ICASA Fundamental Skills Training

Module: Spectrum Principles

William Stucke
ICASA Councillor

5th March 2012

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 Agenda
• What is Spectrum?
• Spectrum Characteristics
• Spectrum Fees
• Telecommunications uses of Spectrum
– Point to Point Links
– Point to Area Links
• Broadcasting uses of Spectrum
– Traditional Broadcasting
– Digital Broadcasting
• Satellite Communications
• Summary
2
 Agenda
• What is Spectrum?
• Spectrum Characteristics
• Spectrum Fees
• Telecommunications uses of Spectrum
– Point to Point Links
– Point to Area Links
• Broadcasting uses of Spectrum
– Traditional Broadcasting
– Digital Broadcasting
• Satellite Communications
• Summary
3
 What is Spectrum?
The spectrum of
visible light in a
rainbow
Red: 400 – 484 THz
Orange: 484 – 508 THz
Yellow: 508 – 526 THz
Green: 526 – 606 THz
Blue: 606 – 669 THz
Indigo: 668 – 714 THz
Violet: 668 – 789 THz

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 Spectrum

• “Spectrum” is the range of electromagnetic

frequencies of interest, for this presentation.
• ICASA regulates from 9 kHz to 1000 GHz (1 THz)
• FM Radio uses from 87.5 MHz to 108 MHz
• UHF TV Broadcasting uses from 470 – 860 MHz
• Cellphones use 900, 1800, 2100 MHz bands, etc.
• Visible light is 400 – 789 THz
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 ITU Frequency Bands
Designation Frequency Wavelength
ELF extremely low frequency 3Hz to 30Hz 100'000km to 10'000 km
SLF superlow frequency 30Hz to 300Hz 10'000km to 1'000km
ULF ultralow frequency 300Hz to 3000Hz 1'000km to 100km
VLF very low frequency 3kHz to 30kHz 100km to 10km
LF low frequency 30kHz to 300kHz 10km to 1km
MF medium frequency 300kHz to 3000kHz 1km to 100m
HF high frequency 3MHz to 30MHz 100m to 10m
VHF very high frequency 30MHz to 300MHz 10m to 1m
UHF ultrahigh frequency 300MHz to 3000MHz 1m to 10cm
SHF superhigh frequency 3GHz to 30GHz 10cm to 1cm
EHF extremely high frequency 30GHz to 300GHz 1cm to 1mm 6
 Allocation versus Assignment
• Spectrum is allocated for a specific service or
purpose
• In line with ITU agreements
• Minister determines policy and approves the SATFA,
which is drafted by ICASA
• Spectrum is assigned to a specific user, at a specific
frequency and location, within a specific allocation
• ICASA assigns spectrum and issues licence for use
• ICASA collects spectrum fees
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RSA Spectrum Allocation - 2004

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 Agenda
• What is Spectrum?
• Spectrum Characteristics
– Modulation
– Bandwidth
– Interference
– Attenuation
– Coverage
• Spectrum Fees
• Telecommunications uses of Spectrum
– Point to Point Links
– Point to Area Links
• Broadcasting uses of Spectrum
– Traditional Broadcasting
– Digital Broadcasting
• Satellite Communications
• Summary
9
 Spectrum Characteristics
• The frequency of electromagnetic radiation is
measured in Hertz (Hz)
• 1 Hz = one cycle per second
• 1 kHz = 1,000 Hz
• 1 MHz = 1,000 kHz
• 1 GHz = 1,000 MHz
• 1 THz = 1,000 GHz

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 Bandwidth
• When a signal is transmitted using radio waves,
generally the information is modulated onto a
carrier wave
• The carrier wave has a single frequency
• Modulating the carrier widens the signal, in
terms of frequency. This widening is called
“bandwidth”

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 Modulation

• Let’s start with a carrier wave at some frequency:

• And then add a modulating signal:

• What do we get? 12
Amplitude Modulation - AM
• Carrier Wave
• A single high frequency

• Modulating wave
• One (or more) low frequency
signals

• Modulated Result
• A complex wave, consisting of
more than one frequency,
therefore it has bandwidth 13
Frequency Modulation - FM
• Carrier Wave
• A single high frequency

• Modulating wave
• One (or more) low frequency
signals

• Modulated Result
• A complex wave, consisting of
more than one frequency,
therefore it has bandwidth 14
AM or FM Modulation?

