INTRODUCTION TO

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
GENERAL INFORMATION
One Hour Class Tests
Quizzes
Project/Presentation
Final
Minimum Attendance Required: 75%
Course Material: 1. Lecture Slides
2. Reference Books
3. Internet
WHAT IS MANUFACTURING ?

Manufacturing is the use of tools and labor to make things for use or
sale. The term may refer to a vast range of human activity, from handicraft
to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in
which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale.

Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into products;

it encompasses the design and manufacturing of goods using various
production methods and techniques.

Manufacturing is the economic term of making goods and services

available to satisfy human wants. The word production is also used
interchangeably with the word manufacturing.
A ballpoint pen for example consists of dozens of parts, a typical
automobile 15,000 parts and a Boeing 747 about 6 million parts. All
are produced by a combination of various processes called
Manufacturing.
MANUFACTURING AND ECONOMIC
SYSTEM

There are two major types of economic systems.

1. Capitalist System
2. Collectivist System

In a capitalist economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the

mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit.

In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more frequently directed

by a state agency to supply perceived needs.

In modern economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of

government regulation
ABSTRACTION OF MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
MATERIAL FLOW
RESOURCE FLOWS AND
TRANSFORMATIONS

Materials >> hardware , waste

Energy >> useful work, heat, electricity etc
Information >> shape, dimensions,
properties etc
Noise >> errors, delays etc
PERFORMANCE MEASURES
RATE
a specific kind of ratio, in which two
measurements are related to each other

Littles Law: L = W
L = units in system (inventory)
W = time in system
= rate of material flow through the system

Takt time: Time between products to meet demand

available time / units required

e.g 100 min available for production per day and one needs to
produce 100 pieces per day, what will be the takt time?
 TIME

Customer lead time (order to receipt)

Release to shop floor

Queuing, waiting, inspection
Processing
Storage, transport

For example, the lead time between the placement of an order and delivery of a new car
from a manufacturer may be anywhere from 2 weeks to 6 months.

Time at the Machine

set-up, process i.e. loading, unloading, flipping etc

COST
Profit = Income Expenses

Manufacturing Cost = Material + Labor +Tooling + Equipment

Economies of scale: The increase in efficiency of production is

achieved as the number of goods being produced increases. Typically, a
company that achieves economies of scale lowers the average cost per
unit through increased production since fixed costs are shared over an
increased number of goods.

An example of this can be found in the telecommunications industry. To

service a single phone in a town costs a huge amount of money. Lines
must be laid, towers constructed, and other infrastructure purchased to
hook the phone up to local and long-distance lines. When the company
is servicing a thousand phones in the town, however, the cost per phone
of all the infrastructure is significantly lowered as the lines are already
laid and the infrastructure is set, so it makes sense for the telecoms
company to have all of its lines / infrastructure to be used fully, rather
than lay there redundant.
Because the phone infrastructure is so costly for a small company to set
up, it may be most efficient for the entire town to be served by a single
phone company.

As quantity of production increases from Q to Q2, the average

cost of each unit decreases from C to C1.
 QUALITY
1) Satisfied Customer (systems level)
2) Deviation from target (process level)
Material properties
Geometry
Appearance etc
Process Capability Index, Cp
It is a statistical measure of process capability :
the ability of a process to produce output
within specification limits

1) Cp = (USL-LSL) / 6s

USL = Upper Specification Limit

LSL = Lower Specification Limit
s = standard deviation (measurement of variability) of the
process output

2) USL and LSL are specified by design

3) The standard deviation is due to variation in the process
Flexibility
1. Machine flexibility
Capability of a machine to perform a variety of operations
on a variety of part types and sizes
2. Routing flexibility
Alternative machines, sequences or resources can be used
for manufacturing a part for changes resulting from
equipment breakdowns, tool breakages, controller failures,
etc.
3. Process flexibility
Ability to absorb changes in the product mix by performing
similar operations.
The process generalization method which can be used for
more than one product e.g. painting a car is a flexible
process which have a generalized range of car sizes that it
can adapt to.
Flexibility
4. Product flexibility
Ability to change over to a new set of products
economically and quickly in response to markets.
Different variants in a model e.g. Ford producing mini
trucks as well as SUVs

5. Production flexibility
Ability to produce a range of products without adding
capital equipment
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

Material efficiency
Energy efficiency
Toxic, carbon emissions and/or harmful effects
PARTS
A part is a designed object that has no assembly operations in its
manufacture. Parts may be made by a sequence of
manufacturing processes (e.g., casting followed by milling), but
parts are not assembled.

Parts are either standard or special purpose. A standard part

is a member of a class of parts that has a generic function and is
manufactured routinely without reference to its use in any
particular product. Examples of standard parts are screws, bolts,
rivets, jar tops, buttons, most beams, gears, springs, and
washers.

Special purpose parts are designed and manufactured for a

specific purpose in a specific product or product line rather than
for a generic purpose in several different products.
ASSEMBLY AND SUBASSEMBLY
An assembly is a collection of two or more parts. A subassembly is an
assembly that is included within an assembly or other subassembly.

