CERAMICS

• Structure and Properties of Ceramics

• Traditional Ceramics
• New Ceramics
• Glass
• Some Important Elements Related to Ceramics
• Guide to Processing Ceramics

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Ceramic Defined

An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or

semi-metal) and one or more nonmetals
• Important examples:
 Silica - silicon dioxide (SiO2), the main ingredient
in most glass products
 Alumina - aluminum oxide (Al2O3), used in various
applications from abrasives to artificial bones
 More complex compounds such as hydrous
aluminum silicate (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the main
ingredient in most clay products

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Properties of Ceramic Materials

• High hardness, electrical and thermal insulating,

chemical stability, and high melting temperatures
• Brittle, virtually no ductility - can cause problems in
both processing and performance of ceramic
products
• Some ceramics are translucent, window glass (based
on silica) being the clearest example

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Ceramic Products
• Clay construction products - bricks, clay pipe, and
building tile
• Refractory ceramics - ceramics capable of high
temperature applications such as furnace walls,
crucibles, and molds
• Cement used in concrete - used for construction and
roads
• Whiteware products - pottery, stoneware, fine china,
porcelain, and other tableware, based on mixtures of
clay and other minerals

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Ceramic Products (continued)
• Glass - bottles, glasses, lenses, window pane, and
light bulbs
• Glass fibers - thermal insulating wool, reinforced
plastics (fiberglass), and fiber optics communications
lines
• Abrasives - aluminum oxide and silicon carbide
• Cutting tool materials - tungsten carbide, aluminum
oxide, and cubic boron nitride

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Ceramic Products (continued)

• Ceramic insulators - applications include electrical

transmission components, spark plugs, and
microelectronic chip substrates
• Magnetic ceramics – example: computer memories
• Nuclear fuels based on uranium oxide (UO2)
• Bioceramics - artificial teeth and bones

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Three Basic Categories of Ceramics
1. Traditional ceramics - clay products such as pottery
and bricks, common abrasives, and cement
2. New ceramics - more recently developed ceramics
based on oxides, carbides, etc., and generally
possessing mechanical or physical properties
superior or unique compared to traditional ceramics
3. Glasses - based primarily on silica and distinguished
by their noncrystalline structure
 In addition, glass ceramics - glasses transformed
into a largely crystalline structure by heat
treatment

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Strength Properties of Ceramics

• Theoretically, the strength of ceramics should be

higher than metals because their covalent and ionic
bonding types are stronger than metallic bonding
• However, metallic bonding allows for slip, the basic
mechanism by which metals deform plastically when
subjected to high stresses
• Bonding in ceramics is more rigid and does not
permit slip under stress
• The inability to slip makes it much more difficult for
ceramics to absorb stresses

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Imperfections in
Crystal Structure of Ceramics
• Ceramics contain the same imperfections in their
crystal structure as metals - vacancies, displaced
atoms, interstitialcies, and microscopic cracks
• Internal flaws tend to concentrate stresses, especially
tensile, bending, or impact
 Hence, ceramics fail by brittle fracture much more
readily than metals
 Performance is much less predictable due to
random imperfections and processing variations

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Compressive Strength of Ceramics

• The frailties that limit the tensile strength of ceramic

materials are not nearly so operative when
compressive stresses are applied
• Ceramics are substantially stronger in compression
than in tension
• For engineering and structural applications,
designers have learned to use ceramic components
so that they are loaded in compression rather than
tension or bending

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Methods to Strengthen Ceramic Materials
• Make starting materials more uniform
• Decrease grain size in polycrystalline ceramic
products
• Minimize porosity
• Introduce compressive surface stresses
• Use fiber reinforcement
• Heat treat

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Physical Properties of Ceramics

• Density – in general, ceramics are lighter than metals

and heavier than polymers
• Melting temperatures - higher than for most metals
 Some ceramics decompose rather than melt
• Electrical and thermal conductivities - lower than for
metals; but the range of values is greater, so some
ceramics are insulators while others are conductors
• Thermal expansion - somewhat less than for metals,
but effects are more damaging because of brittleness

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Traditional Ceramics

Based on mineral silicates, silica, and mineral oxides

found in nature
• Primary products are fired clay (pottery, tableware,
brick, and tile), cement, and natural abrasives such
as alumina
• Products and the processes to make them date back
thousands of years
• Glass is also a silicate ceramic material and is
sometimes included among traditional ceramics

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Raw Materials for Traditional Ceramics

