Republic of the Philippines

BACOLODCITYCOLLEGE
Taculing Road, Bacolod City, 6100, Email:a.bacolodcitycollege@yahoo.com
Taculing Campus, (034)707-7469, Sum-ag Campus,(034) 704-5843,
Fortune Towne Campus,(034) 704-5844 Tel #: (034) 707-7469

Teacher Education Department

First Semester /S.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 1

Course Code:
Instructor: GERRY D. MAKILAN
Course Title: ADVANCED STATISTICS
Class: BEED 3A
Course Description/Overview: This course deals with non-parametric statistics. It covers the topics on
test of association such as Spearman Rho, Phi coefficient, Contingency coefficient, biserial, etc and test of
differences such as Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, etc.

OVERVIEW
The science of statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. We
see and use data in our everyday lives. Another definition of Statistics is the science concerned with developing
and studying methods for collecting, analyzing, interpreting and presenting empirical data. Statistics is a highly
interdisciplinary field; research in statistics finds applicability in virtually all scientific fields and research
questions in the various scientific fields motivate the development of new statistical methods and theory. In
developing methods and studying the theory that underlies the methods statisticians draw on a variety of
mathematical and computational tools.

Statistics is used in almost all fields of human endeavor. In sports, for example, a statistician may keep
records of the number of yards a running back gains during a football game, or the number of hits a baseball
player gets in a season. In other areas, such as public health, an administrator might be concerned with the
number of residents who contract a new strain of flu virus during a certain year. In education, a researcher might
want to know if new methods of teaching are better than old ones. These are only a few examples of how
statistics can be used in various occupations. Furthermore, statistics is used to analyze the results of surveys
and as a tool in scientific research to make decisions based on controlled experiments. Other uses of statistics
include operations research, quality control, estimation, and prediction.

Module 1: Introduction to Advanced Statistics

Statistics is the language of science. In its broadest form, statistics concerns the analysis of recorded
information or data. Data are commonly observed and subject to common agreement and are therefore more
likely to reflect our common reality or Nature. Data offer us a clearer picture of what Nature is and how Nature
works, and statistical analyses of data allow us to reverse-engineer natural processes and thus gain scientific
knowledge.

Warm it up!
 Republic of the Philippines
BACOLODCITYCOLLEGE
Taculing Road, Bacolod City, 6100, Email:a.bacolodcitycollege@yahoo.com
Taculing Campus, (034)707-7469, Sum-ag Campus,(034) 704-5843,
Fortune Towne Campus,(034) 704-5844 Tel #: (034) 707-7469

Teacher Education Department

First Semester /S.Y. 2020-2021
Try to remember your high school research days, can you still remember one or two statistical tool/s
that you used in your research? Can you write it down and give its operational function in your research?

The BIG Words

•Nature is the real situation. It might refer to a phenomenon in biology, physics, or human societal interactions.
It is there whether you collect data or not.
• Design is your plan to collect data. Broadly speaking, design involves deciding how you are going to study
Nature. You could directly observe the phenomenon of interest, conduct an experiment, or analyze existing
measurements contained in a database; the design refers to the methods you will use to collect your data. Think
of design as something that happens before you get the actual numbers.
• Measurement refers to the type and units of the data that you will record and use; for example, a
measurement could be height in feet, rounded to the nearest inch. The binary “yes” or “no” choices on a
questionnaire is another example of a measurement. A measurement can also be a processed number such as
the average of responses to questions one through five on a questionnaire, where each response is 1, 2, 3, 4, or
5.
• DATA are the potential data that you might observe. At this point, you should visualize a data set that will be
in your computer (e.g., in a spreadsheet), but you don’t know what the numbers are.
• Parametric Statistics Test are suitable for normally distributed data.
• Nonparametric tests are suitable for any continuous data, based on ranks of the data values. Because of this,
nonparametric tests are independent of the scale and the distribution of the data.

The Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests

Choosing a Test

In terms of selecting a statistical test, the most important question is "what is the main study hypothesis?"
In some cases there is no hypothesis; the investigator just wants to "see what is there". For example, in a
prevalence study there is no hypothesis to test, and the size of the study is determined by how accurately the
investigator wants to determine the prevalence. If there is no hypothesis, then there is no statistical test. It is
important to decide a priori which hypotheses are confirmatory (that is, are testing some presupposed
relationship), and which are exploratory (are suggested by the data). No single study can support a whole series
of hypotheses. A sensible plan is to limit severely the number of confirmatory hypotheses. Although it is valid
to use statistical tests on hypotheses suggested by the data, the P values should be used only as guidelines, and
the results treated as tentative until confirmed by subsequent studies.

You’ve probably heard it’s best to use nonparametric tests if your data are not normally distributed—or
something along these lines. That seems like an easy way to choose, but there’s more to the decision than that.
Nonparametric tests don’t require that your data follow the normal distribution. They’re also known as
distribution-free tests and can provide benefits in certain situations. Typically, people who perform
statistical hypothesis tests are more comfortable with parametric tests than nonparametric tests.