A standard assembly is an assembly or subassembly that like a

standard part has a generic function and is manufactured routinely
for general use or for inclusion in other subassemblies or assemblies.
Examples of standard assemblies are electric motors, heat exchangers,
pumps, gear boxes, light bulbs, etc

Assembly is an important phase of the overall manufacturing operation

and requires considerations of the ease, speed and cost of putting
parts together.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES
Traditionally, design and
manufacturing activities have
taken place sequentially rather
than concurrently (Fig. A) but
this approach has been found
to be extremely wasteful of
resources.

A more advanced product

development approach is
shown in Fig. B. The main
difference from the previous
approach is that all disciplines
are now involved in the earliest
stages of the product design;
this concurrent approach result
in less wasted effort and lost of
time.

Fig. A Fig. B
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
Concurrent Engineering (CE) is a systematic parallel
approach to the integrated design of products and their
manufacturing and support process.

The basic goals of concurrent engineering are to minimise

product design and engineering changes as well as the time
and costs.

For CE to succeed it must

1) Have the full support of an organisations top management

2) Have multifunctional and interacting work teams
3) Utilise all available state-of-the-art technologies and tools
like CAD/CAE/CAM
ENGINEERING DESIGN
The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)
defines engineering design as the process of devising a system,
component or process to meet desired needs.

Design is an iterative decision-making process, in which natural

sciences, mathematics, and applied sciences (engineering) are
applied to meet a stated objective in an optimal manner.

Engineering design consists of four sequential but also overlapping

stages or sub-processes,

1. Conceptual design
2. Configuration design
3. Parametric design
4. Detail design
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The desired state of information that is resulted from the conceptual
design process is called the physical concept. It includes information
about the physical principles by which the object will function.

Conceptual design problems, like all major engineering design problem

types, are solved by guided iteration.

The first step in the guided iteration process is problem formulation; i.e.
the preparation of an Engineering Design Specification. This
Specification records the product's functional requirements as well as
specific information on factors such as weight, cost, size etc.
CONFIGURATION DESIGN
During the conceptual design of products and their subassemblies, a
number of components (i.e. standard modules, standard parts, and
special purpose parts) are created as concepts.

In the case of standard modules and standard parts, configuration

design involves identifying and selecting their type or class. For
example, if a standard module is a pump, then configuration design
involves deciding whether it is to be a centrifugal pump, a
reciprocating pump, or some other type.

For special purpose parts, configuration design includes determining

the geometric features (e.g., walls, holes, ribs, intersections, etc.) and
how these features are arranged or configured to make up the whole
part.
PARAMETRIC DESIGN
In the parametric design stage, everything is known about the
designed object except its exact dimensions and tolerances.

The goal of parametric design, therefore, is to provide all the

dimensions, tolerances, and detailed materials information critical
to the design consistent with both the marketing concept and the
Engineering Design Specification.

DETAIL DESIGN
Detail design supplies any remaining dimensions, tolerances, and
material information needed to describe the designed object fully and
accurately in preparation for manufacturing.
MATERIALS SELECTION
When selecting materials for products following
considerations must be consider;

1. Mechanical properties (youngs modulus, yield strength, hardness etc)

2. Physical properties (density, boiling point, reflectivity etc)
3. Chemical properties (corrosion resistance, pH etc)
4. Cost and Availability (economic aspect)
5. Service Life and Recycling (wear, dimensional stability, reusability
or proper disposal etc)
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
SELECTION
Selection of a particular manufacturing process or a
series of processes depends not only on the part shape
to be produced but involves other factors such as;

1. Material properties (brittle and hard materials for example

cannot easily be shaped/formed but they can be cast or machined
by various methods)
2. Distinct ranges (manufacturing processes have distinct ranges
of product size, shape and thickness which needs to be compared
with the requirements of the product)
3. Accuracy (Each process has its own characteristic precision,
accuracy and surface finish etc)
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
SELECTION

4. Operational costs (design and cost of tooling, the lead time

and the effect of workpiece materials on tool and die life are
important factors)
5. Production rate (The quantity of parts required and the
desired production rate (piece per hour) help to determine the
manufacturing process to be used)
6. Environmental concerns (Depending on the type of
operation and the machinery involved some manufacturing
processes adversely affect the environment)
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
The types of materials generally used in manufacturing
today are:

1. Ferrous metals and alloys

2. Non-Ferrous metals and alloys
3. Ceramics
4. Polymers
5. Composite materials
6. Nano-materials, Semiconductors etc

The topic is covered in detail in ME 321 - Material Science and Engineering

NATURE (OR STRUCTURE) OF
MATERIALS
When materials solidify from the molten state, they arrange
themselves into a very orderly structure and in other cases, not quite
so orderly. Two fundamentally different material structures can be
distinguished as;

1) Crystalline structure
2) Non-crystalline (Amorphous) structure

Many materials forms into crystals upon solidification from the molten
or liquid state. It is the characteristics of all metals as well as many
ceramics and polymers.
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
A crystalline structure is one in which the atoms are
located at regular and recurring positions in three
dimensions. The pattern which is replicated million of
times with in a given crystal is known as unit cell.

