Petroleum Production Engineering

Unit 1 Production from various types of reservoir

based on drive mechanisms field development
method, Properties of oil, GOR, Density, Viscosity, Pour
point, Properties of Gas specific gravity, compressibility
, Molecular weight, Calorific Value, Formation Volume
Factor
 SCOPE

The production system is a composite term describing the

entire production process and includes the following principal
components:-
(1) The reservoir - it productive capacity and dynamic
production characteristics over the envisaged life of the
development.
(2) The wellbore - the production interval, the sump and the
fluids in the wellbore
(3) Production Conduit - comprising the tubing and the tubing
components
(4) Wellhead, Xmas Tree and Flow Lines
(5) Treatment Facilities
 From the above definition it can be seen that the
responsibilities of Production Technology cover primarily
subsurface aspects of the system but they can also extend to
some of the surface facilities and treatment capabilities,
depending on the operating company.
The role of the Production Technologist is one of achieving
optimum performance from the production system and to
achieve this the technologist must understand fully the
chemical and physical characteristics of the fluids which are to
be produced and also the engineering systems which will be
utilised to control the efficient and safe production/injection
of fluids. The importance of the production chemistry input
has only recently been widely acknowledged. It is clear that
the physico-chemical processes which take place in the
production of fluids can have a tremendous impact on project
economics and on both the production capacity and safety of
the well.
 The main disciplines which are involved in Production
Technology are:
(1) Production Engineering:
Fluid flow
Reservoir dynamics
Equipment design, installation, operation and fault diagnosis
(2) Production Chemistry:
The Fluids - produced, injected and treatment fluids
The Rock - mineralogy, physical/chemical properties and rock
strength and response to fluid flow.
The objectives of an oil company operation could be broadly
classified, with respect to two complimentary business
drivers, namely
(a) maximising the magnitude of and accelerating cash flow and
(b) cost minimisation in terms of cost/bbl-ie. total cost
minimisation may not be recommended.
 TIME SCALE OF INVOLVEMENT

The trend within operating companies currently is to assign

specialist task teams to individual fields or groups of wells i.e.
field groups or asset teams. In addition there are specialist
groups or individuals who provide specific technical expertise.
This ensures that there is a forward looking and continuous
development perspective to field and well developments.
The production technologist is involved in the initial well
design and will have interests in the drilling operation from
the time that the reservoir is penetrated. In addition his
inputs will last throughout the production life of the well, to
its ultimate abandonment. Thus the production technologist
will contribute to company operations on a well from initial
planning to abandonment.
The inputs in chronological order to the development and the
operation of the well are listed below:
 KEY SUBJECT AREAS IN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Production technology is both a diverse and complex area.
With the on-going development of the Petroleum Industry the
scope of the technological activities continues to expand and
as always increases in depth and complexity. It is however,
possible to identify several key subject areas within
Production Technology namely
1) Well Productivity
2) Well Completion
3) Well Stimulation
4) Associated Production Problems
5) Remedial and Workover Techniques
6) Artificial Lift / Productivity Enhancement
7) Surface Processing
Consider each of these in turn.
 Well Productivity

An oil or gas reservoir contains highly compressible

hydrocarbon fluids at an elevated pressure and temperature
and as such, the fluid stores up within itself considerable
energy of compression. The efficient production of fluids from
a reservoir requires the effective dissipation of this energy
through the production system.
Optimum utilisation of this energy is an essential part of a
successful completion design and ultimately of field
development economics. Where necessary and economic,
this lift process can be supported by artificial lift using pumps
or gas lift.
The productivity of the system is dependent on the
pressure loss which occurs in several areas of the
flow system namely:-
The reservoir
The wellbore
The tubing string
The choke
The flow line
The separator
 Under natural flowing conditions the reservoir pressure must
provide all the energy to operate the system i.e. all the
pressure drop in the system.
 The optimum distribution of energy between these various
areas has a major bearing on the cost effectiveness of a well
design and hence production costs.
 The pressure drop across the reservoir, the tubing and choke
are rate dependant and these relationships therefore define
the means by which we can optimise the production of the
fluid from the reservoir.
In some cases there will be significant limitations on the
extent to which we can optimise the dissipation of this energy.
These are the following:-
1. Limited Reservoir Pressure.
2. Minimum surface Pressure.
 Well Completion

