilowa GPCG

Jalandhar

Punjab EDUSAT Society

97

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Picture (TV) tubes (kinescopes)

The horizontal direction is termed the line and the vertical direction
the field. Saw-tooth current waveforms are used to produce the
deflection of the beam. The fly-back period is blanked out.
The number of lines traversed per second is the line frequency.
The number of vertical scans per second is the field frequency.
A method of scanning that produces the entire picture in a single field
(or raster) is termed sequential scanning.
Most broadcast television systems use a system of interlaced
scanning. In this system the lines of successive rasters are not
superimposed on each other but are interlaced.
Two rasters constitute a complete picture or frame. The number of
complete pictures per second is the frame frequency which is half the
number of rasters per second, i.e. half the field frequency.
The field frequency needs to be relatively slow to allow as many
horizontal lines as possible but sufficiently fast to eliminate flicker.

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COLOUR PICTURE TUBES

Compatibility
Compatibility means that
1) The color television signal must produce
a normal black and white picture on a
monochrome receiver without any
modification of the receiver circuitry.
2) A color receiver must be able to
produce a black and white picture from a
normal monochrome signal. This is
referred to as reverse compatibility
Akshay Jilowa

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101

Compatibility
To achieve this, that is , to make the system fully
compatible the composite color signal must meet the
following requirements:
It should occupy the same bandwidth as the
corresponding monochrome signal .
The location and spacing of picture and sound carrier
frequencies should remain the same .
The color signal should have the same luminance
(brightness) information as would a monochrome signal
have , transmitting the same scene .
Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

102

Compatibility
The composite color signal should contain color
information together with the ancillary signal
needed to allow this to be decoded.
The color information should be carried in such a
way that it does not affect the picture reproduced
on the screen of a monochrome receiver.
The system must employ the same deflection
frequencies and synch signals as used for
monochrome transmission and reception.

Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

103

Compatibility
In order to meet the above requirements it
becomes necessary to encode the colour
information of the scene in such a way that it
can be transmitted within the same channel
bandwidth of 7 MHz and without disturbing the
brightness signal.
Similarly at the receiving end a decoder must
be used to recover the colour signal back in
its original form for feeding it to the tricolour
picture tube.
Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

104

Color CRT Monitors

Color CRTs are much more complicated

Requires manufacturing very precise geometry
Uses a pattern of color phosphors on the screen:

Delta electron gun arrangement

In-line electron gun arrangement

http://www.udayton.edu/~cps/cps460/notes/displays/

COLOUR TELEVISION DISPLAY

TUBES
The colour television picture tube screen
is coated with three different phosphors,
one for each of the chosen red, green and
blue primaries.
The three phosphors are physically
separate from one another and each is
energized by an electron beam of
intensity that is proportional to the
respective colour voltage reproduced in
the television receiver.
Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

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Color picture tubes

The colored image is produced varying the intensity of excitation of
the three different phosphors that produce the three primary colors
(red, green and blue) and reproduce the original colors of the image
by an additive color process.

Electron
beam

Mask

Screen
The triangular arrangement of electron guns are used. The phosphors
are arranged as triangular sets of coloured dots.
A metal shadow mask is placed directly behind the screen in the plane
of intersection of the electron beams to ensure that each beam hits
the correct phosphor. The mask acts as a physical barrier to the beams
as they progress from one location to the next and minimizes the
generation of spurious colours by excitation of the wrong phosphor.
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COLOUR TELEVISION DISPLAY

TUBES
The object is to produce three
coincident rasters with produce the
red, green and blue contents of the
transmitted picture.
While seeing from a normal viewing
distance the eye integrates the three
colour information to convey the
sensation of the hue at each part of
the picture.
Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

108

COLOUR TELEVISION DISPLAY

TUBES
Based on the gun configuration and
the manner in which phosphors are
arranged on the screen, three
different types of colour picture tubes
have been developed.
These are: 1. Delta-gun
2. Guns-in-line or Precision-in-line (PI-L)
3. Trintron Colour
Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

109

Color CRT Monitors

Operation of delta-delta, shadow mask CRT

2005 Pearson Education

Delta-gun colour picture

tube

Akshay Jilowa
G.P.C.G.
Jalandhar

(a) guns viewed from the base (b) electron beams, shadow mask
and dot-triad phosphor screen (c) showing application of Y and
colour difference signals between the cathodes112
and control grids

DELTA-GUN COLOR PICTURE

TUBE
This tube was developed by Radio
Corporation on America (R.C.A). It employs
three separate guns on for each phosphor.
The guns are equally spaced at 120
degree interval with respect to each other
and tilted inwards in relation to the axis of
the tube. They form an equilateral
triangular configuration.