• Mineral silicates, such as clays of various

compositions, and silica, such as quartz, are among
the most abundant substances in nature and
constitute the principal raw materials for traditional
ceramics
• Another important raw material for traditional
ceramics is alumina
• These solid crystalline compounds have been formed
and mixed in the earth’s crust over billions of years
by complex geological processes

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Clay as a Ceramic Raw Material
• Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum
silicate
 Most common clays are based on the mineral
kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
• When mixed with water, clay becomes a plastic
substance that is formable and moldable
• When heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature
(firing ), clay fuses into a dense, strong material
 Thus, clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and
then fired to obtain the final hard product

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Silica as a Ceramic Raw Material

• Available naturally in various forms, most important is

quartz
 The main source of quartz is sandstone
• Low in cost; also hard and chemically stable
• Principal component in glass, and an important
ingredient in other ceramic products including
whiteware, refractories, and abrasives

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Alumina as a Ceramic Raw Material

• Bauxite - most alumina is processed from this

mineral, which is an impure mixture of hydrous
aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide plus similar
compounds of iron or manganese
 Bauxite is also the principal source of metallic
aluminum
• Corundum - a more pure but less common form of
Al2O3, which contains alumina in massive amounts
• Alumina ceramic is used as an abrasive in grinding
wheels and as a refractory brick in furnaces

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Traditional Ceramic Products

• Pottery and Tableware

• Brick and tile
• Refractories
• Abrasives

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 New Ceramics

Ceramic materials developed synthetically over the last

several decades
• The term also refers to improvements in processing
techniques that provide greater control over
structures and properties of ceramic materials
• In general, new ceramics are based on compounds
other than variations of aluminum silicate, which form
most of the traditional ceramic materials
• New ceramics are usually simpler chemically than
traditional ceramics; for example, oxides, carbides,
nitrides, and borides

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Oxide Ceramics

• Most important oxide new ceramic is alumina

• Although also included as a traditional ceramic,
alumina is today produced synthetically from bauxite,
using an electric furnace method
• Through control of particle size and impurities,
refinements in processing methods, and blending
with small amounts of other ceramic ingredients,
strength and toughness of alumina are improved
substantially compared to its natural counterpart
• Alumina also has good hot hardness, low thermal
conductivity, and good corrosion resistance

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Products of Oxide Ceramics

• Abrasives (grinding wheel grit)

• Bioceramics (artificial bones and teeth)
• Electrical insulators and electronic components
• Refractory brick
• Cutting tool inserts
• Spark plug barrels
• Engineering components

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 7.1 - Alumina ceramic components
(photo courtesy of Insaco Inc.)
©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Carbides
• Silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC), titanium
carbide (TiC), tantalum carbide (TaC), and chromium
carbide (Cr3C2)
• Although SiC is a man-made ceramic, its production
methods were developed a century ago, and it is
generally included in traditional ceramics group
• WC, TiC, and TaC are valued for their hardness and
wear resistance in cutting tools and other applications
requiring these properties
• WC, TiC, and TaC must be combined with a metallic
binder such as cobalt or nickel in order to fabricate a
useful solid product

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Nitrides

• The important nitride ceramics are silicon nitride

(Si3N4), boron nitride (BN), and titanium nitride (TiN)
• Properties: hard, brittle, high melting temperatures,
usually electrically insulating, TiN being an exception
• Applications:
 Silicon nitride: components for gas turbines, rocket
engines, and melting crucibles
 Boron nitride and titanium nitride: cutting tool
material and coatings

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Glass

• A state of matter as well as a type of ceramic

• As a state of matter, the term refers to an amorphous
(noncrystalline) structure of a solid material
 The glassy state occurs in a material when
insufficient time is allowed during cooling from the
molten state for the crystalline structure to form
• As a type of ceramic, glass is an inorganic,
nonmetallic compound (or mixture of compounds)
that cools to a rigid condition without crystallizing

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Why So Much SiO2 in Glass?