Historically the major proportion of production technology

activities have been concerned with the engineering and
installation of the down hole completion equipment.
The completion string is a critical component of the
production system and to be effective it must be efficiently
designed, installed and maintained. Increasingly, with moves
to higher reservoir pressures and more hostile development
areas, the actual capital costs of the completion string has
become a significant proportion of the total well cost and
thus worthy of greater technical consideration and
optimisation.
The completion process can be split into several key areas which
require to be defined including:-
The fluids which will be used to fill the wellbore during the
completion process must be identified, and this requires that
the function of the fluid and the required properties be
specified.
The completion must consider and specify how the fluids will
enter the wellbore from the formation i.e., whether infact the
well will be open or whether a casing string will be run which
will need to be subsequently perforated to allow a limited
number of entry points for fluid to flow from the reservoir into
the wellbore.
 The design of the completion string itself must provide the
required containment capability to allow fluids to flow safely
to the surface with minimal loss in pressure. In addition
however, it would be crucial that the string be able to perform
several other functions which may be related to safety,
control, monitoring, etc. In many cases the completion must
provide the capacity for reservoir management. The
completion string must consider what contingencies are
available in the event of changing fluid production
characteristics and how minor servicing operations could be
conducted for example, replacement of valves etc.
 Well Stimulation

The productivity of a well naturally arises from

the compressed state of the fluids, theirmobility
and the flow properties of the rock, primarily in
terms of permeability. In some cases reservoirs
may contain substantial reserves of hydrocarbons
but the
degree of inter-connection of the pore space and
the ease with which the fluids can
flow through the rock, may be very poor. In such
situations it may be beneficial to
stimulate the production capacity of the well.
 OIL RECOVERY
Conventional oil recovery
Primary
Natural drainage Artificial Lift System
Recovery

Secondary
Drive recovery Pressure maintenance
Water flood Water / Gas injection

Enhanced Oil Recovery

Tertiary recovery
(increased RF +10-20%)

Thermal Gas miscible/immiscible Chemical Other

Steam Hydrocarbon Polymer Microbial
In situ combustion CO2 Surfactant
N2 Alkaline
Foam
There are basically six driving mechanisms that provide the
natural energy necessary for oil recovery:
Rock and liquid expansion drive
Depletion drive
Gas cap drive
Water drive
Gravity drainage drive
Combination drive
 RESERVOIR-FLUID
PROPERTIES
Physical property correlations for the following reservoir fluids:
Natural gases
Crude oil systems
Reservoir water systems
 PROPERTIES OF NATURAL GASES

A gas is defined as a homogeneous fluid of low viscosity and

density that has no definite volume but expands to
completely fill the vessel in which it is placed.
Generally, the natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon and
nonhydrocarbon gases.
The hydrocarbon gases that are normally found in a natural
gas are methanes, ethanes, propanes, butanes, pentanes, and
small amounts of hexanes and heavier. The nonhydrocarbon
gases (i.e., impurities) include carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and nitrogen.
 Knowledge of pressure-volume-temperature (PVT)
relationships and other physical and chemical properties of
gases is essential for solving problems in natural gas reservoir
engineering.
These Properties Include-

The above gas properties may be obtained from direct

laboratory measurements or by prediction from generalized
mathematical expressions.
 BEHAVIOR OF IDEAL GASES

The kinetic theory of gases postulates that gases are

composed of a very large number of particles called
molecules. For an ideal gas, the volume of these molecules is
insignificant compared with the total volume occupied by the
gas. It is also assumed that these molecules have no attractive
or repulsive forces between them, and that all collisions of
molecules are perfectly elastic.
Based on the above kinetic theory of gases, a mathematical
equation called equation-of-state can be derived to express
the relationship existing between pressure p, volume V, and
temperature T for a given quantity of moles of gas n.
 This relationship for perfect gases is called the
ideal gas law and is expressed
mathematically by the following equation:
 Question 1

Three pounds of n-butane are placed in a vessel at 120F and 60

psia.
1.Calculate the volume of the gas assuming an ideal gas behavior
2.Using the data given in the above example, calculate the
density n-butane.
Answer
 Petroleum engineers are usually interested in the behavior of
mixtures and rarely deal with pure component gases. Because
natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon components, the
overall physical and chemical properties can be determined
from the physical properties of the individual components in
the mixture by using appropriate mixing rules.
The basic properties of gases are commonly expressed in
terms of the apparent molecular weight, standard volume,
density, specific volume, and specific gravity.
Apparent Molecular Weight
 Standard Volume