Drawbacks of the Deltagun

Tube
Convergence is difficult and involves
considerable circuit complexity and service
adjustments. In most delta-gun tubes, four static
convergence magnets and a dynamic
convergence assembly are employed.
The focus cannot be sharp over the entire screen
because the focus and convergence planes
cannot remain coincident for the three beams
which emanate from guns positioned at 120
with respect to each other around the tube axis.
The electron transparency of the mask is very
low since it intercepts over 80 percent of the
beam currents.
Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

114

PRECISION-IN-LINE (P.I.L.) COLOUR

PICTURE TUBE

(a) in-line guns (b) electron beams, aperture grille and striped three
colour phosphor screen(c) mountings on neck and bowl of the tube.

Akshay Jilowa
G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

115

PRECISION-IN-LINE COLOR PICTURE

TUBE
This tube as the name suggests has three guns
which are aligned precisely in a horizontal line. The
gun and mask structure of the P.I.L tube together
with yoke mounting. The inline gun configuration
helps in simplifying conversions adjustments. The
color phosphors are deposited on the screen in the
form of vertical strips in triads which are repeated
along the breadth of the tube. To obtain the same
color, finest as in a delta gun tube the horizontal
spacing between the strips of the same color in
adjacent traids is made equal to that between the
dots of the same color in the delta gun tube.

Coma Effect
Due to nonuniformity of the deflection field all
the beams are not deflected by the same
amount. As shown in Fig. the central beam
(green) deflects by a smaller amount as
compared to the other two beams.
For a different nonuniformity of the deflection
field, the effect could be just opposite
producing too large a displacement of the
central beam.
Such a distortion is known as coma and results
in misconvergence of the beams.
Akshay Jilowa

G.P.C.G. Jalandhar

118

Trintron (cathodes in-line) colour picture tube

(a) gun structure(b) electron beams, vertical-striped three colour

phosphor screen
Akshay Jilowa
G.P.C.G.
(c) constructional, focus and convergence details
Jalandhar

119

ELEKTRONIKOS TAISAI

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stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt

CRT
100 YEAR OLD WORKHORSE
CATHODOLUMINISCENT
BEAM SCAN DEVICE
LARGE VIEWING ANGLE
HIGH BRIGHTNESS
HIGH RESOLUTION
GOOD COLOUR GAMUT
BEST PERFORMANCE TO COST
BULKY HEAVY
UNIMPLEMENTABLE IN LARGE SIZES
OBSOLESCENCE
STILL ENJOYS 70% MARKET

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FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS

CRTs are relatively fragile and bulky.
Other types of thinner displays were developed. They are often
called flat panel displays.
Most flat-panel displays form digits or characters with combination
of segments or dots. The arrangement of these elements is called
the display font.
The most common format for numeric display is the seven-segment
font.
Graphic displays are like very large dot matrices. Each dot in a
graphic display is called picture element, pixel or pel. The
capabilities of a graphic display depend on number of pixels
horizontally and vertically.

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Flat panel displays

Flat panel displays requiring continuous

refresh:
DLP (Digital Light Processing)
Plasma displays
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs)
Organic light-emitting diode displays (OLEDs)
Light-emitting diode display (LED)
Electroluminescent displays (ELDs)
Surface-conduction electron-emitter displays
(SEDs)
Field emission displays (FEDs)
Nano-emissive display (NEDs)
Only the first five of these displays are
commercially available today, though OLED
displays are beginning deployment only in
small sizes (mainly in cellular telephones).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_panel_display
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LED displays

Light emitting diodes are used in LED displays.

Operation of the LED displays is based on the injection
luminescence.
LED displays are available in many different sizes and shapes.
Usually LED displays radiate red, orange, yellow or green light.
They have a wide operating temperature range, are inexpensive,
easily interfaced to digital logic, easily multiplexed, do not
require high voltages and have fast response time.
The viewing angle is good and display of arbitrary numbers of
digits is easily assembled.

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LED displays

The amazing new VAIO TX3 is the

smallest and lightest fully featured
notebook around. Developed for
ultimate mobility using advanced
carbon-fibre materials, TX3 includes a
range of brilliant design innovations
including a super-thin LED display panel
and postcard-sized motherboard.