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 Bandwidth
F0 = Carrier frequency
FL = Lower frequency
FH = Higher frequency
B = Bandwidth

N.B. The X-axis of this

graph is frequency.

Interference Slide 16
 Channels
• Often, allocated spectrum is divided up into
channels, to make assignment and coordination
easier.
• For example, in RSA FM Radio is allocated the
VHF frequency range 87.5 MHZ to 108 MHz
• This gives 204 FM Radio channels, if all channels
are used
• Can all these channels be used at once?
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FM Radio Modulation Scheme

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 Interference
• A radio signal can suffer interference from many causes: -
– Electrical machinery – motors, hairdryers, electric fences,
switchgear, fluorescent lights, etc.
– Microwave ovens
– Lightning
– The Sun
– Thermal floor
– Residual Background Microwave radiation of the Universe
– Other radio signals
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 Interference 2

• A radio receiver has a certain minimum signal

level that it needs to receive to be able to detect
a signal at all.
• Think of it as like getting over a step or a low
wall.
• Interference increases the height of the wall

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 Noise Floor
• Signal comfortably powerful enough
Interference
• Signal only just strong enough

• Signal too weak

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 Types of Radio Interference

• Co-channel interference
– Frequency re-use, especially in cellular networks
– Poor frequency planning
– Adverse weather conditions
– Over-crowding
– Time of day effects
• Adjacent -channel interference
Bandwidth Slide 22
 Spectrum Characteristics 2

• Signals in free space are attenuated by the square of

the distance, so near = good
• Amount of data that can be carried by a signal is
proportional to its frequency, so high frequency =
good
• BUT, path loss in free space also depends on the
square of the frequency, and attenuation by walls,
trees, etc. increases with frequency, so low
frequency = good
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 Attenuation by Distance
• Imagine a signal transmitted in a sphere from a point source
(Isotropic radiation)
• It will have a certain signal strength (0dB) at a distance of
1m from the antenna
• At twice the distance (2m), the same amount of power
(energy) is spread over a sphere with twice the radius and 4
times the surface area, so the signal field strength will be ¼
as strong, or-6dB.
• At a distance of 3m, the signal strength will be 1/9 as strong,
or -9.5dB. 24
Antenna Size and Distance

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Attenuation with Distance

0dB -6dB -9.5dB

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 Spectrum Characteristics 3

• Need to calculate if a link will work.

• This is done by calculating the “dB Budget”
– Add up the gain of the transmitter and antennae
– Subtract the loss of the cables, connectors, and free
space propagation
– Check that the result exceeds the receiver sensitivity
limit by a sufficient margin to have reliable
communication.
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 Spectrum Characteristics 4
• Spectrum propagation models calculate in what
geographical area a transmitted signal can be received
with a reasonable chance of success. If it wasn’t for
geographical features (mountains and valleys), this would
be a circle or sector on the map.
• Typical modelling – which assumes exclusive usage of a
frequency channel in an area – means that a larger area
than the service area is “sterilised”, or rendered unusable
by the same frequency transmitted from another nearby
antenna, due to interference.

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 Idealised Coverage
Omni Antenna Sector Antenna

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Real Coverage Example 1

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Real Coverage Example 2

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 Online Coverage Calculation

• Fancy software – from free to very expensive - is

used to calculate the coverage of a transmitter.
• This site is an example of calculating coverage
online:

http://lrcov.crc.ca/main/index.php
• Listed here: Annexure A
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 Agenda
• What is Spectrum?
• Spectrum Characteristics
• Spectrum Fees
• Telecommunications uses of Spectrum
– Point to Point Links
– Point to Area Links
• Broadcasting uses of Spectrum
– Traditional Broadcasting
– Digital Broadcasting
• Satellite Communications
• Summary
33
 Spectrum Fees
• Spectrum has traditionally been regarded as a “scarce”
resource.
• Spectrum within a country is regarded as a national asset, and
use of it is usually regulated by a Regulatory Authority – ICASA
in our case.
• “Scarcity” is due to three factors: -
– Poor technology – which has improved dramatically over the last
century and especially over the last decade or so.
– Poor administration – due partly to old models of spectrum assignment
– Popular uses for certain bands, due to availability of equipment and /
or propagation characteristics of that frequency 34
 Spectrum Fees 2
• One way of managing demand for a limited resource is to charge
fees for its use.
• Fees reduce the incentive to “hoard” spectrum
• Spectrum is not “owned” by a licensee – he has right of use
• ICASA has introduced an “Administrative Incentive Pricing”
system for telecommunications uses of spectrum
• AIP Spectrum Fees apply from 1st April 2012
• No fees charged – yet – for broadcast uses
• The new system means significant changes for some operators.
Some will pay much less, some will pay much more. Most won’t be
affected much, but everyone needs to know how much they will
pay 35
 Spectrum Fees 3