The field of statistics exists because it is usually impossible to collect data from all individuals of interest
(population). Our only solution is to collect data from a subset (sample) of the individuals of interest, but our
real desire is to know the “truth” about the population. Quantities such as means, standard deviations and
proportions are all important values and are called “parameters” when we are talking about a population. Since
we usually cannot get data from the whole population, we cannot know the values of the parameters for that
population. We can, however, calculate estimates of these quantities for our sample. When they are calculated
from sample data, these quantities are called “statistics.” A statistic estimates a parameter. Parametric
statistical procedures rely on assumptions about the shape of the distribution (i.e., assume a normal
distribution) in the underlying population and about the form or parameters (i.e., means and standard
 Republic of the Philippines
BACOLODCITYCOLLEGE
Taculing Road, Bacolod City, 6100, Email:a.bacolodcitycollege@yahoo.com
Taculing Campus, (034)707-7469, Sum-ag Campus,(034) 704-5843,
Fortune Towne Campus,(034) 704-5844 Tel #: (034) 707-7469

Teacher Education Department

First Semester /S.Y. 2020-2021
deviations) of the assumed distribution. Nonparametric statistical procedures rely on no or few assumptions
about the shape or parameters of the population distribution from which the sample was drawn.

Parametric tests and nonparametric procedures

Analysis Type Example Parametric Procedure Nonparametric

Procedure
Compare means between Is the mean systolic blood Two-sample t-test Wilcoxon rank-sum test
two distinct/independent pressure (at baseline) for
groups patients assigned to
placebo different from
the mean for patients
assigned to the
treatment group?
Compare two Was there a significant Paired t-test Wilcoxon signed-rank
quantitative change in systolic blood test
measurements taken pressure between
from the same individual baseline and the six-
month follow up
measurement in the
treatment group?
Compare means between If our experiment had Analysis of variance Kruskal-Wallis test
three or more three groups (e.g., (ANOVA)
distinct/independent placebo, new drug #1,
groups new drug #2), we might
want to know whether
the mean systolic blood
pressure at baseline
differed among the three
groups?
Estimate the degree of Is systolic blood pressure Pearson coefficient of Spearman’s rank
association between two associated with the correlation correlation
quantitative variables patient’s age?

Take-home points

Here is a summary of the major points and how they might affect statistical analyses you perform:

 Parametric and nonparametric are two broad classifications of statistical procedures.

 Parametric tests are based on assumptions about the distribution of the underlying population from which
the sample was taken. The most common parametric assumption is that data are approximately normally
distributed.
 Nonparametric tests do not rely on assumptions about the shape or parameters of the underlying population
distribution.
 If the data deviate strongly from the assumptions of a parametric procedure, using the parametric procedure
could lead to incorrect conclusions.
 You should be aware of the assumptions associated with a parametric procedure and should learn methods
to evaluate the validity of those assumptions.
 Republic of the Philippines
BACOLODCITYCOLLEGE
Taculing Road, Bacolod City, 6100, Email:a.bacolodcitycollege@yahoo.com
Taculing Campus, (034)707-7469, Sum-ag Campus,(034) 704-5843,
Fortune Towne Campus,(034) 704-5844 Tel #: (034) 707-7469

Teacher Education Department

First Semester /S.Y. 2020-2021
 If you determine that the assumptions of the parametric procedure are not valid, use an analogous
nonparametric procedure instead.
 The parametric assumption of normality is particularly worrisome for small sample sizes (n < 30).
Nonparametric tests are often a good option for these data.
 It can be difficult to decide whether to use a parametric or nonparametric procedure in some cases.
Nonparametric procedures generally have less power for the same sample size than the corresponding
parametric procedure if the data truly are normal. Interpretation of nonparametric procedures can also be more
difficult than for parametric procedures.

Test Yourself 1
Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. A more robust parametric alternative to the independent samples t test is the:
a. matched pairs t test.
b. one-way ANOVA.
c. Welch's t test.
d. Wilcoxon rank-sum test.

2. The non-parametric alternative to the repeated measures one-way ANOVA is the:

a. Kruskal-Wallis test.
b. Mann-Whitney U test.
c. Wilcoxon rank-sum test.
d. Friedman test.

3. It is based on assumptions about the distribution of the underlying population from which the sample was
taken.
a. t-test
b.parametric test
c. non-parametric test
d. ANOVA

4. Which of the following is/are true?

a. Parametric statistical tests involve data that are ratio or interval.
b. Parametric statistical tests contain more assumptions that non-parametric tests.
c. Non-parametric statistical tests are more suited to deal with data that are not normally distributed than
parametric statistical tests.
d. All of the above.

5. Assuming the assumptions of parametric tests are met, non-parametric tests, compared to their parametric
counterparts:

a. Are all of these.

b. Are more conservative.
c. Are less likely to accept the alternative hypothesis.
d. Have less statistical power.
 Republic of the Philippines
BACOLODCITYCOLLEGE
Taculing Road, Bacolod City, 6100, Email:a.bacolodcitycollege@yahoo.com
Taculing Campus, (034)707-7469, Sum-ag Campus,(034) 704-5843,
Fortune Towne Campus,(034) 704-5844 Tel #: (034) 707-7469

Teacher Education Department

First Semester /S.Y. 2020-2021

Test Yourself 2

a. Give a sample research problem and then choose either parametric or non-parametric test, and discuss your
answer.
b. Discuss the importance of Advanced Statistics in the recent situation of the world.

Output

Make an idea map using a long bond paper and the center is Advanced Statistics.