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LED displays

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Vacuum fluorescent displays

Vacuum fluorescent displays are variation on the triode vacuum tube.
The filament of thin, oxide-coated tungsten is heated enough to emit
electrons. The control grid is an open wire mesh placed between the
filament and the anode.
The anode is divided into individual display segments or dots. It is
formed by depositing conductive material on a glass base. The anode is
then covered by a phosphor. If an anode segment is more positive than
the filament, it attracts electrons. When electrons strike the phosphor on
the anode, light is produced.

Glass
balloon
Isolator

Cathode
Grid
Phosphor
Anode

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Vacuum fluorescent displays

Filament consists of tungsten coated with the oxidized Ba, Sr and Ca. Powered filament
generates heat and emits thermal electrons which are dispersed and selected by the grid
electrode and reach the anode electrode. On the anode electrode, display pattern is
formed with phosphor which emit light.

Most vacuum fluorescent displays emit a blue-green light which is a

nearly optimum colour because it is near the peak of the human eyes
response.
Some extra indicators may use a phosphor that produces a different
color of light, for example, orange.
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Vacuum fluorescent displays

Some displays can show only digits or alphanumeric characters. They

are called segment displays, because they are composed of several
segments that switch on and off. There are several types:
Seven segment display (most common, digits only)
Fourteen segment display
Sixteen segment display
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Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

A neon bulb is the simplest gas discharge display. Two electrodes
are scaled in a glass bulb filled with a mixture of neon and argon
gas. When high enough voltage is applied (typically 100 to 200
V), an electrical discharge begins in the gas. Free electrons
acquire high kinetic energies from the electric field. When they
collide with gas atoms they transfer this energy to the atoms,
thereby exciting them into energy levels above the ground state.
The atoms may then lose energy radiatively and return to the
ground state. Then the gas emits orange-red light. The ionised
gas is called plasma and gas displays are therefore often called
plasma displays.

the nixie tube was a numerical display technology

used in scientific instruments and calculators in the
1960s and 70s, before seven segment LED displays were
invented.
A nixie tube is an electronic device for
displaying numerals or other information, in the form of
a glass tube containing multiple cathodes and a wire
mesh anode, filled with neon and often a little mercury
and/or argon at a small fraction of atmospheric
pressure. It is a cold-cathode tube (a form of
gas
filled tube), or a variant of stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
neon lamp.
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Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

The most common form of nixie tube has ten cathodes in the shapes
of the numerals 0 to 9 (and occasionally a decimal point or two), but
there are also types that show various letters, signs and symbols.
Each cathode can be made to glow in the characteristic neon redorange color by applying about 170 volts DC at a few milliamps
between a cathode and the anode.

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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/39/Ni
xie.gif
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Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

Most gas discharge displays are dot matrix. The cathode is divided
into stripes in one direction and the anodes are stripes in the
perpendicular direction The display is then driven in a multiplexed
fashion driving one cathode at a time. Controlling the anode
voltages dots are formed at the desired intersections due to the
discharge through the holes in the intermediate plate.

Glass plates

Horizontal
electrodes

VGTU EF ESK

Vertical
electrodes

Intermediate
plate

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Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

There are many varieties of gas discharge displays. The most basic
type is called dc plasma, but the future of gas discharge displays lies
in ac plasma technology.

Glass
plates
Transparent
electrodes

Dielectric
layers
Gas
cavity

The structure of the ac

plasma display cell

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Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

A grid of tiny electrodes applies an electric current to the

individual cells, causing the gas (a mix of neon and xenon) in
the cells to ionize. This ionized gas (plasma) emits highfrequency UV rays, which stimulate the cells' phosphors,
causing them to glow the desired color.

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Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

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Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

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2009

Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

Two HDTV-capable plasma panel designs

http://www.plasmadepot.com/plasmatv/howplasmaworks.h
tml
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2009

Gas discharge displays and plasma display panels

High Performance 9th
Generation Panel
Panasonic has completely
redesigned all major
components of this ninth
generation plasma panel. The
phosphors and other panel
materials have been
upgraded to improve light
output efficiency; the ribs and
electrodes have been
reconfigured with new
shapes; and the gas mixture
has been altered. The result is
a dramatic improvement in
picture performance, even
when viewed in a bright living
room.
VGTU
EF ESK
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2009

Electroluminescent displays
EL was first observed in 1907 by Captain Henry Joseph Round in silicon carbide
(SiC), although ELD technology was not made commercially available until the
1980s.

The electroluminescent display is similar in idea to an ac plasma

display, except that the gas-filled area is replaced by a thin film of
electroluminescent material.