• Because SiO2 is the best glass former

 Silica is the main component in glass products,
usually comprising 50% to 75% of total chemistry
 It naturally transforms into a glassy state upon
cooling from the liquid, whereas most ceramics
crystallize upon solidification

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Other Ingredients in Glass

• Sodium oxide (Na2O), calcium oxide (CaO),

aluminum oxide (Al2O3), magnesium oxide (MgO),
potassium oxide (K2O), lead oxide (PbO), and boron
oxide (B2O3)
• Functions:
 Act as flux (promoting fusion) during heating
 Increase fluidity in molten glass for processing
 Improve chemical resistance against attack by
acids, basic substances, or water
 Add color to the glass
 Alter index of refraction for optical applications
©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Glass Products

• Window glass
• Containers – cups, jars, bottles
• Light bulbs
• Laboratory glassware – flasks, beakers, glass tubing
• Glass fibers – insulation, fiber optics
• Optical glasses - lenses

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Glass-Ceramics
A ceramic material produced by conversion of glass into
a polycrystalline structure through heat treatment
• Proportion of crystalline phase range = 90% to 98%,
remainder being unconverted vitreous material
• Grain size - usually between 0.1 - 1.0 m (4 and 40
-in), significantly smaller than the grain size of
conventional ceramics
 This fine crystal structure makes glass-ceramics
much stronger than the glasses from which they
are derived
• Also, due to their crystal structure, glass-ceramics
are opaque (usually grey or white) rather than clear

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Processing of Glass Ceramics
• Heating and forming operations used in glassworking
create product shape
• Product is cooled and then reheated to cause a
dense network of crystal nuclei to form throughout
 High density of nucleation sites inhibits grain
growth, leading to fine grain size
• Nucleation results from small amounts of nucleating
agents in the glass composition, such as TiO2, P2O5,
and ZrO2
• Once nucleation is started, heat treatment is
continued at a higher temperature to cause growth of
crystalline phases

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Advantages of Glass-Ceramics
• Efficiency of processing in the glassy state
• Close dimensional control over final product shape
• Good mechanical and physical properties
 High strength (stronger than glass)
 Absence of porosity; low thermal expansion
 High resistance to thermal shock
• Applications:
 Cooking ware
 Heat exchangers
 Missile radomes

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Elements Related to Ceramics
• Carbon
 Two alternative forms of engineering and
commercial importance: graphite and diamond
• Silicon
• Boron
• Carbon, silicon, and boron are not ceramic materials,
but they sometimes
 Compete for applications with ceramics
 Have important applications of their own

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Graphite
Form of carbon with a high content of crystalline C in
the form of layers
• Bonding between atoms in the layers is covalent and
therefore strong, but the parallel layers are bonded to
each other by weak van der Waals forces
• This structure makes graphite anisotropic; strength
and other properties vary significantly with direction
 As a powder it is a lubricant, but in traditional solid
form it is a refractory
 When formed into graphite fibers, it is a high
strength structural material

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Diamond

Carbon with a cubic crystalline structure with covalent

bonding between atoms
 This accounts for high hardness
• Industrial applications: cutting tools and grinding
wheels for machining hard, brittle materials, or
materials that are very abrasive; also used in
dressing tools to sharpen grinding wheels that consist
of other abrasives
• Industrial or synthetic diamonds date back to 1950s
and are fabricated by heating graphite to around
3000C (5400F) under very high pressures

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 7.2 - Synthetically produced diamond powders
(photo courtesy GE Superabrasives, General Electric Company)
©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Silicon

Semi-metallic element in the same periodic table group

as carbon
• One of the most abundant elements in Earth's crust,
comprising  26% by weight
• Occurs naturally only as chemical compound - in
rocks, sand, clay, and soil - either as silicon dioxide
or as more complex silicate compounds
• Properties: hard, brittle, lightweight, chemically
inactive at room temperature, and classified as a
semiconductor

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Applications and Importance of Silicon

• Greatest amounts in manufacturing are in ceramic

compounds (SiO2 in glass and silicates in clays) and
alloying elements in steel, aluminum, and copper
• Also used as a reducing agent in certain metallurgical
processes
• Of significant technological importance is pure silicon
as the base material in semiconductor manufacturing
in electronics
• The vast majority of integrated circuits produced
today are made from silicon

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Boron

Semi-metallic element in same periodic group as

aluminum
• Comprises only about 0.001% of Earth's crust by
weight, commonly occurring as minerals borax
(Na2B4O7- 10H2O) and kernite (Na2B4O7-4H2O)
• Properties: lightweight, semiconducting properties,
and very stiff (high modulus of elasticity) in fiber form
• Applications: B2O3 used in certain glasses, as a
nitride (cBN) for cutting tools, and in nearly pure form
as a fiber in polymer matrix composites

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Guide to Processing Ceramics

• Processing of ceramics can be divided into two

basic categories:
1. Molten ceramics - major category of molten
ceramics is glassworking (solidification
processes)
2. Particulate ceramics - traditional and new
ceramics (particulate processing)

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”