• Annual Spectrum Fees are calculated using one of

two formulae:
• Point-to-Point:
– Fee=(UNIT*BW*FREQ*CG*GEO*SHR*HOPMINI*UNIBI)
• Point-to-MultiPoint:
– Fee=(UNIT*BW*FREQ*CG*GEO*SHR*ASTER*UNIBI)

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 Agenda
• What is Spectrum?
• Spectrum Characteristics
• Spectrum Fees
• Telecommunications uses of Spectrum
– Point to Point Links
– Point to Area Links
• Broadcasting uses of Spectrum
– Traditional Broadcasting
– Digital Broadcasting
• Satellite Communications
• Summary
37
 Telecommunications Uses
• Generally, spectrum is used for a wireless connection, instead
of a wired connection
• Can be faster and cheaper to set up a wireless connection
than trenching for fibre or renting a leased line
• Communications are usually two-way
• Limited in distance, depending on line-of-sight, frequency
used, antennae type, height of towers, transmitter power, etc.
• Limited in maximum speed
• Annual fees charged for the use of spectrum, unless exempted
• ECNS Licence required, unless exempted
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 Duplex Communications

Half-duplex – one party Full-duplex – both parties

talks at a time talk at the same time

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 Bi-Directional Communications
• When two parties need to talk at the same time, we need some form of
multiplexing or duplexing to avoid confusion and interference
• Time Division Duplexing (TDD) means that the two parties take turns to
talk. They both use the same channel, but at different times and in
different directions of transmission
• Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) means that the two parties each
transmit on different frequencies. They can therefore do this
simultaneously. These frequencies are usually assigned in pairs. Party A
transmits on fa and listens on fb . Party B transmits on fb and listens on fa.
• Other schemes exist, most notably Code Division Multiplexing, used in
CDMA and OFDM, where a coded value distinguishes between signal
sources. 40
LTE: FDD or TDD?

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ITU Recommendations
Option 1

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 Point to Point Links
• PtP links are used to communicate, typically between two
fixed points.
• Each end has an antenna connected to a transceiver by a
cable.
• The antenna may be mounted on a tower or other high
point, to improve propagation.
• Important parameters are the frequency, bandwidth and
link length
• Several frequency bands are available where the number
of possible links is almost unlimited
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Point to Point Link

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 Multiple PtP Links
• It is not obvious how it is possible, as stated earlier, that
many Point-to-Point links can operate simultaneously in
the same area at the same frequency at the same time.
• This is a function of the use of directional antennae.
• A high gain antenna (such as a dish) can focus the radiation
into quite a narrow, relatively high power, beam.
• This beam is aimed at the other end of the link, which has
a similar dish.
• These dish antennae have a good rejection of received
energy that comes from a wide angle to its centre line.
• Interference is thus minimised
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 High Gain Antenna PtP Link
• Red Antenna points beam at Blue antenna. Blue antenna
points back. High gain means that: -
– Better reception at a distance, without higher transmitted
power
– Good rejection of incident signals from other directions

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Many PtP Links

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 Point to Multi-Point Links
• Point to Area or PtMP links are used to communicate, typically
between one fixed point and any number of mobile or fixed points,
within a fixed coverage area
• Each end has an antenna connected to a transceiver by a cable.
• The central antenna may be mounted on a tower or other high point,
to improve propagation.
• The other points may be hand-held, with very small antennae, or fixed
antennae mounted on walls or roofs, which give a better signal
• Important parameters are the frequency, bandwidth and area sterilised