VGTU EF ESK

http://www.indiana.edu/~hightech/fpd/papers/ELD
s.html
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt

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Electroluminescent displays
When sufficiently large ac voltage (typically 150 to 200V) is applied
between the front and rear electrodes, the material between them emits
light.
One material commonly used is zinc sulphide doped with manganese.

The advantages of electroluminescent displays include very thin

and rugged constructions, very high brightness, high resolution,
wide operating temperature range, and moderate power
consumption.
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Electroluminescent displays
ELDs are particularly useful in applications where full color is not
required but where ruggedness, speed, brightness, high contrast,
and a wide angle of vision is needed.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

The heart of all liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is a liquid crystal itself. A
liquid crystal is a substance that flows like a liquid, but its molecules
orient themselves in the manner of a crystal.
There are three basic types of ordering in liquid crystals which are
termed nematic, cholesteric and smectic.

In the cholesteric crystals molecules form planes. A plane has

nematic-like structure, but with each plane molecules change their
direction.
As a result the molecules display a helical twist through the material.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

When a nematic liquid crystal material comes into contact with a
solid surface molecules become aligned either perpendicular to the
surface (homeotropic ordering) or parallel to the surface
(homogeneous ordering). These two forms can be produced by
suitable treatment of the surface.

The most important electrical characteristic of liquid crystal materials

is that the direction of the molecules can be controlled by the electric
field. Usually the molecules tend to be orientated along the electric
field.

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Liquid crystal displays

Most of the LCDs use twisted nematic cells.
When a beam of polarised light is incident on the cell the liquid
causes rotation of polarisation plane.
A strong enough electric field changes orientation of molecules
and in this state the molecules have no effect on an incident light
beam.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

In the most common type of LCD cell based on twisted nematic field
effect, two sheets of glass form the main structure. Between the sheets
of glass there is a very thin layer of liquid crystal material. The inner
surface of each piece of glass is coated with a transparent, conductive
layer of metal oxide. The sandwich is completed with a polarizer on the
outside of each piece of glass and a reflector on the back of the display.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

Transmission LCD displays do not have the reflector and must be
provided with rear illumination. They operate in a very similar fashion
to the reflective displays.
Colour displays are possible by incorporating colour filters.
An LCD cell consumes only microwatts of power over a thousand
times less than LED displays.
LCDs can operate on voltages as low as 2 to 3 V and are easily driven
by MOS IC drivers.
LCDs also have their disadvantages. They cannot be seen in the
dark, have a limited viewing angle and a limited temperature range.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

VGTU EF ESK

The left column electrode is at the same

potential level as the row electrode. To
the right column electrode (red), a
different voltage is applied. In this way,
an electric field is generated in the right
pixel oriented perpendicular to the glass
surfaces.
On the picture one can see that the
rubbing direction of the alignment
layers (green) on top and bottom
substrate are chosen perpendicular to
each other. Due to this choice, the
director in the left pixel makes a
homogeneous turn of 90 from bottom
to top. Therefore, this type of LCD is
called a 'Twisted Nematic LCD' (TNLCD). If a voltage is applied to the
electrode, the director reorients to
become
perpendicular to the surfaces
http://www.elis.ugent.be/ELISgroups/lcd/lc/lc3.php
(right pixel).

stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

From TN to STN, TSTN, and FSTN

The very first types of LCDs were called DSM (dynamic scattering
mode), but TN (twisted nematic) has become the standard today.
Almost all active matrix drive displays use TN type LCDs, and
numerous types of active elements are being developed. The use of
TN type LCDs in simple matrix drive displays causes the contrast to
drop as the number of scan lines of the image displayed is
increased.
To compensate for this, new types of LCDs are being researched and
developed. Advances in LCD R&D have already led to the
development of STN (super twisted nematic) type LCDs, which offer
high contrast, even on large screens; and TSTN (triple STN) and
FSTN (film STN) LCDs, which feature a lightweight and thin body
design that are optimal for large black-and-white LCDs and precise
color imaging when equipped with a color filter.
http://sharpworld.com/sc/library/lcd_e/s2_4_4e.htm