Figure (a) shows the unit cell for the body centered cubic
BCC crystal structure, one of the common structures
found in the metals. Figure (b) and (c) shows the
repeating nature of the unit cell within the crystal.
TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
Three types of crystal structures in metals are;
1. Body-centered-cubic (BCC)
2. Face-centered-cubic (FCC)
3. Hexagonal close packed (HCP)
GRAIN AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES
A block of metal may contain millions of individual
crystals, called grains.
The number and the size of the grains in a unit volume of
the metal depends on the rate of which nucleation (the
initial stage of formation of crystals) takes place. Rapid
cooling produces smaller grain, whereas slow cooling
produces larger grains.
The surfaces that separate the individual grains are
called grain boundaries.
GRAIN AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES
The number of different stages in which individual
crystals begin to form is shown in Fig 1.

Fig 1: (a) Small square represent unit cell. (b) Nucleation of crystals at
random sites in the molten metal (c) Growth of crystals as solidification
continues and (d) Solidified metal, showing individual grains and grain
boundaries.
IMPERFECTIONS (DEFECTS) IN
CRYSTALS
The imperfections in a crystal often arises due to the inability of the
solidifying material to continue the replication of the unit cell without
interruption. Four common types of defects in a crystal are;

1. Point defects, such as a vacancy (a missing atom) or an

impurity atom (a foreign atom that has replaced an atom of
the pure metal)
2. Linear or one dimensional defects (dislocations)
3. Planar or two dimensional defects (grain boundaries)
4. Volume defects such as voids, cracks etc
DEFORMATION IN METALLIC CRYSTALS
When a crystal is subjected to a gradually increasing
mechanical stress, its initial response is elastic deformation.
However, if the stress on the crystal structure is increased
sufficiently, the crystal undergoes plastic deformation; that
is, it does not return to its original shape when the force is
removed.
There are two basic mechanisms by which plastic deformation
may take place in crystal structures.
1. Slip
2. Twinning
SLIP
Slip mechanism involves the
slipping of one plane of atom
over adjacent plane (slip plane)
under a shear stress as shown
in Fig (a).

This mechanism is like the

sliding of playing cards against
each other. As it takes a certain
amount of force to slide playing
cards against each other, crystal
structure requires certain
amount of shear stress (critical
shear stress) to undergo plastic
deformation.
TWINNING
The second mechanism of
plastic deformation in a crystal
structure is twinning, in which a
portion of the crystal forms a
mirror image of itself across the
plane of twinning as shown in
Fig (b).

Twinning usually occurs in hcp

and bcc metals by plastic
deformation.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SLIP &
TWINNING MECHANISMS
RECRYSTALLIZATION
The process in which, at a certain temperature range, new
equiaxed (that have axes of approximately the same length)
and strain-free grains are formed, replacing the older grains
is called Recrystallization. The temperature for
recrystallization ranges approximately between 0.3 Tm and
0.5 Tm where Tm is the melting point of the metal.

COLD AND HOT WORKING

When plastic deformation is carried out above the
recrystallization temperature of the metal, it is called hot
working and if it is done below its recrystallization
temperature, it is called cold working.
NON-CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
Following are the two features that differentiate crystalline
structures from non-crystalline structures;

1. Absence of a long range order in the molecular structure of

non-crystalline structure.
2. Differences in melting and thermal expansion characteristics.

The closely packed and repetitive pattern of the crystals structure

is shown in Fig 1a while random arrangements of atoms in the
non-crystalline material is shown in Fig 1b.

Fig 1: Illustration of difference in structure between (a) crystalline and (b)

non-crystalline materials.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
Following are some basic mechanical properties of material:

1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Bending
4. Hardness
5. Fatigue
6. Creep
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Tension: A force related to the stretching of an object.

Tension tests are used to

determine the strength
deformation characteristics of
materials.

Linear elastic behavior

Yield point
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
Fracture (breaking)

Tensile test sequence showing different stages in the elongation process

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Stress strain curves: Each material has different stress-strain curves
depending on its composition and properties.

A perfectly elastic material displays

linear behaviour. The behaviour of brittle
materials such as glass, ceramics, cast
iron is represented by such a curve

A rigid perfectly plastic material

undergoes the deformation at the same
stress level once the stress reaches to
yield stress Y i.e. it has no elastic
recovery. e.g. poly-crystals
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The behaviour of elastic perfectly plastic

material is a combination of the first two
plots. It has finite elastic modulus and it
undergoes elastic recovery upon
unloading.

A rigid linearly strain hardening material

requires an increasing stress level to
undergo further strain. It has no elastic
recovery upon unloading.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

An elastic, linearly strain hardening

curve is an acceptable approximation of
the behaviour of most engineering
materials, with modification that plastic
portion of the curve has decreasing
slope with increasing strain.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Compression (opposite to tension): When the specimen is subjected to
compressive load it undergoes in compression. Metalworking such as
forging, rolling, extrusion etc are performed with workpieces under
externally applied compressive forces.