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Point to Multi-Point Link

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Cells in a PtMP Scenario

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 Agenda
• What is Spectrum?
• Spectrum Characteristics
• Spectrum Fees
• Telecommunications uses of Spectrum
– Point to Point Links
– Point to Area Links
• Broadcasting uses of Spectrum
– Traditional Broadcasting
– Digital Broadcasting
• Satellite Communications
• Summary
51
 Broadcasting Uses
• A signal to be broadcast is sent from the studio to one or more transmitters
• Unlike telecommunications, signal direction is only one way.
• Each transmitter typically has an antenna on top of a high tower
• Range varies, but for TV, up to about 50 km
• By comparison: up to about 5 km for cellphones – lower transmission
power, higher frequency
• Different frequencies are used for the same signal in adjacent transmitters
• 8 MHz channels used for each analogue TV signal, for example
• Broadcasting Service licence needed to broadcast
• ECNS licence needed if doing own transmission
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 Broadcast Signal Distribution
• A Broadcast Service Licensee may broadcast its own
signal, or contract a Broadcast Signal Distributor to
transmit for it.
• Sentech (SABC) and Orbicom (M-Net) are examples
of Broadcast Signal Distributors
• They both operate a network of transmitters
covering the country.
• DSTV uses satellite broadcasting (DVB-S)
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Broadcast Signal Distribution

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Sentech Transmitter Locations

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 Digital Broadcasting
• Many digital signals can fit in a single 8 MHz channel
• Adjacent transmitters can use the same frequency –
SFN
• An SFN may be up to 100 km across, so only one
SFN will be used for Gauteng
• Adjacent SFNs use different frequencies.
• A particular frequency can still only be reused
several 100 km away

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 Effect of Digital Migration

• Many more transmission slots available

• Spectrum becomes “spare” and can be reused
for broadband uses
• Increasing availability of decent broadband
speeds means that IPTV and VoD become viable

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 Broadcast Review
• Original grounds for regulating broadcasting was
scarcity of spectrum – with the inefficient
technology used in the 1920’s
• “Scarcity” now has a different meaning
• No longer constrained to receiving a signal from
no more than 50 km away
• Everyone can be a publisher / producer
• Different paradigm means different rules
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 Agenda
• What is Spectrum?
• Spectrum Characteristics
• Spectrum Fees
• Telecommunications uses of Spectrum
– Point to Point Links
– Point to Area Links
• Broadcasting uses of Spectrum
– Traditional Broadcasting
– Digital Broadcasting
• Satellite Communications
• Summary
59
 Satellite Communications
• It’s a moot point why the decision was taken to use Terrestrial
Digital TV transmission instead of satellite transmission
• If we had done so, all TV spectrum would have become
available for broadband uses after switchover.
• An argument was made at the time that it was too expensive
for the consumer – which ignored the current low cost of
DSTV or TopTV installation, as well as the relatively high cost
of set-top boxes, as currently envisaged
• How does satellite transmission work?

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 Satellite Transmission 2
• A Hub or Ground Station transmits an uplink signal to a satellite
• The satellite retransmits the signal - via one or more
transponders – to a particular coverage area on the surface of
the Earth
• Consumers receive the signal with a dish, and LNB.
• A cable carries the signal, amplified by the LNB, to the decoder
• The decoder (=Set Top Box) provides the signal to the TV
• Bidirectional (telecommunications) uses work in the same way,
except that a signal is also transmitted via the dish to the
satellite, which also sends it back to the Ground Station

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Satellite Transmission 3

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 Satellite Transmission 4
Ku Band coverage of C Band coverage
Southern Africa from the same
satellite

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 Agenda
• What is Spectrum?
• Spectrum Characteristics
• Spectrum Fees
• Telecommunications uses of Spectrum
– Point to Point Links
– Point to Area Links
• Broadcasting uses of Spectrum
– Traditional Broadcasting
– Digital Broadcasting
• Satellite Communications
• Summary
64
 Summary
• Spectrum refers to a range of electromagnetic frequencies, from radio to microwave and
higher. ICASA regulates and assigns spectrum from 9 kHz to 1000 GHz
• Spectrum may be used for telecommunications or broadcasting uses
• Fees are charged for telecommunications uses
• Different frequencies have different characteristics
• Uses may be point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
• Bidirectional or broadcast
• Terrestrial or satellite
• Computer modelling is used to calculate the expected coverage area and interference
• Almost all telecommunication uses are digital
• Broadcast TV is in the process of changing from analogue to digital
• Broadcast Radio will remain analogue for the foreseeable future
• An ECNS and a spectrum licence are required to make use of spectrum, in most cases
• Administrative Incentive Pricing for spectrum will be introduced in April 2012. 65
 Thank You

Questions and Discussion

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