In many natural gas engineering calculations, it is convenient

to measure the volume occupied by l lb-mole of gas at a
reference pressure and temperature. These reference
conditions are usually 14.7 psia and 60F,and are commonly
referred to as standard conditions.
The standard volume is then defined as the volume of gas
occupied by 1 lb-mol of gas at standard conditions. Applying
the above conditions to Equation 2-1 and solving for the
volume, i.e., the standard volume, gives:
Density
Specific Volume
 Question 2

A gas well is producing gas with a specific gravity of 0.65 at a rate

of 1.1 MMscf/day. The average reservoir pressure and
temperature are 1,500 psi and 150F. Calculate:
a. Apparent molecular weight of the gas
b. Gas density at reservoir conditions
c. Flow rate in lb/day
Solution
 Question 3

Assuming an ideal gas behavior, calculate:

a. Apparent molecular weight
b. Specific gravity
c. Gas density at 2000 psia and 150F
d. Specific volume at 2000 psia and 150F
Solution
 BEHAVIOR OF REAL GASES

In dealing with gases at a very low pressure, the ideal gas

relationship is a convenient and generally satisfactory tool. At
higher pressures, the use of the ideal gas equation-of-state
may lead to errors as great as 500%, as compared to errors of
23% at atmospheric pressure.
Basically, the magnitude of deviations of real gases from the
conditions of the ideal gas law increases with increasing
pressure and temperature and varies widely with the
composition of the gas. Real gases behave differently than
ideal gases. The reason for this is that the perfect gas law was
derived under the assumption that the volume of molecules is
insignificant and that no molecular attraction or repulsion
exists between them. This is not the case for real gases
 Numerous equations-of-state have been developed in the
attempt to correlate the pressure-volume-temperature
variables for real gases with experimental data. In order to
express a more exact relationship between the variables p, V,
and T, a correction factor called the gas compressibility factor,
gas deviation factor, or simply the z-factor, must be introduced
into Equation 2-1 to account for the departure of gases from
ideality. The equation has the following form:
COMPRESSIBILITY OF NATURAL GASES
Knowledge of the variability of fluid compressibility with
pressure and temperature is essential in performing many
reservoir engineering calculations. For a liquid phase, the
compressibility is small and usually assumed to be constant.
For a gas phase, the compressibility is neither small nor
constant.
By definition, the isothermal gas compressibility is the change
in volume per unit volume for a unit change in pressure or, in
equation form:
 GAS VISCOSITY

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal fluid friction

(resistance)to flow. If the friction between layers of the fluid is
small, i.e., low viscosity, an applied shearing force will result in a
large velocity gradient.
As the viscosity increases, each fluid layer exerts a larger frictional
drag on the adjacent layers and velocity gradient decreases.
The viscosity of a fluid is generally defined as the ratio of the shear
force per unit area to the local velocity gradient.
Viscosities are expressed in terms of poises, centipoise, or micro
poises. One poise equals a viscosity of 1 dyne-sec/cm2 and can be
converted to other field units by the following relationships:
 GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR

The gas formation volume factor is used to relate the volume

of gas, as measured at reservoir conditions, to the volume of
the gas as measured at standard conditions, i.e., 60F and
14.7 psia.
This gas property is then defined as the actual volume
occupied by a certain amount of gas at a specified pressure
and temperature, divided by the volume occupied by the
same amount of gas at standard conditions. In an equation
form, the relationship is expressed as
 Question 4
A gas well is producing at a rate of 15,000 ft3/day from a gas
reservoir at an average pressure of 2,000 psia and a
temperature of 120F. The specific gravity is 0.72. Calculate
the gas flow rate in scf/day.
Assume Z = 0.78
Solution
 PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OIL SYSTEMS
Petroleum (an equivalent term is crude oil) is a complex mixture consisting
predominantly of hydrocarbons and containing sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and helium as
minor constituents. The physical and chemical properties of crude oils vary considerably
and are dependent on the concentration of the various types of hydrocarbons and minor
constituents present.
An accurate description of physical properties of crude oils is of a considerable
importance in the fields of both applied and theoretical science and especially in the
solution of petroleum reservoir engineering problems.
Physical properties of primary interest in petroleum engineering studies include:
Fluid gravity
Specific gravity of the solution gas
Gas solubility
Bubble-point pressure
Oil formation volume factor
Isothermal compressibility coefficient of undersaturated crude oils
Oil density
Total formation volume factor
Crude oil viscosity
Surface tension
 Data on most of these fluid properties are usually determined
by laboratory experiments performed on samples of actual
reservoir fluids.
In the absence of experimentally measured properties of
crude oils, it is necessary for the petroleum engineer to
determine the properties from empirically derive
correlations.
 Crude Oil Gravity