Bending: It is a process by which metal can be deformed by

plastically deforming the material and changing its shape. The
material is stressed beyond the yield strength but below the
ultimate tensile strength.
The stress at fracture in bending is known as the modulus of
rupture.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Hardness: It is defined as the resistance to permanent indentation. It can
also be defined as the resistance to scratching or wear. The most common
hardness tests are shown in table.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Fatigue: It is the progressive and localized structural damage that
occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.

Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and

unloading. If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic
cracks will begin to form at the surface. Eventually a crack will reach
a critical size, and the structure will suddenly fracture.

Gears, cam shafts and tools and dies are typically subjected to
rapidly fluctuating (cyclic or periodic) loads. Under these conditions,
the part fails at a stress level below which failure would occur under
static loading. This phenomenon is known as fatigue failure and is
responsible for the majority of failures in mechanical components.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Creep: At elevated temperatures and constant stress or load, many
materials continue to deform at a slow rate. This behaviour is called
creep. Especially important for high-temperature applications such
as gas turbine blades, components of jet engine or rocket motors.
The rate of creep is highly dependent on both stress and
temperature
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Creep: Initially, primary or transient creep occurs in Stage I. The
creep rate, (the slope of the curve) is high at first, but it soon
decreases. This is followed by secondary (or steady-state) creep in
Stage II, when the creep rate is small and the strain increases very
slowly with time. Eventually, in Stage III (tertiary or accelerating
creep), the creep rate increases more rapidly and the strain may
become so large that it results in failure.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

Reading Assignment: (Important but not graded)

Chap 3 , sec 3.9 - physical properties

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials by

S. Kalpakjian (fifth edition)

The topic is covered in detail in ME 321 - Material Science and Engineering

PRODUCT QUALITY
Product quality directly influences the marketability of a product and
customer satisfaction.

Traditionally, product quality is ensured by inspecting parts of their

specifications such as dimensional tolerance, surface finish and
mechanical and physical properties.

According to modern approach quality cannot be inspected into a

product after it is made because products are manufactured using
several different processes each of which can have significant
variations in its performance, therefore, the control of the processes
is a critical factor in product quality. Thus, the aim is to;

control the processes and not the products

PRODUCT QUALITY
Product with high quality should provide following characteristics;

Performance: The basic operating characteristics of a product; for

example, how well a car handles its gas mileage.

Features: The "extra" items added to the basic features, such as a

stereo CD or a leather interior in a car.

Reliability: The probability that a product will operate properly within

an expected time frame or the measure of confidence of a consumer
towards a particular product.
Eg. a Sony TV will work without repair for about seven years.

Conformance: The degree to which a product meets pre-established

standards. There should be an agreement between the designed and
the actual product standard / specifications.
E.g. Descon made pressure vessel fails in few days is non-
conformance.
PRODUCT QUALITY
Durability: How long the product lasts; its life span before replacement
or a capability of a product to resist wear and tear or decay etc.
Masters MoltyFoam, with care, might be expected to last a lifetime.

Serviceability: The ease of getting repairs, the speed of repairs, and

the courtesy and competence of the repair person.

Aesthetics: How a product looks, feels, sounds, smells, or tastes.

Safety: Assurance that the customer will not suffer injury or harm from
a product; an especially important consideration for automobiles /
aircrafts.
QUALITY FROM THE CONSUMERS
PERSPECTIVE
Time and timeliness: How long a customer must wait for service. For
example, is an overnight package delivered overnight?

Completeness: Is everything the customer asked for provided? For

example, is a mail order from a catalog company complete when
delivered?

Courtesy: How customers are treated by employees. For example,

are phone operators at PTCL nice and are their voices pleasant?

Consistency: Is the same level of service provided to each customer

each time? Is your newspaper delivered on time every morning?
QUALITY FROM THE CONSUMERS
PERSPECTIVE
Accessibility and convenience: How easy it is to obtain the service.
For example, when you call KESC does the service representative
answer quickly?

Accuracy: Is the service performed right every time?

Is your bank or credit card statement correct every month?

Responsiveness: How well the company reacts to unusual

situations, which can happen frequently in a service company. For
example, how well a telephone operator at worldcall is able to
respond to a customer's questions about a query not fully described in
the instructional manual / website.
QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
AND TOOLS
Following are some quality improvement techniques;

1. Total quality management

2. Six sigma
3. Process mapping
4. Statistical process control
5. ISO standards
6. Cause and effect analysis
7. Design of experiments
8. Root cause analysis
9. Lean thinking and manufacturing
10. Knowledge management
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Total quality management (TQM) is a process improvement tool (technique)
that emphasises that quality must be designed and built into a product.

TQM concept also requires the control of the processes and not the parts
produced, so that process variability is reduced and no defective parts are
allowed to continue through the production line.