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

TFT-LCD (Thin Film Transistor-Liquid Crystal Display) is a

variant of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) which uses
Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) technology to improve image quality.
TFT LCD is one type of active matrix LCD, though it is usually
synonymous with LCD. It is used in both flat panel displays
and projectors.
Normal Liquid Crystal Displays like those found in calculators
have direct driven image elements a voltage can be applied
across one segment without interfering with other segments
of the display. This is impractical for a large display with a
large number of picture elements (pixels), since it would
require millions of connections - top and bottom connections
for each one of the three colors (red, green and blue) of every
pixel.
To avoid this issue, the pixels are addressed in rows and
columns which reduce the connection count from millions to
thousands.
VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

...The solution to the problem is to supply each pixel with its own
transistor switch which allows each pixel to be individually controlled.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

The TFT-array and color-filter substrates are made into an LCD

panel by
assembling them with a sealant (hermetikas).
http://www.plasma.com/classroom/fabricating_tft_l
cd.htm
VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Liquid crystal displays

http://www.plasma.com/classroom/fabricating_tft_
lcd.htm
VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Field emission displays

The field emission display (FED) is a product of vacuum
microelectronics.
The gap between two glass plates is filled with vacuum. Arrays of small
cathodes (emitters) and grids (gates) are formed on one plate using
microelectronics technology. A transparent anode layer and phosphor
layer are made on the other glass plate.
The apex of a cathode is very sharp, less than 20 nm in radius. Then at
relatively low voltage between the anode and cathodes the field
emission of electrons occurs. Electrons are attracted by a positive
anode. They bombard the phosphor layer and cause
cathodoluminescence.
The current across the cell is controlled by anode and grid voltages.

VGTU EF ESK

stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt

FED Principles
Field emission displays,
electrons coming from
millions of tiny microtips
pass through gates and
light up pixels on a
screen.
This principle is similar
to that of cathode-ray
tubes in television sets.
The difference: Instead
of just one "gun"
spraying electrons
against the inside of the
screens face, there are
as many as 500 million
of them (microtips).

Cathode
The cathode/backplate is a
matrix of row and column
traces. Each crossover
lays the foundation for an
addressable
cathode emitters.
Each crossover has up to
4,500 emitters, 150 nm in
diameter. This emitter
density assures a high
quality image through
manufacturing
redundancy, and long-life
through low operational
stress.

Emission
Emitters generate
electrons when a
small voltage is
applied to both row
(base layer) and
column (top layer).

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Field emission displays

The application of a small voltage to a

metal or semiconductor surface
containing nanometer scale protrusions
produces a large electric field which
causes electrons to be emitted. Using an
extractor grid, less than 80 volts is
sufficient to produce up to 5m A of
emission current from a single tip.
VGTU EF ESK

stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt

A single tip in
girded
configuration.
An array of
such a unit cell
forms a pixel in
a display
application

Pixels
Faceplate picture
elements (pixels) are
formed by depositing
and patterning a black
matrix, standard red,
green, and blue TV
phosphors and a thin
aluminum layer to
reflect colored light
forward to the viewer.

Metal Tips

I-V of Metal Tip

Typical field emission characteristics of the FEA pixel with an area of 240 mm x
240 mm containing 1.4x10 6 tips:

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Field emission displays

Works like a CRT with multiple electron guns at each pixel.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Carbon nanotube displays

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube
VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Carbon nanotube displays

CNT can be metallic or

semiconducting and offers
amazing possibilities to
create future
nanoelectronics devices,
circuits, and computers.
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Nanopicture of the Day

November 28, 2003

Carbon Nanotube Display

Source:
Samsung Display Technology, courtesy of Choi et. al.
VGTU EF ESK

stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt

www.nanopic
oftheday.org

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Carbon nanotube displays

The promise of Motorola's new Nano Emissive Display (NED)

technology is sweet for anyone that covets a flat screen
HDTV, but doesn't want to pony up big bucks.
Imagine a 40 inch HDTV panel less than an inch thick.
Now imagine it costing less than $400.
Motorola Labs unveiled a prototype of NED technology in the
form of a functioning 5-inch color segment of a 1280 x 720,
16:9, 42-inch HDTV.
A prototype model was demonstrated by Motorola in May 2005. Nanoemissive display (NED) is Motorola's term for their Carbon Nanotubes
(CNTs)-based display technology.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Laser TV

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

Laser TV

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

E-paper
Electronic paper, also sometimes called e-paper or electronic
ink, is a display technology designed to mimic the appearance of
regular ink on paper. Unlike a conventional flat panel display, which
uses a backlight to illuminate its pixels, electronic paper reflects
light like ordinary paper and is capable of holding text and images
indefinitely without drawing electricity, while allowing the image to
be changed later.