The crude oil density is defined as the mass of a unit volume

of the crude at a specified pressure and temperature. It is
usually expressed in pounds per cubic foot. The specific
gravity of a crude oil is defined as the ratio of the density of
the oil to that of water. Both densities are measured at 60F
and atmospheric pressure:
 Question 5

Calculate the specific gravity and the API gravity of a crude oil
system with a measured density of 53 lb/ft3 at standard
conditions.
Solutions
Specific Gravity of the Solution Gas
Question 6
Solution
 Gas Solubility

The gas solubility Rs is defined as the number of standard cubic feet

of gas which will dissolve in one stock-tank barrel of crude oil at
certain pressure and temperature.
The solubility of a natural gas in a crude oil is a strong function of
the pressure, temperature, API gravity, and gas gravity. For a
particular gas and crude oil to exist at a constant temperature, the
solubility increases with pressure until the saturation pressure is
reached.
At the saturation pressure (bubble-point pressure) all the available
gases are dissolved in the oil and the gas solubility reaches its
maximum value. Rather than measuring the amount of gas that will
dissolve in a given stock-tank crude oil as the pressure is increased,
it is customary to determine the amount of gas that will come out
of a sample of reservoir crude oil as pressure decreases.
 Question 7

Draw a simple sketch of the Composite Production System,

indicating clearly the systems start and end points
 Question 8

List the 5 main technical disciplines that a Production

Technologist needs to understand so that he/she can make a
full contribution to reaching his Asset teams Objectives.
 Bubble-Point Pressure

The bubble-point pressure Pb of a hydrocarbon system is

defined as the highest pressure at which a bubble of gas is
first liberated from the oil.
This important property can be measured experimentally for a
crude oil system by conducting a constant-composition
expansion test.
Oil Formation Volume Factor
 Crude Oil Viscosity

Crude oil viscosity is an important physical property that

controls and influences the flow of oil through porous
media and pipes. The viscosity, in general, is defined as
the internal resistance of the fluid to flow.
The oil viscosity is a strong function of the temperature,
pressure, oil gravity, gas gravity, and gas solubility.
Whenever possible, oil viscosity should be determined by
laboratory measurements at reservoir temperature and
pressure. The viscosity is usually reported in standard
PVT analyses. If such laboratory data are not available,
engineers may refer to published correlations, which
usually vary in complexity and accuracy depending upon
the available data on the crude oil.
 According to the pressure, the viscosity of crude oils can be
classified into three categories :
Dead-Oil Viscosity
The dead-oil viscosity is defined as the viscosity of crude oil at
atmospheri pressure (no gas in solution) and system
temperature.
Saturated-Oil Viscosity
The saturated (bubble-point)-oil viscosity is defined as the
viscosity of the crude oil at the bubble-point pressure and
reservoir temperature
 Drive Mechanism
It has been observed that each drive mechanism has certain
typical performance characteristics in terms of:
1. Ultimate recovery factor
2. Pressure decline rate
3. Gas-oil ratio
4. Water production
The recovery of oil by any of the natural drive mechanisms is
called primary recovery. The term refers to the production of
hydrocarbons from a reservoir without the use of any process
(such as fluid injection) to supplement the natural energy of
the reservoir.
 PRIMARY RECOVERY MECHANISMS
For a proper understanding of reservoir behavior and
predicting future performance, it is necessary to have
knowledge of the driving mechanisms that control the
behavior of fluids within reservoirs. The overall performance
of oil reservoirs is largely determined by the nature of the
energy, i.e., driving mechanism, available for moving the oil to
the wellbore.
There are basically six driving mechanisms that provide the
natural energy necessary for oil recovery:
1. Rock and liquid expansion drive
2. Depletion drive
3. Gas cap drive
4. Water drive
5. Gravity drainage drive
6. Combination drive
 Rock and Liquid Expansion