Defect prevention, rather than defect detection is the major goal.

QUALITY CIRCLE
Quality circle concept consists of regular meetings by groups of employees
(workers, supervisors, managers) who discuss how to improve and maintain
product quality at all stages of the manufacturing operations.

Worker involvement, responsibility, creativity and team effort are emphasised

while comprehensive training is provided to the workers to improve the
product quality.
SIX SIGMA
Six Sigma is an extension of other quality initiatives / tools such
as Demings statistical quality control and total quality management
(TQM).

Kwak and Anbari defines Six Sigma as:

Six Sigma = TQM + stronger customer focus +

additional data analysis tools + financial results + project
management

Demings PDCA cycle

APPLICATION AREAS OF SIX SIGMA
Reduce errors in administering medications to hospital
patients.

Improve the welds generated by a robotic welding cell.

Reduce the number of errors in accounting statements.

Improve the taste of food.

Help to increase the effectiveness of pharmaceutical

medications.
ISO STANDARDS
The need for international conformity and consensus regarding the
establishment of methods for quality control, reliability and safety of
products has been ensured by International organisation for
standardisation (ISO) standards.

Companies voluntarily register for these standards and are issued

certificates. For certification, a companys plants are visited and
audited by accredited and independent third party teams to certify that
the standard elements are in place and are functioning properly.

URL for complete list of ISO standards is:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Organization_for_Sta
ndardization_standards
MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Process is defined as:

A means of transforming material from one form to another

The process can be divided into number of classes:

Material Removal
Material Forming
Material Joining
Casting, Forging
Assembly

System is defined as:

A number of entities (processes) acting together as a whole

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Manufacturing system is defined as follows:

A series of value-adding manufacturing processes to convert

raw materials into more useful forms and eventually into
finished products

Systems have two components:

Hardware: Machines, tooling, transport, raw material

Software: Computer programs, data, procedures
MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Three phases in the development of manufacturing systems are:

Craft Production (before 1700): Artefacts were made by highly skilled

individuals who undertook all aspects of manufacture including design, tool
manufacture and the production itself. Production was by hand.

Mechanisation (Post Industrial Revolution): Steam powered engines were

used. Work was broken down into discrete stages. Engineers such as Taylor
and Galbraith developed the concept of scientific management.

Soft Engineering (1960s onwards): Information technology was applied to

manufacturing with the introduction of Numerical Control (NC), Computer
Numerical Control (CNC), Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) and
Robots. Computers were also applied to the intellectual aspects of
engineering like CAD, CAM, CAPP, MRP etc. These systems are sometimes
referred to as Computer Integrated Manufacture (CIM).
MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
Manufacturing systems can be classified into different categories:

Size: Large or SME

Types of Product: Electronics, Chemical, Metal

Technology: CNC, FMS, Manual

Market: MTS, MTO, CTO and ETO

Machine Layout: Fixed position, functional, cellular and flow

Material Flow: Job, Batch, Mass

MEANS OF SERVING THE MARKET
There are four ways in which the market can be served:

Make to Stock (MTS): In this case, the customer requires product

with almost no forward notice. Suppliers usually manufactures in
anticipation of demand and maintain stock of finished product.
E.g. stationary, cold drinks, lays chips etc
Configure to Order (CTO): In this case, customer is prepared to wait
for limited period but not long enough for the product to be
manufactured from base raw materials. Company usually configures
components into saleable products when actual customer order are
received. E.g. car industry, ordering food in a restaurant
Make to Order (MTO): In this case, company does not commit
resources until firm customer order have been received.
E.g. manufacturing of commercial and fighter airplanes
Engineer to Order (ETO): This is similar to MTO except that in this
case, the item to be manufactured is defined by the customer. E.g.
customised Ferrari or Rolls Royce or private airplane, tailored clothes
etc
EQUIPMENT LAYOUT
There are four fundamentally different ways of arranging
equipment within a factory:

Fixed Material: In this case, the plant moves around a fixed

product under manufacture. This is typically employed for large
products (e.g. ship building or civil engineering projects).

Functional: Similar machines are grouped together.

Group Technology or (Cellular): Machines are arranged to

manufacture product families. (e.g. brake lining manufacture).