VGTU EF ESK

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2009

E-paper

VGTU EF ESK

stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt

IMAGE INTENSIFIER

What is an Image Intensifier ?

A complex electronic imaging device that receives the
remnant beam and converts it to light and increases the
intensity of the light.
The image intensifier tube is contained in a glass envelope
in a vacuum and mounted in a metallic container which
provides protection for the components.

Image Intensification Tube

Components
Input screen and
photocathode
Electrostatic lenses
Magnification tubes

175

Functioning of Image Intensifier

176

IMAGE INTENSIFIER

INPUT PHOSPHOR CESIUM IODIDE

PHOTOCATHODE (LIGHT TO ES)
ELECTOSTATIC LENSES
FOCUSES AND ACCELERATES THE E
INTENSIFIES LIGHT = BRIGHTNESS
GAIN (BG)
BG = MG X FG

177

YOU WILL HAVE TO DRAW THIS

178

IMAGE INTENSIFIER
CESIUM IODIDE Input Phosphor
ZINC CADMIUM SULFIDE Output
phosphor
ELECTRON FOCUSING LENS
+ CURRENT ATTRACTS e TO ANODE
25 35 KVP POTIENTIAL ACROSS
TUBE
Output phosphor contains a thin al
plate to prevent light returning to the

179

Input Screen and

Photocathode
Input screen
0.1 0.2 mm layer of sodium activated
CsI
Converts intercepted x-ray beam to light

Photocathode
Emits electrons when struck by light
emitted by input screen

180

181

Input Phosphor
Constructed of cesium
iodide.
Responsible for
converting the incident
photons energy to a
burst of visible light
photon.
Similar to intensifying
screens in cassettes.

Standard size varies

from 10 - 35 cm.
Normally used to
identify the II tubes.

Photocathode
Thin metal layer bonded
directly to the input phosphor.
Usually made of Cesium and
Antimony compounds that
respond to light stimulation.
Responsible for
Photoemission.
Electron emission after light
stimulation
The number of electrons
emitted is directly proportional
to the intensity of light
intensity of the incident x-ray
photon.

Electrostatic Focusing Lenses

A series of lenses inside the II
tube to maintain proper focus
of the photoelectrons emitted
from the photocathode.
They contain a positive charge.
They are located along the
length of the II tube.
The focusing lenses assist in
maintaining the kinetic energy
of the photoelectrons to the
output phosphor.

Output Phosphor
Usually constructed of zinc cadmium sulfide crystals. Serves
to increase illumination of the images by converting
photoelectrons to light photons.

Cesium Iodide (CsI) Phosphor

on Input Phosphor
CsI crystals grown linear
and packed closely
together
The column shaped
pipes helps to direct
the Light with less
blurring

SIDE VIEW

Converts x-ray photons

to visible light
186

II Image Intensifier
The input phosphor converts x-ray to light*
Light from the input phosphor is sent to
the photocathode made of cesium and
antimony compounds*
Photocathode turns light into electrons
(called photoemission)*
Now we have electrons that need to get to
the anode.. this is done by the
electrostatic lenses
187

Electrostatic Lenses
Accelerate and focus
electron pattern across
tube to anode
Primary source of
brightness gain
188

Image intensifier
component

189

Input screen: conversion of incident X Rays into light

photons (CsI)

Photocathode: conversion of light photons into

electrons

only 10 to 20% of light photons are converted

into photoelectrons

Electrodes (lenses): focalization of electrons onto the

output screen

1 X Ray photon creates 3,000 light photons

electrodes provide the electronic magnification

Output screen: conversion of accelerated electrons

into light photons

190

The image intensifier (I.I.)

I.I. Input Screen

Electrode E1
Electrode E2
Electrode E3

Electron

s Path

I.I.Output Screen

Photocathode
+

191

Image Intensifier Tube

Vacuum diode tube
1. Input phosphor (CsI)

X-rays light

2. Photocathode
Photoemission
Light electron beam

3. Electrostatic lenses
Maintain & minify e-

4. Anode
Attracts e- in beam

5. Output phosphor (ZnS-CdS)

e- light

4
2

Magnification
Input screen diameter
Diameter used
during exam

192

193

Multi-field II Units
II that allows selection of
input phosphor size
2 or 3 size selections

25 cm vs. 17 cm

25/17 cm
25/17/12 or 23/15/10

Smaller input magnifies

output by moving focal
point away from output
Requires more x-rays to
maintain brightness

larger
mag
smaller

larger 2
dose
smaller 2