When an oil reservoir initially exists at a pressure higher than

its bubble- point pressure, the reservoir is called an
undersaturated oil reservoir.
At pressures above the bubble-point pressure, crude oil,
connate water, and rock are the only materials present. As the
reservoir pressure declines, the rock and fluids expand due to
their individual compressibilities.
The reservoir rock compressibility is the result of two factors:
Expansion of the individual rock grains
Formation compaction
 Both of the above two factors are the results of a decrease of
fluid pressure within the pore spaces, and both tend to
reduce the pore volume through the reduction of the
porosity. As the expansion of the fluids and reduction in the
pore volume occur with decreasing reservoir pressure, the
crude oil and water will be forced. out of the pore space to
the wellbore. Because liquids and rocks are only slightly
compressible, the reservoir will experience a rapid pressure
decline. The oil reservoir under this driving mechanism is
characterized by a constant gas-oil ratio that is equal to the
gas solubility at the bubble point pressure
 This driving mechanism is considered the least efficient
driving force and usually results in the recovery of only a small
percentage of the total oil in place.
 The Depletion Drive Mechanism

This driving form may also be referred to by the following various

terms:
Solution gas drive
Dissolved gas drive
Internal gas drive
In this type of reservoir, the principal source of energy is a result
of gas liberation from the crude oil and the subsequent
expansion of the solution gas as the reservoir pressure is
reduced. As pressure falls below the bubble-point pressure,
gas bubbles are liberated within the microscopic pore spaces.
These bubbles expand and force the crude oil out of the pore
space as shown conceptually in Figure 11-1.
 Characteristics

Cole (1969) suggests that a depletion-drive reservoir can be

identified by the following characteristics
Reservoir pressure: The reservoir pressure declines rapidly
and continuously. This reservoir pressure behavior is
attributed to the fact that no extraneous fluids or gas caps are
available to provide a replacement of the gas and oil
withdrawals.
Water production: The absence of a water drive means there
will be little or no water production with the oil during the
entire producing life of the reservoir.
 Gas-oil ratio: A depletion-drive reservoir is characterized by
a rapidly increasing gas-oil ratio from all wells, regardless of
their structural position. After the reservoir pressure has been
reduced below the bubble- point pressure, gas evolves from
solution throughout the reservoir. Once the gas saturation
exceeds the critical gas saturation, free gas begins to flow
toward the wellbore and gas-oil ratio increases. The gas will
also begin a vertical movement due to the gravitational
forces, which may result in the formation of a secondary gas
cap. Vertical permeability is an important factor in the
formation of a secondary gas cap.
 Ultimate Oil Recovery: Oil production by depletion drive is
usually the least efficient recovery method. This is a direct
result of the formation of gas saturation throughout the
reservoir. Ultimate oil recovery from depletion-drive
reservoirs may vary from less than 5% to about 30%. The low
recovery from this type of reservoirs suggests that large
quantities of oil remain in the reservoir and, therefore,
depletion-drive reservoirs are considered the best candidates
for secondary recovery applications
Gas Cap Drive
 Gas-cap-drive reservoirs can be identified by the presence of
a gas cap with little or no water drive as shown in Figure 11-3.
Due to the ability of the gas cap to expand, these reservoirs
are characterized by a slow decline in the reservoir pressure.
The natural energy available to produce the crude oil comes
from the following two sources:
Expansion of the gas-cap gas
Expansion of the solution gas as it is liberated
 Cole (1969) and Clark (1969) presented a comprehensive
review of the characteristic trends associated with gas-cap-
drive reservoirs. These characteristic trends are summarized
below:
Reservoir pressure: The reservoir pressure falls slowly and
continuously. Pressure tends to be maintained at a higher
level than in a depletion drive reservoir. The degree of
pressure maintenance depends upon the volume of gas in the
gas cap compared to the oil volume.
Water production: Absent or negligible water production.
Gas-oil ratio: The gas-oil ratio rises continuously in up-structure
wells. As the expanding gas cap reaches the producing
intervals of upstructure wells, the gas-oil ratio from the
affected wells will increase to high values.
Ultimate oil recovery: Oil recovery by gas-cap expansion is
actually a frontal drive displacing mechanism that, therefore,
yields a considerably larger recovery efficiency than that of
depletion-drive reservoirs. This larger recovery efficiency is
also attributed to the fact that no gas saturation is being
formed throughout the reservoir at the same time. Figure 11-
4 shows the relative positions of the gas-oil contact at
different times in the producing life of the reservoir. The
expected oil recovery ranges from 20% to 40%.
 The Water-Drive Mechanism

Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or all of their

peripheries by water bearing rocks called aquifers. The
aquifers may be so large compared to the reservoir they
adjoin as to appear infinite for all practical purposes, and
they may range down to those so small as to be
negligible in their effects on the reservoir performance.
The aquifer itself may be entirely bounded by
impermeable rock so that the reservoir and aquifer
together form a closed (volumetric) unit. On the other
hand, the reservoir may be outcropped at one or more
places where it may be replenished by surface water as
shown schematically I Figure 11-7.
 It is common to speak of edge water or bottom water in
discussing water influx into reservoir. Bottom water occurs
directly beneath the oil and edge water occurs off the flanks
of the structure at the edge of the oil as illustrated in Figure
11-8. Regardless of the source of water, the water drive is the
result of water moving into the pore spaces originally
occupied by oil, replacing the oil and displacing it to the
producing wells.
 Cole (1969) presented the following discussion on the
characteristics that can be used for identification of the water-
driving mechanism:
The reservoir pressure decline is usually very gradual. Figure
11-9 shows the pressure-production history of a typical water-
drive reservoir
 It is not uncommon for many thousands of barrels of oil to be
produced for each pound per square inch drop in reservoir
pressure. The reason for the small decline in reservoir
pressure is that oil and gas withdrawals from the reservoir are
replaced almost volume for volume by water encroaching into
the oil zone.
 The Gravity-Drainage-Drive Mechanism

The mechanism of gravity drainage occurs in petroleum

reservoirs as a result of differences in densities of the
reservoir fluids. The effects of gravitational forces can be
simply illustrated by placing a quantity of crude oil and a
quantity of water in a jar and agitating the contents After
agitation, the jar is placed at rest, and the more denser fluid
(normally water) will settle to the bottom of the jar, while the
less dense fluid (normally oil) will rest on top of the denser
fluid. The fluids have separated as a result of the gravitational
forces acting on them.
Water Production Little or no water production. Water
production is indicative of water drive.
Ultimate Oil Recovery
Ultimate recovery from gravity-drainage reservoirs will vary
widely,
due primarily to the extent of depletion by gravity drainage
alone. Where gravity drainage is good, or where producing
rates are restricted to take maximum advantage of the
gravitational forces, recovery will be high. There are reported
cases where recovery from gravity-drainage reservoir has
exceeded 80% of the initial oil in place. In other reservoirs
where depletion drive also plays an important role in the oil
recovery process the ultimate recovery will be less.
 Gas-Oil Ratio
Low gas-oil ratio from structurally low wells. This is caused by
migration of the evolved gas upstructure due to gravitational
segregation of the fluids. On the other hand, the structurally
high wells will experience an increasing gas-oil ratio as a result
of the upstructure migration of the gas released from the
crude oil.
 Gravity segregation of fluids is probably present to some
degree in all petroleum reservoirs, but it may contribute
substantially to oil production in some reservoirs.
In order to take maximum advantage of the gravity-drainage-
producing mechanism, wells should be located as structurally
low as possible. This will result in maximum conservation of
the reservoir gas. A typical gravity-drainage reservoir is shown
in Figure 11-12.
 The Combination-Drive Mechanism

The driving mechanism most commonly encountered is one in

which both water and free gas are available in some degree
to displace the oil toward the producing wells. The most
common type of drive encountered therefore, is a
combination-drive mechanism as illustrated in Figure 11-
13.
Two combinations of driving forces can be present in
combination drive reservoirs. These are
(1) depletion drive and a weak water drive and;
(2) depletion drive with a small gas cap and a weak water
drive.
Then, of course, gravity segregation can play an important role
in any o the aforementioned drives.