Flow: In this case, the production facilities are designed to

manufacture specific products in large quantities.
(e.g. car production).
EQUIPMENT LAYOUT
Which is more efficient?
MATERIAL FLOW STRUCTURES
Project
Flow - no flow
Flexibility - very high
Products - unique
Capital investment - very low
Variable cost - very high
Labor content and skill - very high
Volume - one
In a project, the inputs are brought to the project location as they are
needed; there is no flow in the process. Technically, a project is not a
process flow structure since there is no flow of product - the quantity
produced usually is equal to one. It is worthwhile, however, to treat it
as a process structure here since it represents one extreme of the
spectrum.
Projects are suitable for unique products that are different each time
they are produced. The firm brings together the resources as
needed, coordinating them using project management techniques.
MATERIAL FLOW STRUCTURES
Job Shop
Flow - jumbled flow
Flexibility - high
Products - many
Capital investment - low
Variable cost - high
Labor content and skill - high
Volume - low
A job shop is a flexible operation that has several activities through which work
can pass. In a job shop, it is not necessary for all activities to be performed on all
products, and their sequence may be different for different products.
To illustrate the concept of a job shop, consider the case of a machine shop. In a
machine shop, a variety of equipment such as drill presses, lathes, and milling
machines is arranged in stations. Work is passed only to those machines required
by it, and in the sequence required by it. This is a very flexible arrangement that
can be used for wide variety of products.
A job shop uses general purpose equipment and relies on the knowledge of
workers to produce a wide variety of products. Volume is adjusted by adding or
removing labor as needed. Job shops are low in efficiency but high in flexibility.
Rather than selling specific products, a job shop often sells its capabilities.
 MATERIAL FLOW STRUCTURES

Batch Process
Flow - disconnected, with some dominant flows
Flexibility - moderate
Products - several
Capital investment - moderate
Variable cost - moderate
Labor content and skill - moderate
Volume - moderate
A batch process is similar to a job shop, except that the sequence of
activities tends to be in a line and is less flexible. In a batch process,
dominant flows can be identified. The activities, while in-line, are
disconnected from one another. Products are produced in batches, for
example, to fill specific customer orders.
A batch process executes different production runs for different products.
The disadvantage is the setup time required to change from one product
to the other, but the advantage is that some flexibility in product mix can
be achieved.
MATERIAL FLOW STRUCTURES
Assembly Line Process
Flow - connected line
Flexibility - low
Products - a few
Capital investment - high
Variable cost - low
Labor content and skill - low
Volume - high
Like a batch process, an assembly line processes work
in fixed sequence. However, the assembly line connects
the activities and paces them, for example, with a
conveyor belt. A good example of an assembly line is an
automobile plant.
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE (PLC)
A product is "anything that is capable of satisfying customer
needs.

This definition includes both physical products (e.g. cars,

washing machines, DVD players) as well as services (e.g.
insurance, banking, private health care).

Businesses should manage their products carefully over time

to ensure that they deliver products that continue to meet
customer wants.

The stages through which individual products develop over

time is known as the "Product Life Cycle".
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE (PLC)
The classic product life cycle has four stages (illustrated
in the diagram below): introduction; growth; maturity
and decline.
Research &
Development
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE (PLC)
Introduction: In the introduction stage, the firm seeks to build
product awareness and develop a market for the product.

Growth; In the growth stage, the firm seeks to build brand

preference and increase market share.

Maturity: At maturity, the strong growth in sales diminishes.

Competition may appear with similar products. The primary
objective at this point is to defend market share while
maximizing profit.

Decline. As sales decline, the firm has several options:

by adding new features and finding new uses.

reduce costs
discontinue the product
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE (PLC)
Examples
Set out below are some suggested examples of products that are
currently at different stages of the product life-cycle:

INTRODUCTION GROWTH MATURITY DECLINE

Third generation Portable DVD Personal
Typewriters
mobile phones Players Computers

Handwritten
E-conferencing Email Faxes
letters
iris-based
(biometric) Cheque
Smart cards Credit cards
personal identity books
cards
AUTOMATION CONCEPT
Automation is a term defined as the process in which machines perform the
tasks done by human beings. Industrial automation plays a vital role in
increasing productivity and cost reduction.

Elements of Automation

Power source (electrical, solar etc)

Process (turning, grinding etc)
Controls (PLC, ANN, SCADA etc)
Feedback
Programmable
AUTOMATION CONCEPT
Major application of computers in automating the manufacturing
operations are:

Computer numerically controlled (CNC): Controlling the machine

components by direct insertion of coded instructions in the form of
numerical data. Common CNC programming language is G & M
codes.

Industrial robots: Robots have replaced several human operations

that are repetitive, boring, dangerous and are prone to error.

Automated handling: Efficiently handling of materials and products

in various stages of manufacturing.
AUTOMATION CONCEPT
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM): It includes the usage of the computers
in optimizing the process plans, reducing the planning cost and improving the product
quality and reliability.

Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS): A flexible manufacturing system

(FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of
flexibility that allows the system to react in the case of changes, whether
predicted or unpredicted.

1. Machine flexibility
2. Routing flexibility
3. Process flexibility
4. Product flexibility
5. Production flexibility
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

The manufacturing processes can be categorized into

following groups:

Machining Processes
Deformation Processes
Metal Casting Processes
Joining & Metal Forming Processes
Polymer & Composite Processes
Powder Metallurgy
Ceramic Processes
Micro Electronics Processes
HOW TO PLAN FOR MANUFACTURING?
Definition of a Need
Conceptual Design
Review of Initial Design
Design Prototype
Production Plan
Resource Specifications
Manufacturing Prototype
Manufacturing
Inspection-quality Checks
Packaging - Shipping
Customer Response
MACHINING PROCESSES
One of the most important material removal process is a collection of
material-working processes in which power-driven machine tools,
such as lathes, milling machines, and drill presses are used with a
sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut the material to achieve the
desired geometry.

Single Point Machining

Machining done by a single
point cutting tool.

Turning
Boring
Facing
Forming
Shaping
Multipoint Machining
Machining done by a multi point
cutting tool.

Drilling
Milling
Sawing, Filing

Grinding
For producing very fine finishes or making
very light cuts, using an abrasive wheel as
the cutting device.

Surface Grinding
Cylindrical Grinding
Internal Grinding
Form Grinding
Abrasive Wire Cutting
Process of using wire of various diameters and lengths, impregnated with
diamond dust of various sizes to cut through materials.

Honing
It produces a precision surface on a metal workpiece by scrubbing abrasive
stone against it along a controlled path. Honing is primarily used to improve
the geometric form of a surface.

Lapping
Machining operation, in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an
abrasive between them.

Grit Blasting
Process of smoothing, shaping and cleaning a hard surface by forcing solid
particles across that surface at high speeds; the effect is similar to that of
using sandpaper, but provides a more even finish with no problems at
corners.
NON TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
A group of processes that remove excess material by
various techniques involving mechanical, thermal,
electrical, or chemical energy (or combinations of
these energies)

They do not use a sharp cutting tool in the

conventional sense

Tool may or may not be harder than workpiece

NONTRADITIONAL PROCESSES
Mechanical - typical form of mechanical action is
erosion of work material by a high velocity stream of
abrasives or fluid (or both)

Electrical - electrochemical energy to remove material

(reverse of electroplating)

Thermal thermal energy usually applied to small

portion of work surface, causing that portion to be
fused and/or vaporized

Chemical chemical etchants selectively remove

material from portions of work part, while other
MECHANICAL ENERGY PROCESSES
PROCESSES
Ultrasonic machining

Water jet cutting

Abrasive water jet cutting

Abrasive jet machining

(USM)
Abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high
velocity against work by a tool vibrating at low
amplitude and high frequency

Tool oscillation is perpendicular to work surface

Abrasives accomplish material removal

Tool is fed slowly into work

Shape of tool is formed into part

ULTRASONIC MACHINING
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
ULTRASONIC MACHINING
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
ULTRASONIC MACHINING PIC
USM APPLICATIONS
Hard, brittle work materials such as ceramics, glass,
and carbides

Also successful on certain metals, such as stainless

steel and titanium

Shapes include non-round holes

Coining operations - pattern on tool is imparted to a

flat work surface
WATER JET CUTTING (WJC)
Uses high pressure, high velocity stream of water
directed at work surface for cutting
WATER JET MACHINING
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
WATER JET EQUIPMENT PICS
WATER JET PART EXAMPLES
WJC APPLICATIONS
Usually automated by CNC or industrial robots to
manipulate nozzle along desired trajectory

Used to cut narrow slits in flat stock such as plastic,

textiles, composites, floor tile, carpet, leather, and
cardboard
WJC ADVANTAGES
No crushing or burning of work surface

Minimum material loss

No environmental pollution

Ease of automation
ABRASIVE WATER JET CUTTING
(AWJC)
When WJC is used on metals, abrasive particles must
be added to jet stream usually

Additional process parameters: abrasive type, grit size,

and flow rate
Abrasives: aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, and garnet (a
silicate mineral)

Grit sizes range between 60 and 120

Grits added to water stream at about 0.25 kg/min (0.5 lb/min)

after it exits nozzle
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING
(AJM) PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
High velocity stream of gas containing small abrasive
particles
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
ABRASIVE WATER JET EQUIPMENT
PICS
AJM APPLICATION
Usually performed manually by operator who directs
nozzle

Normally used as a finishing process rather than

cutting process

Applications: de-burring, trimming and de-flashing,

cleaning, and polishing

Work materials: thin flat stock of hard, brittle

materials (e.g., glass, silicon, mica, ceramics)
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESSES
MACHINING PROCESSES
Electrical energy used in combination with chemical
reactions to remove material

Reverse of electroplating

Work material must be a conductor

Processes:
Electrochemical machining (ECM)
Electrochemical deburring (ECD)
Electrochemical grinding (ECG)
MACHINING (ECM)
Material is de-plated from anode work piece (positive
pole) and transported to a cathode tool (negative pole)
in an electrolyte bath

Electrolyte flows rapidly between two poles to carry off

de-plated material, so it does not plate onto tool

Electrode materials: Cu, brass, or stainless steel

Tool has inverse shape of part

Tool size and shape must allow for the gap
ECM OPERATION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
Material removal by anodic dissolution, using
electrode (tool) in close proximity to work but
separated by a rapidly flowing electrolyte
ELECTROCHEMICAL GRINDING (ECG)
Special form of ECM in which grinding wheel with
conductive bond material augments anodic
dissolution of metal part surface
ADVANTAGES OF ECG
Applications:
Sharpening of cemented carbide tools

Grinding of surgical needles, other thin wall tubes, and

fragile parts

Advantages:
De-plating responsible for 95% of metal removal

Because machining is mostly by electrochemical action,

grinding wheel lasts much longer
THERMAL ENERGY PROCESSES
THERMAL ENERGY PROCESSES
Very high local temperatures
Material is removed by fusion or vaporization

Physical and metallurgical damage to the new work

surface

In some cases, resulting finish is so poor that

subsequent processing is required
THERMAL ENERGY PROCESSES
Electric discharge Processes
Die-sinking
wire cutting

Electron beam machining

Laser beam machining

Plasma arc machining

Conventional thermal cutting processes

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE PROCESSES
Metal removal by a series of discrete electrical
discharges (sparks) causing localized temperatures
high enough to melt or vaporize the metal

Can be used only on electrically conducting work

materials

Two main processes:

Die-Sinking
Wire electric discharge machining
EDM OPERATION
One of the most widely used nontraditional processes

Shape of finished work surface produced by a shape of

electrode tool

Sparks occur across a small gap between tool and work

Requires dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each

discharge as fluid becomes ionized in the gap
 EDM PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
Electric discharge machining (EDM): (a) overall
setup, and (b) close-up view of gap, showing
discharge and metal removal.
WORK MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS IN
EDM
Work materials must be electrically conducting

Hardness and strength of work material are not factors

in EDM

Material removal rate depends on melting point of

work material
EDM APPLICATIONS
Tooling for many mechanical processes: molds for
plastic injection molding, extrusion dies, wire drawing
dies, forging and heading dies, and sheet metal
stamping dies

Production parts: delicate parts not rigid enough to

withstand conventional cutting forces, hole drilling
where hole axis is at an acute angle to surface, and
machining of hard and exotic metals
WIRE EDM DESCRIPTION
Work is fed slowly past wire along desired cutting
path, like a band saw operation

CNC used for motion control

Dielectric required, using nozzles directed at

tool-work interface or submerging work part
WIRE EDM PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
Special form of EDM uses small diameter wire as
electrode to cut a narrow kerf in work
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING OPERATION
EB gun accelerates a continuous stream of electrons to
about 75% of light speed

Beam is focused through electromagnetic lens,

reducing diameter to as small as 0.025 mm (0.001 in)

On impinging work surface, kinetic energy of

electrons is converted to thermal energy of extremely
high density which melts or vaporizes material in a
very localized area
EBM PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
Uses high velocity stream of electrons focused on work
piece surface to remove material by melting and
vaporization
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
EQUIPMENT PICS
EBM APPLICATIONS
Works on any material

Ideal for micromachining

Drilling small diameter holes - down to 0.05 mm (0.002
in)
Cutting slots only about 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) wide

Drilling holes with very high depth-to-diameter ratios

Ratios greater than 100:1
LASER BEAM MACHINING
Uses the light energy from a laser to remove material
by vaporization and ablation
LBM APPLICATIONS
Drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing, and marking
operations

Drilling small diameter holes - down to 0.025 mm

(0.001 in)

Generally used on thin stock

Work materials: metals with high hardness and

strength, soft metals, ceramics, glass and glass epoxy,
plastics, rubber, cloth, and wood
LASER BEAM OPERATION PICS
Laser beam cutting operation performed on sheet
metal
PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM) DESCRIPTION
Plasma = a superheated, electrically ionized gas

PAC temperatures: 10,000C to 14,000C (18,000F to

25,000F)

Plasma arc generated between electrode in torch and

anode work piece

The plasma flows through water-cooled nozzle that

constricts and directs stream to desired location
PLASMA ARC MACHINING(PAM)

Uses plasma stream operating at very high

temperatures to cut metal by melting
CHAMICAL MACHING PROCESSES
CHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM)
Material removal through contact with a strong
chemical etchant

Processes include:
Chemical milling - By selectively attacking different areas of work
piece with chemical reagents shallow cavities can be produced on plates,
sheets and forgings and extrusions

Chemical blanking- Chemical blanking is similar to

chemical milling. Material is removed by chemical
dissolution rather than by shearing . Burr free etching of
printed-circuit boards, decorative panels, thin sheet
metal stampings as well as production of small and
complex shapes
Contd.
Chemical engraving- similar to chemical milling but is used for
engraving letters and name plates

Photochemical Machining - This process is effective in blanking

fragile work pieces and materials. Material is removed using photographic
techniques. Applications are electric motor lamination, flat springs, masks
for color television, printed circuit cards etc

All utilize the same mechanism of material removal

STEPS IN CHEMICAL MACHINING
Cleaning - to insure uniform etching

Masking - a maskant (resist, chemically resistant to

etchant) is applied to portions of work surface not to
be etched

Etching - part is immersed in etchant which

chemically attacks those portions of work surface
that are not masked

De-masking - maskant is removed

CHEMICAL MACHINING
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
CHEMICAL MACHINING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
CHEMICAL MACHINING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
CHEMICAL BLANKING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION